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Citation: Gajdzik, B.; Jaciow, M.;
Wolniak, R.; Wolny, R. Gastronomic
Curiosity and Consumer Behavior:
The Impact of Television Culinary
Programs on Choices of Food Services.
Foods 2024,13, 115. https://doi.org/
10.3390/foods13010115
Academic Editors: Igor Tomasevic
and Cristina Calvo-Porral
Received: 14 November 2023
Revised: 12 December 2023
Accepted: 26 December 2023
Published: 28 December 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
foods
Article
Gastronomic Curiosity and Consumer Behavior: The Impact of
Television Culinary Programs on Choices of Food Services
Bo˙
zena Gajdzik 1, * , Magdalena Jaciow 2, Radosław Wolniak 3,* and Robert Wolny 2
1Department of Industrial Informatics, Silesian University of Technology, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
2Department of Digital Economy Research, Faculty of Economics, University of Economics in Katowice,
40-287 Katowice, Poland; magdalena.jaciow@ue.katowice.pl (M.J.); robert.wolny@ue.katowice.pl (R.W.)
3Faculty of Organization and Management, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
*Correspondence: bozena.gajdzik@polsl.pl (B.G.); radoslaw.wolniak@polsl.pl (R.W.)
Abstract: In highly developed countries, more and more people use culinary services. Cooking
at home, for the family, is giving way to culinary services. Consumers either order food home or
use the offers of restaurants and bars. Consumers’ choice of culinary form may be influenced by
cooking television programs. Many TV stations broadcast cooking programs. This study examined
the impact of television culinary programs on consumer behavior in the restaurant services market.
The article examines the interplay of emotional responses, personality traits, and culinary preferences
to understand how TV cooking programs influence dining decisions. The study was conducted using
the CAWI method, which involved 742 respondents. The study, conducted between May 2021 and
April 2022, was addressed to people who visited restaurants presented in the Polish culinary TV
show titled “Kitchen Revolutions”. The study revealed that almost 3/4 of the respondents chose
restaurants based on the program’s recommendations. Although there was a strong emotional
connection with this program—nearly half of the respondents expressed delight in the taste of snacks
and main courses—this did not always translate into an increased frequency of eating meals away
from home. Only every third respondent said that the program influenced their gastronomic behavior.
The research hypotheses examined the extent to which culinary TV shows influence the frequency
of visits to restaurants, the perceived quality of life, and the influence on consumers with specific
personality traits. The results partially supported the hypothesis that cooking programs on television
encourage people to eat out more often, but the perceived impact on quality of life and on some
personality traits was less clear. The article contributes to the understanding of consumer behavior in
the food service market by highlighting the complex dynamics of emotional reactions, personality
traits, and the impact of culinary television programs. The findings have practical implications
for the restaurant industry, suggesting a focus on emotional impact, food quality and presentation,
and targeting marketing strategies towards consumers who are open to new experiences and ready
to experiment.
Keywords: gastronomic consumer; consumer behaviors; television cooking; food choices; culinary
programs
1. Introduction
In recent years, many television stations have been offering their viewers programs that
teach cooking step-by-step or show changes made in restaurants by prestigious chefs [
1
].
The interest of viewers in such programs is increasing, as these productions provide not only
culinary recipes but also an element of competition among participants, as well as insights
into restaurants with excellent cuisine [
2
]. Television stations often invite prestigious chefs
to host these programs. The constantly evolving formula of these shows, along with
old and tested concepts, often based on foreign licenses, attracts many viewers to their
screens [
3
]. A notable phenomenon of culinary programs broadcast on television is that
Foods 2024,13, 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13010115 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods
Foods 2024,13, 115 2 of 26
people are learning the art of cooking [
4
]. There are also consumers who utilize the services
of restaurants featured in these television programs to try new dishes [
5
]. People are curious
about new flavors or are so strongly inspired by the changes in restaurants shown on TV
that they want to personally check the results of these changes. For many people, visiting
restaurants that have undergone transformations witnessed by TV audiences becomes a
passion and a form of gastronomic tourism [6,7].
There are many countrywise differences in the case of cooking programs. In Italy,
cooking programs might heavily focus on preserving and celebrating traditional culinary
heritage, with an emphasis on regional ingredients and authentic recipes. Viewers may
be more interested in learning classic Italian cooking techniques [
8
]. In the United States,
the celebrity chef culture could be particularly pronounced, and viewers may be drawn
to cooking shows featuring well-known chefs. The competitive element and personal
stories of chefs may be a significant factor in the popularity of such programs [
9
]. In France,
cooking shows may highlight the importance of locally sourced, high-quality ingredients.
Viewers might be more inclined to follow programs that emphasize the use of fresh and
seasonal produce in their cooking [
10
]. In Spain, there may be a trend of viewers engaging
with cooking shows that explore culinary tourism, featuring different regional cuisines and
the unique flavors associated with various Spanish provinces [
11
]. In the United Kingdom,
cooking programs may reflect the multicultural nature of society, incorporating a wide
range of global cuisines. Viewers might be interested in exploring diverse flavors and
cooking styles from around the world [12].
Restaurateurs are increasingly having to vie for consumers of their dishes, employ-
ing more sophisticated methods of acquisition [
3
,
13
]. The competition for customers is
becoming more refined, and the analysis of consumer behavior more detailed, as many
restaurants see this aspect of marketing activities as a potential for success in a competitive
market [
14
]. The prestige of a restaurant guarantees the elevation of the consumers’ status
and focuses all efforts on them to ensure maximum satisfaction [
15
]. The needs, preferences,
and desires of consumers are not the only determinants of a restaurant’s offerings, as
new forms of reaching customers are becoming increasingly important [
16
,
17
]. One such
method is registering the restaurant for a television program to become a filming location
or a subject for transformation [18].
This publication attempts to elucidate the impact of a culinary television program
on consumer behavior in the gastronomic services market. This research is based on the
popularity of the “Kitchen Revolutions” program. This program has been broadcast on
Polish television, on the commercial station “TVN Warner Bros. Discovery”, since March
2010 and is hosted by the restaurateur Magda Gessler. The program’s popularity in Poland
led the authors of this publication to deem it appropriate to introduce into their research
an index named after Gessler, referred to as “Gesslerism”. This index is developed by
the authors of the publication and, in a detailed way, described in the following part of
this paper. Restaurants with culinary and organizational problems, leading to a decline
in customer numbers, apply to the program. After each “revolution” or corrective actions
taken by the program’s host, the number of customers increases.
Much like Gordon Ramsay’s programs that follow a similar format, “Kitchen Rev-
olutions” involves restaurants facing culinary and organizational challenges that have
resulted in a decline in customer numbers [
19
]. These establishments seek the assistance
of the program, which leads to a series of culinary interventions and corrective actions
facilitated by Magda Gessler. Subsequently, the program documents a notable increase in
the number of customers following each “revolution”, showcasing the positive impact of
the interventions on consumer engagement [20].
The paper consists of six main parts: Section 1: Literature Review and Conceptual
Research Model. This section provides a concise description of the research context and
presents the conceptual research model. Section 2: Materials and Methods. It briefly
describes the main methods and hypothesis development. Section 3: Results. This section
summarizes the main findings of the realized field research. Section 4: Discussion about
Foods 2024,13, 115 3 of 26
the Results of the Research. Section 5: Conclusions. This includes the main interpretations
of the realized research and discussion. Section 6: Limitations and Future Research.
