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Dogs-A Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior & Evolution
Abstract
Biologists, breeders and trainers, and champion sled dog racers, Raymond and Lorna Coppinger have more than four decades of experience with literally thousands of dogs. Offering a scientifically informed perspective on canines and their relations with humans, the Coppingers take a close look at eight different types of dogsâhousehold, village, livestock guarding, herding, sled-pulling, pointing, retrieving, and hound. They argue that dogs did not evolve directly from wolves, nor were they trained by early humans; instead they domesticated themselves to exploit a new ecological niche: Mesolithic village dumps. Tracing the evolution of today's breeds from these village dogs, the Coppingers show how characteristic shapes and behaviorsâfrom pointing and baying to the sleek shapes of running dogsâarise from both genetic heritage and the environments in which pups are raised. For both dogs and humans to get the most out of each other, we need to understand and adapt to the biological needs and dispositions of our canine companions, just as they have to ours.
... Unlike the domestication of the majority of animals, such as sheep and reindeer for resource management (Russell, 2011), or horses and donkeys for transport (Larson & Fuller, 2014), domestication of the dog was not instigated by deliberate human action (Larson & Fuller, 2014;Zeder, 2012). Although the location and timing of the first dog domestication remains a matter of debate (Savolainen et al., 2002;vonHoldt et al., 2010), there is broad consensus (Coppinger & Coppinger, 2001;Larson & Fuller, 2014;Zeder, 2012) that the process was initiated when some ancestral wolves with reduced fear associated themselves as commensals within the new niche created by humans Larson & Fuller, 2014). These less fearful wolves exapted (Gould & Vrba, 1982;Winchell et al., 2023) to human proximity were able to exploit a new food resource by scavenging on human refuse, and thereby represent the first known example of exaptation to an anthropogenic niche. ...
... One dimension is people's sense of connection to the dogs around them. In different parts of the world, people may see themselves as having an emotional bond with dogs they do not consider their property (Coppinger & Coppinger, 2001), or may consider dogs to be their property without acknowledging any emotional connection to them (Coppinger & Coppinger, 2016). Human notions of ownership may also interact partially with the dimension of human provisioning, which encompasses not just food, but also shelter, water and potentially health care, even for the free-ranging dog population. ...
... deer in Wisconsin: Bergeron & Pierre, 1981;coati in Brazil: Campos et al., 2007) it is unclear whether these food resources are obtained via scavenging or hunting, and thus how common hunting is in dogs. Only a few dog populations are likely to subsist as true hunters, not reliant on human-originating food sources (Coppinger & Coppinger, 2001;Duarte et al., 2016;Macdonald & Carr, 2016). Hunting behaviour in free-ranging dogs has been reported in various locations (Zimbabwe: Butler et al., 2004;Spain: Duarte et al., 2016;Chile: Silva-Rodríguez & Sieving, 2012). ...
... 85). Si al principio al lobo-proto-perro 9 se le tuvo que contener, domesticar y entrenar para quedarse en los asentamientos humanos y acompañar a los humanos en una caza, sin perder el enfoque en algo más atractivo en el entorno y luego perseguir, morder y matar (Coppinger y Coppinger, 2001), rechazando la tentación de disecar la presa; el perro doméstico moderno ha tenido que aprender algunas cosas más para dejar atrás su semejanza ancestral con el lobo: su glotonería, promiscuidad sexual, preocupaciones olfativas, hábitos de baño y ocasional hostilidad desnuda hacia extraños y visitantes; todo un repertorio de comportamientos que son normales para él (Serpell, 2008). El perro doméstico moderno, "si quiere ser aceptado en un hogar bien dirigido, debe aprender a estar inmóvil, a ser tan discreto como un mueble"; un perro bien entrenado se sentará de inmediato cuando se le ordene, solo comerá cuando se le ordene hacerlo y obedecerá el comando "echarse" y permanecerá en esa posición hasta que su dueño lo libere (Tuan, 1984, p. 107). ...
... Por otro lado, como resultado del giro reflexivo en las ciencias sociales y las nuevas observaciones de la realidad de las interacciones humano-animal en contextos domésticos contemporáneos, muchos académicos han propuesto diferentes alternativas al tema de la domesticación, donde los animales se ven como agentes activos en el proceso de aliarse con los humanos, dando lugar a una historia de atracción mutua entre especies complementarias 9 Término acuñado por Raymond y Lorna Coppinger (2001). 67 (Hurn, 2012). ...
... 67 (Hurn, 2012). En esta misma línea, la otra narrativa sobre la domesticación del lobo, predominante en la literatura reciente, es lo que Hurn (2012) llama el modelo de "auto-domesticación", también conocido como la hipótesis de "carroñero comensal" o "vertedero de basura" (ver Lorenz, 1954;Coppinger y Coppinger, 2001;Ha y Campion, 2019;Serpell, 2021), que postula que: ...
El Dossier de Estudios Animales N°2: Estudios Críticos y Prácticos sobre la Explotación de Animales No Humanos, publicado por el Centro de Estudios de Derecho Animal (CEDA Chile), explora la explotación animal desde una perspectiva interdisciplinaria, abordando cuestiones éticas, legales, culturales y científicas. Esta obra colectiva reúne a destacados autores de diversas disciplinas, quienes ofrecen análisis críticos y propuestas para enfrentar los desafíos relacionados con la explotación y protección de los animales no humanos.
Los temas tratados incluyen el impacto de la sobrepesca y la acuicultura en la biodiversidad marina, la relación entre el maltrato animal y la violencia intrafamiliar, y el entrenamiento de animales como una forma de dominación humana. También se examinan avances legales, como la protección de primates en España, y se proponen marcos conceptuales, como el constitucionalismo antiespecista. Adicionalmente, se abordan fenómenos históricos, como la instrumentalización de animales en contextos de tortura durante la dictadura chilena, y se plantea la necesidad de reconocer el veganismo ético como un derecho humano fundamental.
El dossier concluye con una invitación a reflexionar y actuar en favor de los derechos animales, promoviendo un cambio cultural y legal que fomente una relación más ética y respetuosa con los animales no humanos. A través de perspectivas innovadoras y datos contundentes, esta obra busca inspirar acciones concretas hacia la creación de una sociedad más compasiva y consciente.
... Two main scenarios have been proposed to explain how the domestication process started. The 'commensal scavenger' or 'garbage dump hypothesis' suggests that it began as a process of self-domestication, rather than intentional selection by humans (e.g., Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001;Hare et al., 2012). In this scenario, the least aggressive or fearful individuals would have had a selection advantage over the shyer ones, since their temperament allowed them to approach humans and gain access to new food sources (Zeuner, 1967 as cited in Marshall-Pescini andKaminski, 2014). ...