2. Literature Review and Conceptual Research Model
2.1. Key Concepts
In a highly developed society, also known as a consumer society, people’s behaviors
are largely dependent on the influence of a trend called consumerism. Consumerism is
a characteristic of every developed society [
21
]. In recent decades, mass media (radio,
television, the Internet, etc.) have had a significant impact on the development of con-
sumption [
22
]. The media participate in creating the world, including consumer habits [
23
].
The culture of consumption places humans in a world of culinary values. These values
form the basis of human action in the consumption of goods and services. The concept of
consumption values, from the 1970s [
22
] to today, has changed significantly. Nowadays,
the value of consumption is multifaceted and can take the form of an object of interest from
individual units or social norms meant to guarantee the interest of specific groups or the
entire society [
23
]. According Tanrikulu [
24
] the concept of values is important for mar-
keting research. Generally, consumers prefer to buy products with the highest perceived
value [
25
,
26
]. Consumption values can produce an effect through customers’ attitude.
Consumption attitudes influence purchase decisions, such as the type of clothing, food,
choice of car, and how leisure time is spent. Values are indicators of consumer and social
aspirations. Aspirations arise at the interface of values with the world view considered
in terms of possibilities, chances, and hopes [
27
]. The reception of this image is greatly
influenced by media messages. Consumers increasingly build their attitudes detached from
the real world, focusing more on the virtual world. Such an attitude is a result of the devel-
opment of the Internet and computer technologies. Therefore, it is not surprising that media
recipients want to check the world view presented on television, the Internet, and other
media. Curiosity about new places, experiences, and people, etc., enhances aspirations and
vice versa; consumer aspirations amplify their curiosity to explore the world. Curiosity is
a determinant of changes in consumer behavior values. Under the term “curiosity”, we
understand the emotional impulse to consume, to learn, to act, etc. [
28
]. Satisfying curiosity
has symbolic significance. The consumer assigns symbolic meaning to a good, which can
be pleasure (in line with the idea of hedonism), “connoisseurship” in line with the idea of
sublimation, and other features belonging to the category of individualism [23,29].
Cooking shows generate consumer curiosity, creating a tension linked to the desire
to discover new culinary experiences or restaurants featured in these television programs
(Table 1) [
27
,
28
]. Consumers eager to visit restaurants transformed by television shows
demonstrate their position in the gastronomic market in this way [
29
,
30
]. Their curiosity
leads to the consumption in restaurants altered by television programs. In doing so,
consumers aim to diversify their existing individual styles, showcasing their interest
in novelty, taste of dishes, originality of dishes, restaurant decor, etc. [
31
]. Cooking is
presented in various forms of television programs, such as travel shows, lifestyle shows,
reality programming, game shows, renovation programs, gastronomic visits, programs
about starred restaurants, etc. [31–33].
The United States has the most cooking television programs. About half of Americans
watch cooking shows ranging from occasionally to very often [
34
]. Over half (57%) of
the viewers say they have purchased food as a direct result of something they have seen
on a cooking show, 36% say they have purchased small kitchen gadgets, and 24% say
they have purchased cookbooks [
35
]. The hosts of cooking television programs often
attract the attention of viewers, and they are not always master chefs but sometimes actors,
journalists, and other personalities regarded as celebrities [
1
–
3
]. Celebrity chefs play a vital
role in obtaining viewership for food-related television programs and can exert significant
influence over their viewers [
9
,
15
]. Chefs act as culinary teachers or serve as entertainers
based on their television persona and lifestyle portrayal that audiences can relate to [32].
Foods 2024,13, 115 4 of 26
Television cooking shows are appealing to various age groups in society. TV is the
primary communication vehicle, especially among lower-income populations, capable
of transmitting information from education to entertainment [
13
]. Watching TV is the
dominant recreational pastime across all age groups, particularly among children and
adolescents [
14
]. According to the Harris Poll [
35
], cooking shows are attractive to both
young and old people.
Current literature reviews show that food programs may impact viewers similarly
to television food advertisements [
36
,
37
]. Cooking programs can influence the foods
purchased and the types of dishes cooked by viewers. Some cooking television programs
promote health-conscious messages, while others do not [
35
,
36
,
38
]. Both types provide
inspiration to their viewers on cooking and have the potential to influence the purchases
of those watching [34,35]. Cooking shows may influence the dietary habits and choices of
viewers, given their prevalence on television and the popularity of celebrity chefs.
There are also many studies on the impact of television programs on viewer behavior.
Table 1presents a compilation of selected significant studies concerning the influence of
television programs on consumer behavior.
Table 1. Selected studies on the impact of TV programs on culinary choices.
Source The Aim of the Study Research Sample Effect
Dixon et al., 2007 [39]The effects of television advertisements for
junk food on children’s food attitudes and
preferences
19 grade 5 and 6 students from
schools in Melbourne, Australia Positive if we advertise
nutrition food
Ejsymont et al., 2010 [40]Assessment of the impact of television
culinary programs on shaping the
nutritional behavior of viewers 134 Internet users Positive
Boulos et al., 2012 [41]How television is influencing the obesity
epidemic Obese children in the USA Negative
Lane and Fisher, 2015 [1]
To investigate the exposure of a student
population to celebrity chef television
programs and to assess the influence these
figures have and how they are perceived
A survey through an online
questionnaire distributed at Bath
Spa University—238 persons Positive
Villani et al., 2015 [2]To investigate people’s attitudes and beliefs
about popular television cooking programs
and celebrity chefs
207 participants undertook the
questionnaire Neutral
Temelo˘glu and Ta¸spınar, 2018 [6]
To determine the relationship between the
cooking shows on TV and the people’s
intention of participating in gastronomic
tourism
391 tourists that participated in
gastronomic tourism Positive
Ngqangashe et al., 2018 [42]
The effect of TV cooking show consumption
on children’s food choice behavior
A sample of 85 children (32 girls
and 48 boys) from two schools
with comparable student profiles
in terms of sociodemographic
characteristics
Positive
Kizileli et al., 2019 [33]To examine how celebrity chefs influenced
the nutrition planning of their viewers
The study population was adult
television viewers (≥18 years of
age)—244 female and 144 male Neutral
Folkvord et al., 2020 [43]To test the effects of a cooking program on
healthy food decisions Class settings in 5 different
schools Positive if we advertise
nutrition food
Fraga et al., 2020 [44]To verify the effects of buying
television-advertised food on
schoolchildren eating behavior
797 children were evaluated, the
mean age was 9.81 (0.59)
years, 50.7% were female, and
32.4% were overweight
Neutral
Source: own study based on [1,2,6,33,39–44].
A research conducted in Poland [
40
] by Ejsymont et al. focused on assessing the
impact of television cooking programs on shaping the eating behaviors of viewers. The
study was conducted using a survey method among 134 Internet users. The questions
concerned the types of cooking programs watched, the factors influencing their choices,
Foods 2024,13, 115 5 of 26
evaluation of dishes presented in the programs, and changes in eating habits under the
influence of television cooking programs. The researchers found that television cooking
shows influenced the eating behaviors of viewers, including in terms of food choices and
introducing innovations into the daily dietary menu. Ejsymont et al. concluded that
cooking programs influence the shaping of eating behaviors and, thus, can be a good tool
for implementing nutritional education [40].
The scope of research on consumer awareness in the gastronomic services market is
constantly expanded to include more areas of influence, such as “ecological cooking”, “di-
etetic cooking”, and “healthy cooking”. Television requires no literacy or user skills, caters
to an audience of all ages, is present in almost every household, and maintains its influence
despite the growing prevalence of Internet use. Consequently, television broadcasts have
tremendous power in shaping the food and nutrition knowledge of consumers [
45
–
48
].
Correspondingly, there is a rapid increase, in both quantity and quality, in cooking shows
and other food- and nutrition-related shows broadcast on television worldwide [32,49].
In the realm of gastronomic consumption, individuals strive to create a unique, per-
sonal consumption style, marked by individual character. The motive behind such behavior
is twofold: on the one hand, there is a pursuit of personal identification (“I want to dis-
tinguish myself from others”), and on the other hand, a pursuit of group identification
(“I also belong to this group of people who have visited restaurants after changes”). Such
behavior can be part of gastronomic tourism [
50
]. Gastronomy experiences are becoming
a fundamental factor influencing the decision to choose a travel destination, as well as a
crucial factor in shaping tourists’ satisfaction with their overall travel experience. Good
restaurants add value to a place visited by a tourist. Gastronomy tourism is a way for a
destination to prosper by showcasing its local cuisine cultures and local products, and
contributes to the destination’s brand image [
51
]. Broadly speaking, food trips may include
visits to local farmers and producers, local food fairs and markets, gastronomy events and
festivals, participation in cooking masterclasses, and tasting of meals and beverages [7].
The television popularity of local restaurants attracts customers [
52
,
53
]. For many con-
sumers, being in restaurants known from television is a very important element of culinary
experiences, most often acquired during holiday trips [
54
,
55
]. Hall et al. [
56
] indicated that
“gastronomy experiences are a window to the culture of the destination”. Consequently,
studies suggest that culinary experiences contribute to shaping one’s personal satisfaction
with the trip [50].
Julia Child was a pioneer of television cooking programs worldwide, beginning their
production in the United States in the 1960s [
57
]. The popularity of television cooking
shows is also confirmed by viewership rankings in Poland. The peak of popularity for
television cooking programs in Poland was at the beginning of the 21st century. In 2016,
the programs “MasterChef Junior” and “MasterChef” reached an average minute rating
(AMR) of over 5 million viewers, surpassing the viewership of the UEFA Euro 2016 football
championships broadcast on TVP1. These programs are among the most watched on the
“TVN Warner Bros. Discovery” network [54,58].
Television cooking shows significantly influence many people’s choice of gastronomic
venues. There are numerous ways these programs can affect consumers’ decisions about
dining out [
39
]. Cooking shows often promote specific restaurants, cafes, or culinary
venues. Showcasing tasty dishes and unique culinary experiences can attract viewers
to these places. Television cooking programs can inspire viewers to search for new and
unusual flavors. After watching a dish prepared by a famous chef, viewers may be
motivated to try a similar dish in a local eatery [
59
]. These programs often educate viewers
about various world cuisines, cooking techniques, and ingredients. This can make viewers
more discerning and interested in culinary diversity, encouraging them to experiment with
different venues. Cooking shows influence culinary and nutritional trends, such as the
popularity of vegetarian or vegan dishes or cuisine from specific regions [
60
]. Restaurants
offering these dishes may attract more customers. Some cooking shows include segments
where experts critique dishes and culinary venues. These reviews can influence customers’
Foods 2024,13, 115 6 of 26
decisions on where to dine. Cooking shows often feature chefs and presenters traveling
to different regions and sampling the local cuisine [
4
,
47
]. This can inspire viewers to seek
similar experiences in local restaurants [
5
,
13
]. Some cooking shows collaborate with brands
and food products, promoting them within the show [
61
]. Viewers may be inclined to visit
gastronomic venues that use these products [
62
]. Viewers often admire and value chefs
who appear in cooking programs. Restaurants run by such renowned chefs can become
popular and attract many customers [63,64]. Table 2compiles factors influencing choice.
Table 2. Factors influencing choice of gastronomic local by consumers.
Factors Description
Celebrity chef endorsement Viewers are often drawn to restaurants featured or endorsed
by famous chefs seen on TV.
Food presentation on TV Visually appealing dishes showcased on television can pique
viewers’ interest in trying them in person.
Unique and exotic ingredients TV programs often introduce novel or exotic ingredients,
sparking curiosity among viewers to taste them.
Host recommendations If the TV host recommends a specific restaurant or dish,
viewers tend to trust their judgment and visit.
Location and ambiance The location and ambiance portrayed on TV can attract
viewers who seek a similar dining atmosphere.
Positive reviews and ratings Favorable reviews and ratings mentioned on TV programs
can influence people’s dining choices.
Cultural exploration Culinary shows that explore diverse cuisines and cultures
inspire viewers to try new food experiences.
Social media influence
Social media buzz and trends related to culinary TV programs
can lead people to featured restaurants.
Dietary compatibility Some viewers choose restaurants aligned with their dietary
restrictions or preferences as seen on TV.
Emotional connection TV programs that evoke emotions or nostalgia can motivate
viewers to visit places associated with those feelings.
Accessibility and convenience Proximity and ease of access to the featured restaurant play a
role in the decision-making process.
Budget and affordability The cost of dining at a featured restaurant may impact the
choice, depending on one’s budget.
Word of mouth Recommendations from friends and family who watched the
same TV show can strongly influence choices.
Special offers and promotions Discounts or promotions offered by restaurants featured on
TV can attract viewers.
Source: own study based on [1–3,33–35,40,41,43,46].
Especially celebrity chefs can have a significant influence on people’s choice of gas-
tronomic local [
65
–
67
]. Celebrity chefs frequently appear on television cooking shows,
culinary competitions, and interviews [
15
]. Their media presence ensures that their rec-
ommendations and restaurant choices reach a broad audience, increasing the visibility of
chosen gastronomic locals. Additionally, some celebrity chefs have their own restaurant
chains or culinary brands. When these chefs endorse or operate a restaurant, it often attracts
fans and food enthusiasts who want to experience the chef’s culinary vision firsthand [
16
].
They are known for pushing culinary boundaries and setting food trends. People are
often curious to try the latest food trends or creations made famous by these chefs, leading
them to the associated restaurants [
17
]. They also often have a strong presence on social
media platforms, where they share insights, recipes, and restaurant recommendations. This
digital presence further reinforces their influence over their followers’ dining choices [17].
Foods 2024,13, 115 7 of 26
Viewers may feel a personal connection with celebrity chefs through their storytelling,
culinary journeys, or relatable personalities. This connection can motivate individuals to
support the chef’s recommended restaurants. Celebrity chefs frequently host special events,
pop-ups, or collaborations with restaurants [
68
]. These exclusive dining experiences can
create a sense of excitement and urgency among fans to secure a reservation. They are
typically associated with high-quality culinary experiences. Diners often expect exceptional
food, service, and overall dining experiences when visiting restaurants endorsed by these
chefs [69].