... From an ecological perspective, three main forms have been distinguished in the dog-human relationship: (1) competition/parasitism, (2) commensalism, and (3) mutualism (Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001;Miklósi and Topál, 2013). It is assumed that it was at the final stage of the domestication process when a mutualistic relationship emerged between humans and dogs, and nowadays we can find the three types of relationships depending on ecological and cultural factors (Miklósi and Topál, 2013). ...
... Association with humans can have clear benefits for FRD. Some FRD populations mostly rely on food sources provided by humans, either through direct feeding or indirectly through scavenging (Bonanni and Cafazzo, 2014;Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001;Daniels and Bekoff, 1989;Macdonald and Carr, 2017;Ortolani et al., 2009;Sen Majumder et al., 2016;Vanak and Gompper, 2009b), and pregnant females have been shown to selectively choose dens close to sites of high human activity . Moreover, FRD can use humans as a source of information when making foraging choices, as shown in a study in which dogs matched the choice of an unfamiliar human when presented with two novel food-delivering boxes (Cimarelli et al., 2023, Figs. 6 and 7). ...
... Within these sequences are other behaviors, including orient, eye, stalk, chase, grab-bite, kill-bite, and dissect. Species-specific modifications to the predatory sequence exist and are thought to optimize hunting success for prey type within an ecological niche [24]. In both cats and dogs, fetching behavior overlaps with specific parts of the predatory sequence of behaviors. ...
... In dogs, certain behaviors in the predatory motor pattern have been selected for exaggerated or diminished frequency in breeds based on their working role. Coppinger & Coppinger [24] theorized that holding an object in the mouth was comparable to the grab-bite aspect of the carnivore predatory sequence and is hypertrophied (overdeveloped) in some breeds of dogs while killbite is underdeveloped or absent. In these breeds, rather than progressing to killing and dissecting, fetching behavior may result [24]. ...
... Coppinger & Coppinger [24] theorized that holding an object in the mouth was comparable to the grab-bite aspect of the carnivore predatory sequence and is hypertrophied (overdeveloped) in some breeds of dogs while killbite is underdeveloped or absent. In these breeds, rather than progressing to killing and dissecting, fetching behavior may result [24]. In cats, carrying prey after killing is common [11,25], and could also be an expected part of the feline predatory sequence. ...
Both cats and dogs fetch, but the likely function(s) of this behavior for each species have not been compared. In this study, we assessed data from online surveys of cat and dog behavior (Fe-BARQ; C-BARQ) completed by cat (N = 8224) and dog owners (N = 73724). We assessed responses to the items "Plays ‘fetch’; likes to retrieve thrown objects or toys" (Fe-BARQ) and “Will ʻfetchʼ or attempt to fetch sticks, balls, or objects” (C-BARQ). Cats and dogs described as "sometimes," "usually" or "always" fetching were categorized as fetchers. Regression models were used to examine which animal-related (e.g., sex, age) and environmental factors best predicted fetching, and chi-square tests were used to explore the effect of breed on fetching behavior. Fetching was reported in 40.9% of cats and 77.8% of dogs. In cats, fetching was correlated with play and activity. In dogs, fetching was correlated with overall trainability. In both cats and dogs, being female, older, living with (other) dogs, and having health problems decreased the likelihood of fetching. Breed effects were observed in both species, with fetching more prominent in cat breeds originating in the Far East (e.g., Burmese, Siamese, and Tonkinese) and in dog breeds from the Retriever, UK Rural, Poodle, Pointer and Spaniel clades. We discuss the results in the context of domestication history of both cats and dogs and posit several hypotheses about why fetching behavior is observed in both.
... This is based entirely on the assumption that his relationship was initiated because wolves scavenged remains and inedible parts of killed prey left by humans. This assumption allows followers to consider wolves as commensal, benefitting from the activities of humans, whereas humans received no benefit [16,17]. ...
... The second tendency inhibiting creative thought in Western Science is the idea that humans must control every interspecies relationship in which they participate. This is the flaw in the Coppingers' idea that dogs became dependent slaves for humans because they relied on our waste as a primary food source [16]. Unfortunately, their idea resonated with a lot of people who work with dogs, which can readily be seen in studies conducted by their intellectual descendants [33]. ...
In this study, I discuss recent studies of human/wildlife mutualisms and suggest that several cases considered to represent domestication that has arisen through commensalism would be better considered as examples of mutualism between humans and various wild species. Species discussed include the only domesticated carnivores: cats (Felis sylvestris) and wolves (Canis lupus and C. dingo). I also discuss species over which there is considerable debate about whether they are domesticated or not: African (Loxodonta) and Asiatic elephants (Elphas). All of these species’ interactions include niche construction on the part of both species and influence human evolution at least a cultural level. I further argue that most contemporary domestic species currently exist in mutualistic relationships with humans because even though all of these species have been selected to benefit humans, all domestica species have also benefitted in terms of increased global and local population sizes and from more secure living conditions than can be found in their wild ancestors.
... This large number of distinguishable breeds developed due to selective breeding so that dogs could fulfill certain functions and achieving standards like those set by kennel clubs, e.g., the CKC 39 . Specifically, hounds were bred for independent hunting and for flushing and catching rodents 38 and hunting behavior remains an intrinsic trait of these breeds 40 . It is therefore likely that this study's hounds captured and consumed more rodents and had a higher per capita rate of exposure to Em through infected prey. ...
... Similarly, park-attending dogs that were frequently off-leash when walked were more likely to be parasitized by Giardia species 26 . The discrepancy with previous findings could perhaps be explained by the fact that hounds, the most infected breed class in this study, are both a rodent-hunting breed class, and are also known to be less trainable to follow owners off-leash 40 . It is however plausible that such dogs were in contact with rodents in other contexts than off-leash areas in parks, e.g., while in home yards. ...
Human alveolar echinococcosis is increasingly documented in Alberta, Canada. Its causative agent, Echinococcus multilocularis (Em), can be transmitted to humans by infected dogs. We assessed the prevalence and associated risk factors for Em infections in domestic dogs in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. In this cross-sectional study that coupled collection and assessment of dog feces with a survey on potential risk factors, 13 of 696 (Bayesian true prevalence, 2.4%; 95% CrI: 1.3–4.0%) individual dogs’ feces collected during August and September 2012 were qPCR positive for Em. Sequencing two of these cases indicated that both were from the same Em European strain responsible for human infections in Alberta. Likelihood of intestinal Em was 5.6-times higher in hounds than other breeds, 4.6-times higher in dogs leashed at dog parks than those allowed off-leash, 3.1-times higher in dogs often kept in the backyard during spring and summer months than those rarely in the yard, and 3.3-times higher in dogs living in neighbourhoods bordering Bowmont park than those in other areas of Calgary. This situation warrants surveillance of dog infections as a preventative measure to reduce infections in North America.