In Poland, the most popular culinary television program is “Kitchen Revolutions”.
This show has been broadcast since March 2010 on the “TVN Warner Bros. Discovery”
network. It is hosted by the restaurateur Magda Gessler and was modeled after “Kitchen
Nightmares” aired in the United Kingdom, hosted by Gordon Ramsay. The aim of the
program is to implement changes necessary to increase the turnover of restaurants applying
to the program (including changes in the menu, interior design, and staff management).
The mission of the program is not only to attempt to save restaurants but also to convey
knowledge about preparing dishes, mainly regional cuisine [
54
,
70
]. The “Kitchen Revo-
lutions” program has been invariably popular among viewers for 13 years. Since 2010,
27 seasons of the show have been produced, for a total of 368 episodes. The eccentric host
Magda Gessler has already helped hundreds of restaurateurs whose restaurants were on
the verge of bankruptcy. Despite the passage of time, the TV show still has high viewership.
On Thursday evenings, there are an average of more than 1 million viewers over the age of
4 and more than half a million viewers in the 20–54 age group [70].
In contemporary scholarly discourse, various factors influencing the demand for
gastronomic services have been identified, leading to attempts at a conceptual modeling
of this domain. Notable examples include “The Five Aspects Meal Model” [
71
] and a
model integrating gastronomic tourism [
72
]. Notwithstanding these developments, there
remains a gap in the literature concerning models that incorporate the influence of culinary
television programs.
The scholarly consensus indicates that the demand for gastronomic services is artic-
ulated through consumers’ expressed intentions to utilize these services, stemming from
identified needs and underpinned by tangible purchasing power. This demand is multi-
faceted, subject to a plethora of influences that can be categorized in diverse manners [
73
].
A commonly employed categorization in the literature distinguishes between economic and
noneconomic factors [74]. Economic factors encompass consumer income, the availability
of gastronomic services, the supply of food products (outside the service context) deemed
substitutable for such services, and the pricing of both gastronomic services and these
substitutable food products [
75
]. In contrast, noneconomic factors include demographic
variables (population size and composition by gender and age), social aspects (education,
employment status, nature of work), sociocultural dimensions (customs, traditions, habits),
sociopsychological elements (needs/motivations, preferences, fashion trends, mimicry, so-
cial pressure, expectations, propensity for experimentation, personality traits), and technical
and technological factors (usage of mobile devices, Internet access) [76].
A key factor in the choice on the gastronomic services market is their quality [
77
,
78
].
For many restaurant owners, the quality of gastronomic services is solely associated with
menu items and service. However, most of them are not aware of the complexity of this
issue. The perceived quality of services in this industry is composed of many elements:
the atmosphere of the place, the development and equipment of the premises, and all
sensations and feelings associated with the guests’ stay (comfort, privacy, music, colors,
scents, staff’s mood) [
79
]. It is important to realize that every customer is different, and they
have varying needs, desires, and expectations. Just as various motives drive a customer to
choose one establishment over another, so too will the reasons why they return to that venue
or, worse, choose not to return. It is important to remember that the quality of the served
dishes affects the health of consumers [
80
]. In research [
81
], it has been determined that the
following factors influence the purchasing decisions of gastronomic service customers: the
Foods 2024,13, 115 8 of 26
quality of the served meals, features of the gastronomic venue, service quality, and price.
The concept of meal quality was mainly associated with its sensory attributes and, to a
lesser extent, with the quality of used food raw materials and the variety of offered dishes.
Quality is also significant in the customer service management model in gastronomic
establishments [
82
]. The author of the model discusses ways to improve the various
elements of service quality to reflect the expectations of service recipients and presents
tools to assess the level of guest service, in terms of technical (organization, information
about the gastronomic service), functional (staff’s attitude towards the restaurant customer),
quality culture/quality without obtrusiveness, elegantly addressing complaints, etc.
Additionally, culinary television programs have emerged as a novel determinant in
consumer behavior within the gastronomic service market [83].
2.2. Conceptual Model
Through an extensive review of the extant literature, key elements of the studied
phenomenon were delineated, along with potential interrelations among them. This process
culminated in the development of a conceptual model designed to investigate the impact
of culinary television programs on consumer behaviors, graphically depicted in Figure 1.
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 28
Figure 1. A conceptual model of the influence of culinary television programs on consumer behav-
ior. Source: own study based on [74–85].
Comprehensive exploration of this phenomenon and the quantification of the impact
exerted by culinary television programs on consumer behavior necessitate a series of
methodological steps, which are detailed in the subsequent section of this article.
Figure 1. A conceptual model of the influence of culinary television programs on consumer behavior.
Source: own study based on [74–85].
Foods 2024,13, 115 9 of 26
This model posits that a consumer’s response may be triggered by a single exposure
to a culinary program. Such a response typically involves visiting a featured establishment
or one operated by a personality from the program. At these venues, consumer choices
are driven by curiosity about flavors previously encountered only through the program.
Concurrently, consumers immerse themselves in the ambiance of the venue, noting aspects
such as décor, cleanliness, and service quality. This amalgamation of experiences evokes
emotions, subsequently reflected in consumer opinions about the dish and establishment.
These emotions are instrumental in shaping postconsumption feelings and overall con-
sumer satisfaction. Depending on the nature and intensity of these emotions, consumers
may choose to continue viewing culinary programs and may be inspired to attempt cooking
these dishes themselves.
Comprehensive exploration of this phenomenon and the quantification of the impact
exerted by culinary television programs on consumer behavior necessitate a series of
methodological steps, which are detailed in the subsequent section of this article.
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Research Methodology
The research procedure undertaken focused on a sequence of 10 stages, as delineated
in Figure 2.
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 28
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Research Methodology
The research procedure undertaken focused on a sequence of 10 stages, as delineated
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The research procedure. Source: own study based on [86].
The development of the conceptual research model, its operationalization, and sub-
sequent measurement were preceded by the articulation of research objectives and the
formulation of hypotheses. Following the operationalization of the conceptual model,
methods for selecting the research sample were established. This was succeeded by the
execution of pilot studies and an analysis of the pilot data, to evaluate the relevance of
incorporating specific variables into the model and to make necessary modifications. The
finalized measurement model, encompassing both research constructs and indicator var-
iables, facilitated the appropriate selection of the research sample, the execution of the
primary study, and ultimately the collation and statistical analysis of the data. The culmi-
nation of this process was the verification of the proposed hypotheses and the formulation
of recommendations for future research.
3.2. Objective of the Research and Hypotheses
The objective of the research was formulated as the identification of the impact of
culinary television programs on consumer behavior in the gastronomic services market.
The following research hypotheses were posited:
• H1: Culinary television programs determine consumer behaviors by influencing a
higher frequency of using gastronomic services.
• H2: Consuming meals at restaurants recommended in culinary television programs
affects consumers’ perception of their quality of life.
• H3: The impact of culinary television programs on the frequency of using gastro-
nomic services is greater the higher are the consumers’ propensity for experimenta-
tion, motivations, curiosity about the world, and use of new technologies.
3.3. Operationalization of the Conceptual Research Model
Operationalization of the conceptual model represents a crucial stage in the research
process, involving the translation of definitions and boundaries of theoretical constructs
into the language of research operations. Operationalization occurs directly after
1. Definition
of research goals
2. Formulating
research hypotheses
3. Creating
an operating model
4. Development
of a measurement
questionnaire
5. Pilot and analysis of
pilot results
6. Sampling
7. Appropriate direct
research
8. Results analysis
9. Verification
of research
hypotheses
10. Conclusions and
recommendations for
further research
Figure 2. The research procedure. Source: own study based on [86].
The development of the conceptual research model, its operationalization, and sub-
sequent measurement were preceded by the articulation of research objectives and the
formulation of hypotheses. Following the operationalization of the conceptual model,
methods for selecting the research sample were established. This was succeeded by the
execution of pilot studies and an analysis of the pilot data, to evaluate the relevance of
incorporating specific variables into the model and to make necessary modifications. The
finalized measurement model, encompassing both research constructs and indicator vari-
ables, facilitated the appropriate selection of the research sample, the execution of the
primary study, and ultimately the collation and statistical analysis of the data. The culmina-
tion of this process was the verification of the proposed hypotheses and the formulation of
recommendations for future research.
Foods 2024,13, 115 10 of 26
3.2. Objective of the Research and Hypotheses
The objective of the research was formulated as the identification of the impact of
culinary television programs on consumer behavior in the gastronomic services market.
The following research hypotheses were posited:
•
H1: Culinary television programs determine consumer behaviors by influencing a
higher frequency of using gastronomic services.
•
H2: Consuming meals at restaurants recommended in culinary television programs
affects consumers’ perception of their quality of life.
•
H3: The impact of culinary television programs on the frequency of using gastronomic
services is greater the higher are the consumers’ propensity for experimentation,
motivations, curiosity about the world, and use of new technologies.
3.3. Operationalization of the Conceptual Research Model
Operationalization of the conceptual model represents a crucial stage in the research
process, involving the translation of definitions and boundaries of theoretical constructs into
the language of research operations. Operationalization occurs directly after conceptualiza-
tion, which further specifies the terminology used in the studies [
87
]. Operationalization
involves creating specific research procedures (operations) that will allow for empirical
observations corresponding to conceptualized concepts in the real world [88].
Operationalizing the researched theoretical construct serves to build a measurement
model, which plays a particularly important role in quantitative research [
89
]. Testing this
model enables the verification of the assumed conceptual foundations, which aims to enrich
existing theories. In quantitative research, the research model is the hypothetico-deductive
model, which defines relationships between variables.
In the process of operationalization, the scope of variables in the model is defined,
and their indicators are determined (translating concepts represented by variables into ob-
servable events that can be measured), designing questions (along with answer categories)
used in measurement tools and determining methods and techniques of measurement and
principles of variable analysis [90,91].
The phenomenon induced by the influence of the television program “Kitchen Rev-
olutions” on consumer behavior in the gastronomic services market, consisting of the
sensory experience of the quality of offerings from those gastronomic establishments that
became “media known” through the program, has been termed “Gesslerism” (after the
surname of the television program’s host). The authors are aware that they are introducing
a new concept, but considering the scale of this phenomenon, they deemed it justified.
The indicator of Gesslerism (G) is defined as the percentage of customers who visited the
restaurant influenced by the “Kitchen Revolutions” program:
G=
nG
N·100 (1)
where n
G
is the number of people who came to the restaurant influenced by the “Kitchen
Revolutions” program, and N is the number of people who visited the restaurant in the
same period.
Gesslerism is characterized by the desire to experience the uniqueness of a restaurant
D
E
, emotions E
M
, and sensations after consumption S
C
(Figure 3). While the G index (1)
is a directly measurable construct, the desire to experience the uniqueness of a restaurant
D
E
, emotions E
M
, and sensations after consumption S
C
are categories that are not directly
observable (so-called latent [
92
]), which can only be measured indirectly through other
variables (Z, V, Y).
Foods 2024,13, 115 11 of 26
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 28
Figure 3. Operational model of the influence of culinary television programs on consumer behavior.
Source: own study.
The desire to experience the uniqueness of a restaurant is composed of variables such
as quality of dishes (Z
1
), quality of service (Z
2
), cleanliness of the establishment (Z
3
), at-
mosphere of the establishment (Z
4
), decor of the establishment (Z
5
), and media uniqueness
of the establishment (Z
6
). The emotion expression index (E
M
) is a set of variables: emotions
after leaving the restaurant (V
1
), expressing opinions (V
2
), and the reach of these opinions
(V
3
). In turn, the sensation after consumption index (S
C
) includes the following variables:
feeling of satisfaction with the taste of the meal (Y
1
), feeling of satisfaction with the ap-
pearance of the meal (Y
2
), and perception of life quality resulting from the quality of con-
sumed meals (Y
3
). A detailed breakdown of these variables is presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Dependent and independent variables of the model of the impact of culinary television
programs on consumer behavior.
Specification Element of the Operationalization Process
Dependent var-
iables
1. Variables for the G indicator:
Did you visit the restaurant influenced by the “Kitchen Revolutions” program? (response: yes/no)
2. Variables for the D
E
indicator:
(Z
1
) How do you rate the quality of the dish ordered (from Magda Gessler’s menu)? (response on a
scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is very low, 5 is very high)
Figure 3. Operational model of the influence of culinary television programs on consumer behavior.
Source: own study.
The desire to experience the uniqueness of a restaurant is composed of variables
such as quality of dishes (Z
1
), quality of service (Z
2
), cleanliness of the establishment
(Z
3
), atmosphere of the establishment (Z
4
), decor of the establishment (Z
5
), and media
uniqueness of the establishment (Z
6
). The emotion expression index (E
M
) is a set of
variables: emotions after leaving the restaurant (V
1
), expressing opinions (V
2
), and the
reach of these opinions (V
3
). In turn, the sensation after consumption index (S
C
) includes
the following variables: feeling of satisfaction with the taste of the meal (Y
1
), feeling of
satisfaction with the appearance of the meal (Y
2
), and perception of life quality resulting
from the quality of consumed meals (Y
3
). A detailed breakdown of these variables is
presented in Table 3.
Foods 2024,13, 115 12 of 26
Table 3. Dependent and independent variables of the model of the impact of culinary television
programs on consumer behavior.
Specification Element of the Operationalization Process
Dependent variables
1. Variables for the G indicator:
Did you visit the restaurant influenced by the “Kitchen Revolutions” program? (response: yes/no)
2. Variables for the DEindicator:
(Z
1
) How do you rate the quality of the dish ordered (from Magda Gessler’s menu)? (response on a scale
of 1 to 5, where 1 is very low, 5 is very high)
(Z2) How do you rate the quality of service? (response on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is very low, 5 is
very high)
(Z
3
) How do you rate the cleanliness of the establishment? (response on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is very
dirty, 5 is very clean)
(Z
4
) How do you rate the atmosphere of the establishment? (response on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is very
unpleasant, 5 is very pleasant)
(Z
5
) How do you rate the decor of the establishment? (response on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is very ugly,
5 is very nice)
(Z
6
) How do you rate the media uniqueness of the establishment? (response on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1
is very low, 5 is very high)
3. Variables for the EMindex:
(V1) What emotions did you feel after leaving the restaurant? (answers on a scale of 1 to 5)
(V1.1) Negative surprise—Positive surprise; (V1.2) Disappointment—Satisfaction; (V1.3)
Sadness—Joy;
(V1.4) Regret spending money—Visit worth its price; (V1.5) Visit was a waste of time—Time
well spent;
(V1.6) Felt underfed—Felt very full; (V1.7) Disappointed by the taste of ordered dishes—Delighted
by the taste of ordered dishes
(V2) Whom did you tell about your emotions related to the restaurant visit? (answer: family, friends,
work colleagues, wrote a review on social media, wrote a review on an Internet forum, wrote a review on
the restaurant’s website, other ways, which?)