... This symbiosis strengthened the adaptive capabilities of Homo sapiens, facilitating their expansion and dominance. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that dogs developed remarkable abilities for teamwork and understanding human cues-skills acquired through the domestication process [22][23][24]. ...
The domestication of the dog (Canis lupus familiaris) is one of the oldest and most complex processes of interaction between humans and animals. This phenomenon may have begun sometime between 30 and 15 ky calBP. Archaeological and genetic studies have provided valuable insights into dog domestication, although the precise geographic location and origin of this process remain controversial and under debate. New methodologies, such as taphonomic analyses, offer opportunities to deepen our understanding of past human–dog interactions. In this context, the present study examines tooth marks found on some bone remains from the Upper Magdalenian site (15,500–13,200 cal BP) of Coímbre Cave (Peñamellera Alta, Asturias, Spain). The low incidence of carnivores at the site has raised the possibility that the tooth marks may have been produced by canids. However, a detailed taphonomic analysis combining geometric morphometrics with robust statistical methods—including MANOVA with post-hoc permutation tests—revealed that the marks identified at the site do not significantly differ from tooth marks produced by humans (p = 0.086). In contrast, tooth marks produced by other carnivores, such as Canis lupus signatus and Canis lupus familiaris, showed significant differences (p < 0.003). Although our study could not confirm the presence of domesticated dogs at the Magdalenian levels of Coímbre Cave, it has documented taphonomic processes that are rarely identified in the archaeological record. Furthermore, this study highlights the potential of tooth mark analysis as a key tool for future research on human–animal interactions in archaeological contexts.
... Herding dogs share an innate physical and mental aptitude to move livestock. Generations of intensive selective breeding have amplified predatory instincts such as eye staring and chasing while effectively minimizing the natural inclination to kill prey (5,6). The American Kennel Club (AKC) has assigned 32 breeds to the herding group, encompassing those with a strong impulse to work and excel in handling other animals (7). ...
Herding dogs exhibit a distinct constellation of behaviors marked by inherent instinct and motor skills that manipulate and guide livestock in response to instructive commands and cues. Comparison of the whole-genome sequences of herding and nonherding breeds reveals signatures of positive selection associated with pathways underlying social interaction and cognitive functions. Of the strong selective sweep signals, haplotypes within ephrin type-B receptor 1 ( EPHB1 ), which is linked to locomotor hyperactivity and spatial memory, show evidence of segregation within breed lineages for the conformation versus working lines of border collies and introgression with a genetically and geographically distant herding breed of Entlebucher mountain dogs. We show that a working line–specific haplotype of EPHB1 is associated with elevated levels of chase-bite motor patterns based on a well-validated behavior survey. These findings indicate that functional selection has shaped the genetic architecture of herding breeds, which may relate to their proficiency in addressing diverse tasks and challenges in maintaining control over the herd.
... Desde tiempos inmemoriales, los seres humanos han convivido con los lobos y, a través de un proceso de selección artificial y coevolución, han dado origen a una nueva especie: el perro doméstico (Canis lupus familiaris). A diferencia de otros animales domesticados, los perros no solo han sido seleccionados por características físicas, sino también por atributos cognitivos y emocionales que facilitan su integración en la vida humana [1]. ...
El proceso de domesticación canina ha sido un fenómeno evolutivo impul-sado por la intervención humana. A partir del lobo (Canis lupus), los per-ros (Canis lupus familiaris) han desarrollado comportamientos, estructuras sociales y morfologías que los diferencian sustancialmente de su ancestro sal-vaje. En este artículo se argumenta que la humanización de los perros no solo es un proceso natural dentro de su domesticación, sino que ha sido esencial para su existencia. Se cuestiona la premisa de que la humanización es exce-siva, planteando que, por el contrario, ha permitido una mayor adaptación al entorno humano y ha consolidado el vínculo humano-canino. 1 Introducción Desde tiempos inmemoriales, los seres humanos han convivido con los lobos y, a través de un proceso de selección artificial y coevolución, han dado origen a una nueva especie: el perro doméstico (Canis lupus familiaris). A diferencia de otros animales domesticados, los perros no solo han sido seleccionados por características físicas, sino también por atributos cognitivos y emocionales que facilitan su inte-gración en la vida humana [1].
... In doing so, these wolves required less adrenaline, i.e. were less aggressive or apprehensive, which increased their tolerance and preference to living close to early humans. These wolves then colonized the human-occupied environments and, from this group, emerged the first primitive dogs [19,20]. A number of objections exist against this hypothesis: (i) humans did not produce sufficient food scraps to provide a reliable ecological niche for tamer wolves to use [21]; (ii) humans would choose to remove human-tolerant wolves because they could have been considered threats [16]; and (iii) the natural selective pressures are not strong enough for speciation to occur in such a short time period [10]. ...
Wolves are among the earliest animals to be domesticated. However, the mechanism by which ancient wolves were domesticated into modern dogs is unknown. Most of the prevailing domestication hypotheses posit that humans selectively bred wolves that were more docile. However, a competing hypothesis states that wolves that were less hostile towards humans would essentially domesticate themselves by naturally selecting for tamer wolves since that would allow for easier access to food from human settlements. A major critique of the latter hypothesis is whether evolution by this natural selective pathway could have occurred in a sufficiently short time span. Simulating the process would help demonstrate if such an objection is sufficient to dismiss this hypothesis. Thus, we constructed an agent-based model of the evolution of a single trait, a measure of human tolerance, in canines to test the merit of the time constraint objection. We tested scenarios both with and without mate preference to provide a potential sexual selective force. We used fecundity and mortality rates from the literature for validation. Hartigan’s dip test of unimodality was used to measure if and when divergence of populations occurred. Our results indicate that the proto-domestication hypothesis cannot be rejected on the basis of time constraints.
... Los comportamientos reproductivos del perro doméstico son una adaptación al asentamiento humano permanente y la facilidad de obtener recursos a través de este vínculo. La adaptación a este entorno ha disminuido la estacionalidad, ha aumentado la fecundidad de los perros y ha reducido la necesidad de un cuidado parental prolongado 20,21 . El comportamiento maternal en las perras incluye una serie de acciones como el contacto físico constante, amamantamiento, lamido (especialmente en la región ano-genital para facilitar la micción y defecación en los recién nacidos), juego, corrección, termorregulación y desplazamiento de las crías 19,22 . ...
... La domestication du chien a impliqué un processus complexe de commensalisme/mutualisme et d'adaptation entre les loups et les humains (Morey, 1994(Morey, , 2010Coppinger & Coppinger, 2001). Les chiens ont été et sont toujours consommés dans de nombreuses cultures à travers le monde. ...
Ces dernières années, de nombreux progrès ont été réalisés sur la compréhension de l’origine et l’évolution du chien. Grâce à la collaboration entre l’archéozoologie, la génomique et la paléogénétique, les chercheurs ont pu émettre des hypothèses de scénarios quant aux origines des lignées canines présentes en Europe à la fin du Pléistocène et au début de l’Holocène. Les recherches ont également montré une corrélation entre migration humaine et canine à travers le temps et l’espace, mettant en évidence une forte relation entre l’homme et son meilleur ami. Cette proximité entre les deux espèces s’illustre aussi par l’adaptation du chien aux pressions sélectives anthropiques, notamment en parallèle des transitions culturelles. Bien que l’histoire de cette espèce nécessite encore de nombreuses explorations pour être pleinement comprise, ces résultats apportent de nouvelles bases théoriques pour comprendre l’interaction entre l’homme et le chien.
... Over thousands of years of domestication, and mainly in its late phase, dogs underwent selective breeding for specific functions, morphological characteristics, and other phenotypic traits. The greatest diversification in dog breeds occurred during the Victorian era, driven by intense inbreeding and artificial selection [7,8], which led to the fixation of specific alleles across the genome, increasing genetic homozygosity to stabilize and inherit desired traits [9][10][11]. Efforts to refine and enhance wolf-like traits continued through various breeding experiments across the globe, with notable projects in countries such as China, Russia, the former Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, and Italy. ...
Background/Objectives: The domestication of the grey wolf (Canis lupus) and subsequent creation of modern dog breeds have significantly shaped the genetic landscape of domestic canines. This study investigates the genomic effects of hybridization and breeding management practices in two hybrid wolfdog breeds: the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog (CSW) and the Saarloos Wolfdog (SAW). Methods: We analyzed the genomes of 46 CSWs and 20 SAWs, comparing them to 12 German Shepherds (GSHs) and 20 wolves (WLFs), which served as their ancestral populations approximately 70–90 years ago. Results: Our findings highlight that hybridization can increase genetic variability and mitigate the effects of inbreeding, as evidenced by the observed heterozygosity levels in both wolfdog breeds. However, the SAW genome revealed a higher coefficient of inbreeding and longer runs of homozygosity compared to the CSW, reflecting significant inbreeding during its development. Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components and fixation index analyses demonstrate that the CSW exhibits closer genetic proximity to the GSH than the SAW, likely due to differences in the numbers of GSHs used during their creation. Maximum likelihood clustering further confirmed clear genetic differentiation between these hybrid breeds and their respective ancestors, while shared ancestral polymorphism was detectable in all populations. Conclusions: These results highlight the role of controlled hybridization with captive-bred wolves and peculiar breeding strategies in shaping the genetic structure of wolfdog breeds. To ensure the long-term genetic health of these breeds, it is recommended to promote adequate and sustainable breeding practices to maintain genetic diversity, minimize inbreeding, and incorporate the careful selection of unrelated individuals from diverse lineages, while avoiding additional, uncontrolled crossings with wild wolves.
... The dominant story for many years has been the commensal scavenger hypothesis, proposing that wolves essentially domesticated themselves by staying close to Paleolithic human settlements in search of food scraps (Coppinger & Coppinger 2001). However, this hypothesis has recently been challenged by several arguments. ...
The modern idea of purebred dogs has come under increasing critical scrutiny over recent decades. In light of this critical focus and other developments in society, some new trends in how companion dogs are bred and acquired have emerged. This means a diminishing influence from traditional kennel clubs with more dogs being sold without a pedigree, stricter legal restrictions on dog breeding, growing popularity of deliberate crosses of established breeds (i.e. so-called designer breeds) and growing hype around the benefits of mixed-breed dogs. We give an overview of these trends and discuss to what extent they will serve to promote dogs that are innately healthy, have good welfare and function well in their various roles in today’s world. We argue that newly invented designer breeds and mixed breeds also have worrying health and behavioural problems, and that the predictability of purebred dogs with respect to body size, basic behaviours, known need for grooming, disorder profiles and other attributes may well offer some benefits for a satisfying human-dog relationship seen from both sides. The optimal future seems to lie in the middle ground, where the future organised dog world (i.e. kennel and breed clubs or their successor organisations) will need to re-open the breed registries, remove wording from breed standards that currently promotes extreme conformation, support selection against disease-predisposing genotypes and phenotypes and refocus dog showing and breeding to promote health and appropriate behaviour.
... The dog is a well-known illustration of a domestic animal that most likely evolved through commensalism. According to popular belief, the domestication of dogs started when wolves were attracted to human settlements to forage on human waste [13]. Therefore, the early commensal stage on this domestication pathway probably functions as a sort of pre-selection for people with characteristics that make them better candidates for domestication, such as a lessened flight response and a higher stress threshold. ...
The aim of this study is to review the literature and provide a technical brief about history of domestication of livestock, livestock population and livestock development on the world as well as in Ethiopia. Animal domestication started in an ancient time and it needs further investigation till now. Genetic processes are involved in the evolution of animals during domestication. The time of domestication animal is different from each other. Animal domestication was conducted by different alternative path ways. Among those path way direct path way was the most deliberate path way of animal domestication. Again there are certain consequences of domestication. Among those comparison of wild and domestic livestock, longitudinal analysis of wild animals kept in captivity, results brought by molecular genetics are the main one. The population of the livestock in world is increasing from time to time. The world human population is being increasing by high amount of number; to feed those huge numbers of population giving attention for livestock development trend and production system is very essential. Additionally, in the case of our country the number of livestock is high by a number. But the production and productivity is very small compared with the livestock we have. Finally, there are certain modifiers of future livestock production and consumption for resource; socio cultural modifiers and ethical concern are the main one.