(V3) How many people did you tell about your emotions related to the restaurant visit?
4. Variables for the SCindex:
(Y1) How do you rate the taste of the ordered dishes?
(Y
1.1
) Disappointed by the taste of the ordered starter—Delighted by the taste of the ordered starter;
(Y1.2) Disappointed by the taste of the ordered soup—Delighted by the taste of the ordered soup;
(Y1.3) Disappointed by the taste of the ordered main dish—Delighted by the taste of the ordered
main dish; (Y1.4) Disappointed by the taste of the ordered dessert—Delighted by the taste of the
ordered dessert
(Y2) How do you rate the appearance of the ordered dishes?
(Y2.1) Disappointed by the appearance of the ordered starter—Delighted by the appearance of the
ordered starter; (Y2.2) Disappointed by the appearance of the ordered soup—Delighted by the
appearance of the ordered soup; (Y2.3) Disappointed by the appearance of the ordered main
dish—Delighted by the appearance of the ordered main dish; (Y2.4) Disappointed by the appearance of
the ordered dessert—Delighted by the appearance of the ordered dessert
(Y
3
) Do you agree with the following statement (on a scale of Strongly disagree to Strongly agree): Eating
meals at restaurants recommended by Magda Gessler affects the quality of my life.
Independent variables
1. Personality profile
Please rate on a scale of 1 to 5 your approach to life: I like to experiment, I am a fan of technology, I like to
engage, I set goals for myself and achieve them, I am curious about the world.
2. Demographic profile
Gender (female, male), Age, Education (primary, vocational, secondary, higher)
Source: own study.
3.4. Questionnaire Development
The next step in the operationalization process involved defining dependent and inde-
pendent variables, along with selecting scales for their measurement. Dependent variables
were identified for the four measurement indicators distinguished in Table 3, and questions
for the measurement tool were designed. In these questions, various measurement scales
were utilized: nominal, ordinal, and ratio scales.
Foods 2024,13, 115 13 of 26
An exploratory phase of research was conducted using the initial version of the
questionnaire. The pilot study was conducted among 30 respondents using the face-to-face
interview technique. These participants evaluated the instrument in terms of its substantive
adequacy and pertinence, suggesting only marginal modifications to enhance its clarity and
comprehension. After the pilot study, we checked the reliability of the research constructs.
The Cronbach’s alpha for all latent variable groups was above the expected value of 0.7 and
was, respectively, D
E
= 0.823; V
1
= 0.935; Y
1
= 0.873, and Y
2
= 0.892. The reliability indices
obtained allowed the constructed research tool to be used for quantitative research.
3.5. Data Collections
The paper is based on the results of a questionnaire research study conducted with
the computer-assisted web interviewing (CAWI) technique. Participants were assured of
anonymity and confidentiality and were informed about the study’s scope and objectives
in the introductory section of the survey. Participant identities and personal data were
kept confidential throughout the research process. The nonrandom selection method was
used for the selection of respondents for the study. The study population consisted of
individuals who had watched the “Kitchen Revolutions” program on television at least
once. The viewership figures for the last season of 27 aired from September to November
2023 indicate that the general population is 12.53% of Polish TV viewers in the 20–54 age
group and 13.11% of viewers aged 16–49 (Table 4).
Table 4. Viewership indicators of the “Kitchen Revolutions” program.
Indicators
Season 25
(from September 2022 to
December 2022)
Season 27
(from September 2023 to
October 2023)
Viewers aged 4+ AMR * 1,304,732 1,082,940
SHR % ** 12.01% 10.09%
RCH (1 min) *** 2,459,282 2,010,720
Viewers aged 16–49 AMR 620,573 496,222
SHR % 15.89% 13.11%
RCH (1 min) 1,119,977 869,494
Viewers aged 20–54 AMR 243,017 574,130
SHR % 17.88% 12.53%
RCH (1 min) 405,484 1,027,244
Source: own study based on [
93
,
94
]. * AMR (average minute rating) is the average minute viewership—an
indicator describing the average size of the audience watching a specific program or television program over any
specified period of time. ** SHR% (audience share) is the audience share of a given channel in the TV market, i.e.,
the percentage of viewers who watched a given program in relation to all viewers who watched TV in a given
period. *** RCH (reach) is the number of viewers who watched at least 1 minute of a given program or had contact
with a TV station during the entire period of time studied.
The program evoked positive emotions and curiosity about the places the viewers
had just seen on TV. The emotions were strong enough for them to decide to visit the
restaurant they had seen. The selection criterion for the sample was visiting restaurants after
watching the ‘Kitchen Revolutions’ program. The respondents were adults who consented
to participate in the study. Participants in the survey visited a total of 92 restaurants
that participated in the “Kitchen Revolutions” program in the years 2011–2022. The
selected sample consisted of 846 respondents, among whom 742 who correctly completed
questionnaires were analyzed. The survey was conducted between May 2021 and April
2022. The demographic characteristics of the survey participants are presented in Table 5.
Foods 2024,13, 115 14 of 26
Table 5. Sample characteristics.
Characteristics Item %
Gender Female 61.6
Male 38.4
Age (years)
18–24 29.0
25–29 28.6
30–39 19,4
40 and more 23.0
Education
Primary 1.4
Vocational 7.5
Secondary 35.6
Higher 55.5
Source: own study.
4. Results
In the conducted research, results were obtained that allowed for the calculation of the
Gesslerism index (G). By substituting into Formula (1) the number of people who visited
restaurants influenced by the television program “Kitchen Revolutions” and dividing
it by the number of people who visited these restaurants in total, a result of 74% was
achieved. This indicates that nearly 3/4 of the respondents chose a given restaurant under
the influence of this program. According to the authors, this result is impressive.
In line with the established assumptions, the phenomenon of Gesslerism is character-
ized by the desire to experience the uniqueness of a restaurant, emotions associated with
consumption, and sensations after consumption.
Among the elements characterizing the uniqueness of the restaurant (D
E
index),
respondents rated the cleanliness, atmosphere, and decor of the restaurant the highest.
The quality of dishes and that of service were also rated very highly. Nearly half of the
respondents rated the media uniqueness of the restaurant at a medium level (Table 6).
Table 6. Opinions on experience of the uniqueness of the restaurant (%).
Items 1 2 3 4 5
Quality of the food 1.4 5.2 24.0 51.0 18.4
Quality of the service 1.9 6.5 22.7 51.2 17.7
Cleanliness 1.0 1.6 10.4 62.8 24.3
Ambience 0.3 3.3 12.1 60.2 24.2
Design 0.7 5.4 17.4 57.3 19.3
Uniqueness 3.0 11.8 46.1 29.2 9.9
Source: own study. A 5-point scale in which 1 is the lowest rating and 5 is the highest rating.