... Furthermore, a recent study showed that artificial selection on brain mass leads to corresponding changes in neuronal count and cognition within closely related taxa [20]. Thus, domestic dogs, with their combined history of domestication and artificial selection [27][28][29], provide an extraordinary model for investigating brain size and cognitive evolution. Domestic dogs reportedly possess brain sizes that are, on average, 20% smaller than those of their closest living wild relative, the grey wolf (Canis lupus) [29,30], after accounting for body size differences [31][32][33]. ...
Domestic dogs display a remarkable diversity of functions, morphologies and cognitive abilities. Using data from 1682 dogs representing 172 breeds, we tested for variation in relative endocranial volume (REV), a proxy for brain size and a basic measure of cognitive ability, in relation to breed function, phylogenetic classification, cranial shape, cooperative behaviour and temperament. Function, body size, phylogenetic clade and cranial shape correlate with REV. Toy dogs, functioning mainly as companions, have the largest endocranial volumes relative to their body size. Working dogs, bred to perform complex human-assistance skills and reportedly possessing higher cognitive abilities, have the smallest. Our results thus show that complex skills and cooperative behaviour—a hallmark of social cognition—do not predict larger REV in dogs. However, REV increases with fear and aggression, attention-seeking and separation anxiety and decreases with trainability. Significant correlations between REV and behavioural traits underscore the evolutionary plasticity of mammalian brain size under domestication and artificial selection and provide support for hypotheses linking the modulation of fear and aggression to brain size change under domestication.
... Dogs bark in a variety of contexts and it has been suggested that it is linked to communicating something specific to humans, as an alarm call, territory marking, or some internal state (Coppinger & Coppinger, 2001;Lord et al., 2009;Pongr acz et al., 2005;Taylor et al., 2014;Yin, 2002). In short, dog barking is ubiquitous relative to the wolf howl (Farag o et al., 2013;Lesch & Fitch, 2023). ...
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are descended from gray wolf (Canis lupus) populations that inhabited Western Europe and Siberia. The specific timing of dog domestication is debated, but archeological and genetic evidence suggest that it was a multi‐phase process that began at least 15,000 years ago. There are many morphological differences between dogs and wolves, including marked divergence in facial muscle morphology, but we know little about the comparative physiology of these muscles. A better understanding of comparative facial muscle physiology between domestic dogs and gray wolves would improve our conceptual framework for the processual mechanisms in dog domestication. To address these issues, we assessed the myosin profiles (type I and type II) from the zygomaticus and orbicularis oris muscles of 6 domestic dogs and 4 gray wolves. Due to small sample sizes, statistical analyses were not done. Results reveal that sampled domestic dogs have almost 100% fast‐twitch (type II) muscle fibers while gray wolves have less than 50%, meaning that dog faces can contract fast while wolf faces are able to sustain facial muscle contraction. Sample sizes are limited but the present study indicates that dog domestication is associated with not only a change in facial muscle morphology but a concomitant change in how these muscles function physiologically. Selective pressures in the development of communication between dogs and humans using facial expression may have influenced this evolutionary divergence, but the paedomorphic retention of barking in adult dogs may have also played a role.
... When discussing breed behavioural differences, there appears to be general agreement that dog breeds vary in behaviour or that purebred dogs have a specific behavioural adaptation [13]. In fact, Canis lupus familiaris is a subspecies that shows uncommon variation in morphological and behavioural phenotypes [8], and the substantial number of breeds makes studying breed-typical behaviour demanding [14]. ...
Simple Summary
The fascination with dog behaviour and public perceptions of breeds has been long-lasting. Media, literature, and individual experiences shape beliefs about breed behaviour. Most purebred dogs are now primarily kept as companions rather than for their original purposes. Through human selection, consistent behavioural traits have emerged in dog breeds. A questionnaire-based survey revealed that breeds perceived as aggressive are less aggressive than expected, while mixed-breeds tend to exhibit more aggression. The research proposes refraining from categorising specific breeds as dangerous and instead adopting a comprehensive approach. By focusing on education, training, selective breeding, and societal awareness, incidents involving dogs and humans can be minimised. Context and human influence play significant roles in dog aggression. Shifting away from breed stereotypes and utilising empirical evidence can enhance human-animal bonds and foster safer communities. Exploring genetic, environmental, and individual factors is essential for the implementation of effective dog training and management strategies.
Abstract
Dog breeds are grouped based on scientific agreement, whether for traditional reasons or specific tasks during their domestication. Discrepancies may occur between public views of breed behaviour and actual evidence. This research aims to investigate differences in five behavioural traits (aggression towards people, aggression towards animals, fearfulness, responsiveness to training, and activity/excitability) by using the Dog Personality Questionnaire (DPQ) across six conventional groups/clusters of dog breeds (herding, hunting, guarding, companion dogs, potentially aggressive breeds, and mixed-breed dogs) and to assess hypotheses derived from common public presumptions. A cohort of 1309 dog owners sourced through diverse online platforms took part in the study. Contrary to stereotypes, the findings indicate that breeds labelled as “potentially aggressive” display lower levels of aggression compared to guarding breeds (χ² (5) = 3.657, p = 0.041) and mixed-breeds (χ² (5) = 3.870, p = 0.002). Additionally, mixed-breed dogs exhibited the highest levels of fearfulness among the six conventional clusters. In terms of aggression and gender, males demonstrated higher aggression levels towards both humans and animals compared to females (p = 0.001). These results challenge established assumptions and emphasise the necessity of evidence-based methodologies in the assessment of canine behaviour.
... Cats (Felis catus), the only modern domestic species to have evolved from a solitary ancestor (African wildcat Felis lybica), arose much more recently (approximately 10,000 BP) coinciding with more sedentary human societies [6]. The domestication of ancestral species began as commensal relationships, in which the animal was provided with consistent resources and, in return, served as sentinels or aided humans in hunting [7,8]. However, the great success of dogs and cats across human cultures cannot solely be attributed to their utilitarian nature. ...
Simple Summary
There is evidence that cat and dog preferences are correlated with human personality traits, but little information exists on how these preferences develop and change over time and if preference impacts pet care, particularly of the “less preferred” species in a multispecies household. By using an internet survey, we found some differences in demographics and exposure to cats or dogs when young and those who prefer cats or dogs as adults. Species preference for dogs remained consistent from youth to adulthood, but for those that changed preference, we found that lack of childhood exposure impacted the formation of a cat-species preference but not of a dog-species preference. We also found that pet owners spent more time with their preferred species, cat people were more likely to feed their cats a prescription diet, and dog people were more likely to feed both their cats and dogs raw diets. Species preferences may result in preferential treatment of the owner’s preferred species and identified a potential risk for welfare concerns in multispecies households. More studies are needed to further examine the development and impact of species preferences.
Abstract
Dog and cat preference has been associated with a few factors, like owner personality traits, but data regarding other aspects of preference ontogeny and the impact of preferences on pet wellbeing have yet to be examined. In this exploratory study, several of these characteristics, such as exposure to pets when young and as adults and current pet interactions and diet were analyzed from internet survey data. We found that more people identified as dog people (63.3%) versus cat people (36.7%) and preference for dogs remained consistent from childhood to adulthood compared with cats. In individuals who changed species preference, a lack of childhood exposure to cats (47.2%) was significantly associated with the group that changed preferences from dogs to cats from childhood to adulthood, compared with dog ownership as a child in the group that changed preferences from cats to dogs (24.4%). The number of cats and dogs in the home directly correlated with species preference (p < 0.001). Dwelling location was also significantly associated with species preference, with cat people being more likely to live in an urban area and dog people in a rural area (p = 0.002). More time was spent in both active and passive interactions with pets of the preferred species. Cats owned by cat people were more likely to be fed prescription diets compared with cats owned by dog people (p < 0.001). Interestingly, dog people were more likely to feed both their cats (p = 0.012) and dogs (p < 0.001) a raw diet compared with cat people. Additional research is needed to understand the development and impact of owner species preferences on pets to identify risks of suboptimal wellbeing.
... Dogs are good candidates for the study of animal creativity and behavioral innovation because of their widespread availability and willingness to cooperate with humans (Aria et al., 2021). Through the process of domestication, dogs have developed a greater threshold for human interaction than their wild counterparts, enabling them to interact with people in ways that are not feasible for many other species (Coppinger & Coppinger, 2001). Dogs are also excellent at responding to cues provided by humans, seem to enjoy human social contact, and are often motivated to perform tasks for food rewards and social attention (Cook et al., 2016;Riedel et al., 2008;Thompson et al., 2016). ...
Creative animals can flexibly respond to novel circumstances, a capacity that is closely tied to cognitive complexity. We examined the capacity of four dogs to learn to innovate actions when instructed to do so using a “create” cue. An action performed in response to this cue was considered novel if the action had not yet been offered within the current training session and was not already associated with a specific cue. The dogs were able to self-select many novel actions, similarly to what has been observed in trained dolphins. Training animals to innovate actions on cue can help reveal aspects of the cognitive processes underlying action selection, cognitive control, and behavioral flexibility. Successful learning of the “create” cue may indicate that the dogs were able to monitor their recent actions and form an abstract concept of avoiding recently performed actions. Reinforcing dogs for spontaneity may increase the range of actions that they perform within the training context. We conclude that the dogs in this study were capable of learning to innovate actions in ways that are comparable to what has been shown in dolphins. Though it is unclear how other dogs would perform at this task, our results demonstrate it is possible for dogs to learn to innovate actions on cue.
... As características genéticas destes lobos seriam assim artificialmente seleccionadas e isoladas das dos restantes lobos, e transmitidas aos descendentes. Uma outra teoria sugere que o processo inicial de domesticação se tenha dado naturalmente por «autodomesticação», [4] ou seja, por força da vantagem reprodutiva daqueles mais bem adaptados -talvez por serem mais tolerantes à presença humana ou terem uma menor distância de fuga -para viverem de restos de comida deixados pelos humanos. Não deixa de ser curioso que, segundo esta teoria, teriam sido os antecessores dos cães, e não os humanos, a «inventar» a domesticação. ...
Partilhamos o planeta com outros animais. Num contexto de recursos finitos e meio ambiente ameaçado, a sua sobrevivência e a da humanidade dependem do compromisso que assumirmos perante eles. No entanto, deparámo-nos com visões díspares sobre o tratamento ético dos animais. O presente capítulo reflecte sobre as principais correntes filosóficas da ética animal e discute alguns dos actuais desafios eticamente relevantes. Damos particular destaque à domesticação dos animais e que relevância poderá ter na definição das nossas obrigações morais para com eles. Defendemos que deverão ser considerados e acautelados princípios éticos quando nos relacionamos com os animaisnão-humanos e, por fim, iremos explorar a eutanásia animal como caso de estudo à luz de diferentes teorias éticas, estabelecendo as diferenças relevantes entre a abordagem para animais de companhia e animais de produção
... 23,24 Transhumance migration, a biannual cultural movement of livestock between high-and lowlands that played a pivotal role in shaping the Eurasian landscape, greatly impacted LGDs. 25,26 During these migrations, LGDs moved and followed the livestock, serving as a dynamic conduit for gene flow across distinct regions and breeds. For instance, Spanish Mastiff dogs exhibited no detectable variation in population structure despite distances of up to 700 km between sampling sites, likely attributed to the participation of most sampled individuals in transhumance migrations. ...
Livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) have been used to protect livestock for millennia. While previous works suggested a single origin of modern LGDs, the degree and source of shared ancestry have not been tested. To address this, we generated genome-wide SNP data from 304 LGDs and combined it with public genomic data from 2,183 modern and 22 ancient dogs. Our findings reveal shared ancestry and extensive gene flow among modern LGD breeds which we attribute to historical livestock migrations. Additionally, admixture between LGDs and free-ranging dogs argues against reproductive isolation as a core mechanism for maintaining the specialized skills of LGDs. Finally, we identify two lineages within modern LGDs and uncover multiple ancestries tracing back to distinct Eurasian ancient dogs, concordant with the absence of a single ancestor. Overall, our work explores the complex evolutionary history of LGDs, offering valuable insights into how human and livestock co-migrations shaped this functional group.
... Domestication may have arisen to obtain a benefit from humans, or because of a natural ecological association between wolves and people, without any benefit to people (Morey and Jeger, 2015). Several scenarios have been debated about the possible onset of domestication (Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001;Crockford, 2006;Hare et al., 2012;Morey and Jeger, 2015;Dugatkin, 2018). The main controversy about the time and geographical origin of wolf domestication is related to fossil specimens identified as "dog-like wolves": some authors Barrio del Castillo (BC) and El Portalón (EP) are the main sites of this study. ...