The emotion expression index (E
M
) is composed of variables related to emotions
experienced after leaving the restaurant. Participants who visited restaurants featured
in “Kitchen Revolutions” predominantly felt a sense of satiation and believed that their
time was very well spent, leading to significant satisfaction. After visiting the restaurant,
respondents felt joy, were positively surprised by the visit, and mostly agreed that the taste
of the ordered dishes was delightful. Furthermore, the participants considered that the
visit to the restaurant after “Kitchen Revolutions” was worth its price (Table 7).
Foods 2024,13, 115 15 of 26
Table 7. Rating of emotions after leaving the restaurant (%).
1234 5
Negative surprise 2.8 6.5 23.6 40.6 26.5 Positive surprise
Disappointment 4.7 6.9 13.6 39.1 35.7 Satisfaction
Sadness 3.4 3.0 19.0 41.4 33.2 Joy
Regret for money spent 6.4 6.6 20.1 34.2 32.7 A visit worthwhile
The visit was a waste of time 4.9 3.7 14.7 33.9 42.8 Time very well spent
Feeling unfulfilled 3.0 4.5 14.7 34.0 43.8 Feeling very full
Disappointed with the taste of the food 5.4 5.3 15.3 47.8 26.2
Delightful taste of the food
Source: own study. A 5-point scale in which 1 is the lowest rating and 5 is the highest rating.
The emotion expression index also includes variables related to expressing opinions
and the reach of these opinions. Almost all respondents (94.5%) expressed their opinion
about their visit to the restaurant after “Kitchen Revolutions”. Nearly 70% of the partici-
pants talked about their restaurant visit with friends, almost 63% with family, and about
40% with work colleagues. A small percentage of the respondents declared posting their
opinions on social media, Internet forums, or the restaurant’s website (Table 8).
Table 8. People who were told by respondents about their emotions related to the restaurant visit.
Items %
Friends 69.9
Family 62.9
Colleagues at work 38.3
Social media opinion 7.1
Internet forum 4.0
Restaurant website review 3.4
Source: own study.
The reach of the opinions expressed by respondents regarding their visit to a restaurant
featured in “Kitchen Revolutions” is quite extensive. On average, respondents told about
such a visit to seven people. Every tenth respondent shared their emotions and impressions
from the restaurant visit with two, three, or four people. Nearly one-sixth of the respondents
mentioned it to five people. Meanwhile, over 30% of the participants talked about such a
visit to at least ten people (Figure 4).
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 28
Table 7. Rating of emotions after leaving the restaurant (%).
1 2 3 4 5
Negative surprise 2.8 6.5 23.6 40.6 26.5 Positive surprise
Disappointment 4.7 6.9 13.6 39.1 35.7 Satisfaction
Sadness 3.4 3.0 19.0 41.4 33.2 Joy
Regret for money spent 6.4 6.6 20.1 34.2 32.7 A visit worthwhile
The visit was a waste of time 4.9 3.7 14.7 33.9 42.8 Time very well spent
Feeling unfulfilled 3.0 4.5 14.7 34.0 43.8 Feeling very full
Disappointed with the taste of the food 5.4 5.3 15.3 47.8 26.2 Delightful taste of the food
Source: own study. A 5-point scale in which 1 is the lowest rating and 5 is the highest rating.
The emotion expression index also includes variables related to expressing opinions
and the reach of these opinions. Almost all respondents (94.5%) expressed their opinion
about their visit to the restaurant after “Kitchen Revolutions”. Nearly 70% of the partici-
pants talked about their restaurant visit with friends, almost 63% with family, and about
40% with work colleagues. A small percentage of the respondents declared posting their
opinions on social media, Internet forums, or the restaurant’s website (Table 8).
Table 8. People who were told by respondents about their emotions related to the restaurant visit.
Items %
Friends 69.9
Family 62.9
Colleagues at work 38.3
Social media opinion 7.1
Internet forum 4.0
Restaurant website review 3.4
Source: own study.
The reach of the opinions expressed by respondents regarding their visit to a restau-
rant featured in “Kitchen Revolutions” is quite extensive. On average, respondents told
about such a visit to seven people. Every tenth respondent shared their emotions and im-
pressions from the restaurant visit with two, three, or four people. Nearly one-sixth of the
respondents mentioned it to five people. Meanwhile, over 30% of the participants talked
about such a visit to at least ten people (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Number of people who were told by respondents about their emotions related to the res-
taurant visit (%). Source: own study.
The sensation after consumption index (SC) comprises variables related to the feeling
of satisfaction with the taste of the ordered meal and the satisfaction with the appearance
of the ordered meal. Both the taste and the appearance of the ordered dishes were rated
very highly by the respondents. The taste was rated highest in the following order: main
Figure 4. Number of people who were told by respondents about their emotions related to the
restaurant visit (%). Source: own study.
The sensation after consumption index (S
C
) comprises variables related to the feeling
of satisfaction with the taste of the ordered meal and the satisfaction with the appearance
of the ordered meal. Both the taste and the appearance of the ordered dishes were rated
very highly by the respondents. The taste was rated highest in the following order: main
Foods 2024,13, 115 16 of 26
course, dessert, soup, and appetizer. Similarly, the appearance of the ordered dishes was
rated as delightful in the order of main course, dessert, appetizer, and soup (Table 9).
Table 9. Rating of taste and look of the ordered dishes (%).
1 2 3 4 5
The appetizer’s taste disappointed me 4.5 5.9 20.6 43.9 25.1 The appetizer’s taste was delightful
The soup’s taste disappointed me 3.7 6.0 18.8 43.5 28.0 The soup’s taste was delightful
The main course’s taste disappointed me 4.0 4.7 14.9 44.0 32.3
The main course’s taste was delightful
The dessert’s taste disappointed me 2.7 4.5 17.6 41.8 33.4 The dessert’s taste was delightful
The appetizer’s look disappointed me 2.3 4.9 17.6 48.3 26.8 The appetizer’s look was delightful
The soup’s look disappointed me 2.8 5.1 21.2 45.6 25.3 The soup’s look was delightful
The main course’s look disappointed me 2.8 2.9 16.1 48.0 30.2
The main course’s look was delightful
The dessert’s look disappointed me 2.5 3.1 18.3 41.9 34.1 The dessert’s look was delightful
Source: own study.
The conceptual model of the impact of culinary television programs on consumer
behavior in the gastronomic services market assumes, among other things, that such
programs influence an increase in the frequency of dining out (hypothesis H1). These could
be restaurants recommended by the program host, but they could also be more frequent
visits to restaurants recommended by friends, family, and acquaintances. Only one in three
respondents declared that the program “Kitchen Revolutions” influenced an increase in the
frequency of dining out (Figure 5). However, respondents more frequently visit restaurants
recommended by friends and acquaintances (63% of indications) than those recommended
by Magda Gessler (46% of indications). Furthermore, every third respondent who dines
out more frequently does not follow any recommendations at all.
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 28
course, dessert, soup, and appetizer. Similarly, the appearance of the ordered dishes was
rated as delightful in the order of main course, dessert, appetizer, and soup (Table 9).