We describe the shape variability of nine dog hemimandibles recovered from two Holocene archaeological sites on the Iberian Peninsula. In this study we mainly focus on the Chalcolithic age dog remains recovered from Barrio del Castillo (Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid), but also, make comparisons to dog specimens from El Portalón (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) Bronze Age. We used geometric morphometrics (3D) to describe mandibular morphology and compared these specimens with a modern sample of Iberian wolves, dogs, and red foxes. As complete mandibles are rarely found in the archaeological record, we also analysed the variability of the shape on fragments of mandibles. Here, we examine if there is morphological variability or a continuity in size between Chalcolithic and Bronze Age dogs. A scenario of very similar dogs, with a continuity in the size, is expected in the inner regions of the peninsula in contrasts with the coastal sites (influenced by a higher commercial activity). Our results suggest a continuity in the size and morphology of M 1. These dogs still conserved diagnostic wolf traits in relation to the carnassial zone. Additionally, we observe that the region behind the M 1 in Chalcolithic and Bronze Age dogs is slightly different when we analysed the fragmentary mandibles.
... Increased body contact with puppies may be indicative of being carried, or/and the extra attention which neotenised morphological characteristics (Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001;Fox, 1976) attract. Dog licking human behaviour may indicate stress/concern/anxiety. ...
... Various researchers have reported that dogs do not reduce nocturnal livestock predation by hyenas and lions (Kolowski & Holekamp, 2006;Ikanda & Packer, 2008), but Woodroffe et al. (2007) reported that dogs improved livestock security both in the daytime grazing fields and in the bomas at night. Since their early domestication, dogs have acted as an early warning system for approaching predators and visitors to human settlements (Coppinger & Coppinger, 2001). In our study, domestic dogs were clearly ineffective in protecting villages from hyena attacks. ...
Livestock depredation and scavenging of waste by hyena occurs widely
across Ethiopia. Here we report on an extensive survey of depredation in
10 areas across the country. We found that even hyena from national parks
predominantly feed on anthropogenic waste. We quantified the economic
impact of hyena predation on livestock using semi-structured interviews
with 3,080 randomly selected households. They reported losses of 2,230
domestic animals, 3.9% of their stock or an average annual financial loss
of US $10.3 per household, over the past five years. The diet of hyenas was
assessed in 17 areas across the country, including national parks, by scat
analysis and showed only prey items of domestic origin except in Chebera
Churchura national park where a few items of prey of wild species were
found. Frequencies of prey remains of cattle, sheep, donkey, and goat were
highest in decreasing order. Some hairs in scat originated from depredation,
but most food intake was from waste dumps and slaughterhouses. Survival
of hyenas in Ethiopia is thus largely and widely dependent on management
of livestock conflict and waste. Further research should identify the specific
causes of domestic animal loss and options to mitigate depredation.
... Theories of canine domestication are quite focused on the role of canine agency in the process. For example, Lorna and Raymond Coppinger have postulated that dogs self-domesticated themselves by recognizing the refuse generated by human settlements as an easily available food source (Coppinger and Coppinger 2001). Even though other theories suggest that dogs may have become domesticated for different reasons, such as the greater effectiveness of human-canine interspecies packs in procuring food through hunting (Shipman 2017), these theories also stress the active role of dogs in the process. ...
... The coexistence of humans and dogs has been a matter of mutual benefit since the last Ice Age (Schleidt & Shalter, 2003), where domestication may have been influenced by humans only moderately and for the most part involved unconscious selection pressures (Coppinger & Coppinger, 2002). This changed in the past few centuries where explicit artificial breeding of dogs took over (Lynch, 2019). ...
Dogs are considered humans’ best friend, but this relationship is not all puppies and sunshine. Zoonoses, biting incidents, hereditary problems, and other welfare issues can threaten the relationship, especially when humans are not aware of them. Public opinion on dogs in the densely populated Netherlands was therefore examined. Dutch newspapers and Facebook were analyzed with frame analysis. A positive view of dogs seems predominant, followed by one that sees dogs as normal, while problems with dogs are less common. That dogs are considered close to humans is exemplified by the found norms that the needs of dogs must be met, that severe penalties must be applied when humans do not respect the welfare of dogs, and that dog keepers and conditions are responsible for problems with dogs. The image of the dog as ordinary may hinder public awareness, despite the norms that emphasize the importance of dog welfare.
... This can include instances of tooth loss, whether accidental or intentional, and enamel hypoplasia. These pathologies can arise as a result of the domestication process and the close contact between dogs and humans (Coppinger and Coppinger 2001;Losey et al. 2014). ...
Pathologies are rarely studied in sled dogs of the circumpolar North, even though lesions on their remains can give many insights to the relationship between Indigenous peoples and domestic dogs such as subsistence and mobility patterns. Some of the more commonly discussed conditions include spondylosis deformans, fractures, and dental trauma. However, it should be noted that these conditions are still fairly uncommon in the general literature. In sled dogs, spondylosis deformans stems from osteophyte formation on the vertebrae due to the degradation of the annulus fibrosus in the intervertebral disk. Fractures develop from human disciplinary action, bite wounds, or kicks from draught animals. Finally, dental trauma typically presents as intentional tooth removal or enamel hypoplasia. Pathology studies in dogs are uncommon due to a lack of comparative modern pathological collections, and due to a lack of recording in assemblages. Future research could develop the literature by examining collections from Yamal, Siberia.
The social relationships between humans and our closest nonhuman species (e.g., dogs, cats, and horses) are complex and subject to change. This complexity contradicts the popular phenomenon of using these animals in medical interventions for mental health (i.e., animal assisted therapy). This article uses anthropological research and ethnographic examples from the Central Coast, Australia, to exemplify the conflicts, contradictions, and realities of our companion animals’ relationship to human mental health. Using a phenomenological perspective, the article examines the complex realities in which companion animals (being living, fluctuating, mortal creatures) experience trauma, respond to human behaviors, and ultimately change throughout their lives, making them less “manageable” as mental health support while still valuable as a longer-term relationship. Companion animals maintain an extremely important position in the emotional lives of their human companions. However, their position in human worlds has purpose beyond therapeutic utility. Future research and use of companion animals for mental health purposes should carefully reconsider the implications of using living creatures in medical models and instead seek to better understand how our companion animals allow humans to access alternate ways of thinking throughout their lives.
Los hallazgos arqueológicos de las últimas décadas sugieren la convivencia de comunidades étnica y culturalmente diferenciadas en el suroeste peninsular, cuya constante interacción habría dado como resultado un complejo proceso de mestizaje y una profunda aculturación bidireccional, rasgos que finalmente habrían definido a la cultura conocida como Tarteso. Estos elementos parecen reflejarse especialmente en los contextos religiosos, principalmente en santuarios y necrópolis. A este respecto, hay evidencias de que la fundación de santuarios a lo largo del Mediterráneo constituyó una de las principales estrategias empleadas durante la colonización fenicia. Estos complejos, de características orientales, ejercían como centros relacionados con el control y la explotación del territorio, así como espacios de reunión entre estas comunidades para realizar pactos de diversa índole. Del mismo modo, parece ser que la gestión y redistribución de los recursos cárnicos se habría llevado a cabo en estos santuarios a través de actos rituales, que culminaban frecuentemente en banquetes comunales, en los que la población ostentaba un papel activo como oferentes y en el que el sacrificio animal habría constituido un complejo mecanismo de cohesión social estructurado en torno a un elaborado sistema de creencias de influencia oriental. Esta monografía sobre la religión en Tarteso aborda de un modo especializado el culto y el sacrificio ritual animal. De esta manera, se expone una recopilación y revisión sistemática de los registros faunísticos recuperados en santuarios y necrópolis del área tartésica con el objetivo de identificar posibles pautas económicas y culturales en cuanto al manejo, sacrificio y consumo de especies animales. Se pretende analizar hasta qué punto el registro material permite valorar el impacto económico y cultural de la colonización fenicia, así como dilucidar si el registro paleobiológico puede constituir un bioindicador étnico cultural que permita establecer alguna posible diferenciación o identificación de la presencia y/o interacción con poblaciones orientales.
During the long domestication process, humans and dogs built a strong bond. Attachment in the dog–human relationship is characterized by successful communication and cooperation involving olfactory signals. It is known that dogs are able to smell stress in humans. In this study, we investigate whether humans can also smell stress in dogs and whether dog owners are better at identifying the smell of stressed dogs than non‐dog owners. Odor samples of four dogs were taken during a relaxed and stressed situation. A total of 20 dog owners and 20 non‐dog owners participated in the experiment in which they smelled the odor samples while blindfolded. Our results show that the participants were unable to correctly discriminate the smell of relaxed dogs from that of stressed dogs. Furthermore, dog owners did not perform better than non‐dog owners.
This chapter discusses and defines the concepts that make up the foundation of this work.
The first section discusses how behaviors can be defined in veterinary psychiatry and what factors can influence them. The second section deals with the neurophysiological aspect of behaviors by defining the general concepts of emotions, mood, cognition, and the notions of temperament and personality.
The last section presents the particularities of communication and cognition in the canine species.
Skull morphology was studied in three populations of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes): tame, which was produced by long-term selection for friendly behavior to humans; aggressive, which was produced by long-term selection for aggressive behavior to humans; and conventional farm-bred, which was not deliberately selected for behavior. We have collected skulls measurements from two sets of foxes: (1) 140 backcross foxes produced by breeding of tame and aggressive foxes to each other and then crossing F1 foxes to tame strain, and (2) 150 foxes from original populations (50 tame, 50 aggressive and 50 conventional farm-bred). The backcross foxes have been genotyped with 350 microsatellite markers and analyzed using 2B-PLS analysis. A significant correlation between microsatellite genotypes and skull shape was identified for three microsatellite markers on 10-th fox chromosome: FH2535, RVC1, REN193M22. The second set of foxes (tame, aggressive and conventional) was genotyped for these three markers and also analysed with 2B_PLS. Significant correlation was identified between genotypes and skull size for males, but not for females. The genomic region identified in this study contains IGF-1 gene, which is responsible for 15% of body size variation in dogs. Our findings suggest that IGF-1 gene is also involved in skull size regulation in red foxes.
The article explores the link between cuteness and animality, focusing on depictions of so-called animal odd couples, with emphasis on the effects cuteness may have for manipulating and flattening the life stories of real animals and obscuring the trauma that leads to the creation of cute imagery. After analyzing the vision of interspecies harmony in Edward Hicks’s Peaceable Kingdom, the article locates a shift away from the dominance of the sublime and toward the cute in visual depictions of peaceful interspecies encounters in American culture. Through a reading of three different versions of one narrative, James Oliver Curwood’s Nomads of the North and the novel’s two film adaptations, the article traces a genealogy of cuteness in representations of interspecies friendships and proposes a methodology called critical cuteness that makes it possible to alleviate the flattening of animals’ stories effected by the aesthetics of cuteness. The methodology is based on exposing the incongruity between the affective functions of animal imagery and their ethological interpretation and on recovering the individual animals’ life stories. Finally, the article suggests that the “cutification” of interspecies relations may be a strategy for diffusing the systematic violence meted out against wildlife during the colonization of the North American continent.
Bu yenilikçi çalışma, köpeklerin işitsel kortekslerinde cinsiyetin rolünü keşfetmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Erkek ve dişi köpeklerin beyin fonksiyonları, fMRI verileri kullanılarak karşılaştırılmış ve cinsiyete özgü aktivasyon düzenleri incelenmiştir. Analizler, dişi köpeklerin Medial Ektosilvian Girus bölgesinde her iki hemisferde güçlü aktivasyonlar gösterdiğini, buna karşın erkek köpeklerin sağ Amigdala ve Kaudal Ektosilvian Girus ile Kaudal Sylvian Girus arasında daha az düzeyde aktivasyon olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu önemli bulgular, köpeklerde işitsel algı süreçlerinin cinsiyete göre nasıl farklılık gösterebileceğini gösteriyor ve köpeklerin işitsel dünyasını daha iyi anlamak adına yeni kapılar aralıyor. Çalışmamız, köpeklerle insanlar arasında daha etkili iletişim kurulabilmesine katkıda bulunabilecek potansiyel yaklaşımları gözler önüne sererken, aynı zamanda köpeklerin işitsel algılarının cinsiyet temelli farklılıklarını daha iyi anlamamız için yeni sorular ve araştırma yolları sunuyor.
Historically, animal characters and animal-child encounters in children's narratives have served largely metaphorical functions. More recently, scholars have become interested in exploring literary human-animal relations as interesting in and of themselves and not purely as background for promoting values and attitudes considered desirable for adolescent readers. The article proposes a reading of Mary O'Hara's novel My Friend Flicka (O'Hara 1941) which embeds the relationship between the human protagonist and the horse in the wider stories of equine domestication and the settling of the Western frontier. In effect, while the story of Ken and Flicka is read as a metaphor-a synecdoche even-it is not a metaphor of human-human encounters but of the contradictions and ethical dilemmas inherent to the process of human-directed animal domestication in a capitalist settler colonial society. Ken's coming of age through the story of love and loss is representative of dilemmas that humans engaged in processes of domestication have had to grapple with: Ken must come to terms with the violence of domestication. Concurrently, Flicka's story of pain, fear, and love is read not just as the unique story of an individual horse but of the generations of equines that have been forced to adapt to an environment shaped by human dominance.
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