Table 9. Rating of taste and look of the ordered dishes (%).
1 2 3 4 5
The appetizer’s taste disappointed me 4.5 5.9 20.6 43.9 25.1 The appetizer’s taste was delightful
The soup’s taste disappointed me 3.7 6.0 18.8 43.5 28.0 The soup’s taste was delightful
The main course’s taste disappointed me 4.0 4.7 14.9 44.0 32.3 The main course’s taste was delightful
The dessert’s taste disappointed me 2.7 4.5 17.6 41.8 33.4 The dessert’s taste was delightful
The appetizer’s look disappointed me 2.3 4.9 17.6 48.3 26.8 The appetizer’s look was delightful
The soup’s look disappointed me 2.8 5.1 21.2 45.6 25.3 The soup’s look was delightful
The main course’s look disappointed me 2.8 2.9 16.1 48.0 30.2 The main course’s look was delightful
The dessert’s look disappointed me 2.5 3.1 18.3 41.9 34.1 The dessert’s look was delightful
Source: own study.
The conceptual model of the impact of culinary television programs on consumer
behavior in the gastronomic services market assumes, among other things, that such pro-
grams influence an increase in the frequency of dining out (hypothesis H1). These could
be restaurants recommended by the program host, but they could also be more frequent
visits to restaurants recommended by friends, family, and acquaintances. Only one in
three respondents declared that the program “Kitchen Revolutions” influenced an in-
crease in the frequency of dining out (Figure 5). However, respondents more frequently
visit restaurants recommended by friends and acquaintances (63% of indications) than
those recommended by Magda Gessler (46% of indications). Furthermore, every third re-
spondent who dines out more frequently does not follow any recommendations at all.
Figure 5. Declared influence of the “Kitchen Revolutions” program on increasing the frequency of
dining out at restaurants (%). Source: own study.
Considering that in the set of determinants influencing consumer choices in the gas-
tronomic services market there are many factors (including location, prestige, type of cui-
sine, prices, reviews, information) [95–99], and their significance ranges from a few to sev-
eral tens of percent, the importance of a factor such as Gesslerism can be considered sig-
nificant.
The authors of the research model assumed that dining at a restaurant featured in a
culinary TV show would be a significant emotional experience. Experiencing the highest
level of gastronomy, guaranteed by Magda Gessler, could influence the feeling of a
“higher quality of life” (hypothesis H2). However, the results obtained did not confirm
this hypothesis. While one in five respondents agreed with the statement “Eating at res-
taurants recommended by Magda Gessler influences the quality of my life”, the majority
disagreed or had no opinion on this maer at all (Figure 6). The results indicated that for
Polish consumers, the feeling of satiation, the cleanliness of the establishment, and its
34.5 65.5
Yes No
Figure 5. Declared influence of the “Kitchen Revolutions” program on increasing the frequency of
dining out at restaurants (%). Source: own study.
Considering that in the set of determinants influencing consumer choices in the gastro-
nomic services market there are many factors (including location, prestige, type of cuisine,
prices, reviews, information) [
95
–
99
], and their significance ranges from a few to several
tens of percent, the importance of a factor such as Gesslerism can be considered significant.
The authors of the research model assumed that dining at a restaurant featured
in a culinary TV show would be a significant emotional experience. Experiencing the
highest level of gastronomy, guaranteed by Magda Gessler, could influence the feeling of a
“higher quality of life” (hypothesis H2). However, the results obtained did not confirm this
hypothesis. While one in five respondents agreed with the statement “Eating at restaurants
recommended by Magda Gessler influences the quality of my life”, the majority disagreed
or had no opinion on this matter at all (Figure 6). The results indicated that for Polish
Foods 2024,13, 115 17 of 26
consumers, the feeling of satiation, the cleanliness of the establishment, and its decor are
more important than the quality of the meal and the emotions resulting from the media
uniqueness of the establishment.
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 28
decor are more important than the quality of the meal and the emotions resulting from
the media uniqueness of the establishment.
Figure 6. Opinions on the statement: eating at restaurants recommended by Magda Gessler influ-
ences the quality of my life (%). Source: own study.
The independent variables in the model of the impact of culinary television programs
on consumer behavior in the gastronomic services market, apart from demographic char-
acteristics, include personality traits. The set of personality traits examined encompassed
propensity for experimentation, interest in technology, level of motivation (engagement
and goal achievement), and curiosity about the world. The study participants are individ-
uals curious about the world, many of them set goals and achieve them, a large portion
like to experiment, nearly as many like to engage, and they belong to the group of new
technology enthusiasts (Table 10).
Table 10. Personality traits of respondents (columns 1–5 in %).
Items 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Median Items
I do not like to experiment 2.8 4.3 19.3 31.7 41.9 4.05 4.0 I like to experiment
I am not a fan of technology 4.3 6.2 23.5 35.2 30.7 3.81 4.0 I am a fan of technology
I do not like to engage 4.2 6.5 21.0 33.3 35.0 3.88 4.0 I like to engage
I do not set goals for myself 2.6 3.7 18.4 36.2 39.2 4.06 4.0 I set goals for myself and achieve
them
I am not curious about the world 2.0 1.4 9.1 25.6 61.9 4.44 5.0 I am curious about the world
Source: own study.
The authors hypothesized that the impact of culinary television programs on the fre-
quency of using gastronomic services is greater the higher the consumers’ propensity for
experimentation is, the stronger motivations are, and the greater the curiosity about the
world is, as well as greater use of technology is (H3). The obtained correlation statistics in
this regard only indicate a statistically significant relationship between the variable “fre-
quency of using gastronomic services” and the variable “propensity for experimentation”
(Table 11). The greater is the propensity for experimentation among the study participants,
the more willingly and frequently they dine out. The other personality traits do not sig-
nificantly influence the frequency of dining out among the respondents.
Table 11. Statistics of the relationship between the frequency of using gastronomic services and the
personality traits of the respondents.
Traits
Pearson’s
Chi-Squared
Test
df Asymptotic Significance
(Two-Sided)
Propensity for experimentation 19.625 4 <0.001
Interest in technology 13.161 4 0.011
Engagement 5.534 4 0.237
Figure 6. Opinions on the statement: eating at restaurants recommended by Magda Gessler influences
the quality of my life (%). Source: own study.
The independent variables in the model of the impact of culinary television programs
on consumer behavior in the gastronomic services market, apart from demographic char-
acteristics, include personality traits. The set of personality traits examined encompassed
propensity for experimentation, interest in technology, level of motivation (engagement and
goal achievement), and curiosity about the world. The study participants are individuals
curious about the world, many of them set goals and achieve them, a large portion like to
experiment, nearly as many like to engage, and they belong to the group of new technology
enthusiasts (Table 10).
Table 10. Personality traits of respondents (columns 1–5 in %).
Items 1 2 3 4 5 Mean
Median
Items
I do not like to experiment 2.8 4.3 19.3 31.7 41.9 4.05 4.0 I like to experiment
I am not a fan of technology 4.3 6.2 23.5 35.2 30.7 3.81 4.0 I am a fan of technology
I do not like to engage 4.2 6.5 21.0 33.3 35.0 3.88 4.0 I like to engage
I do not set goals for myself 2.6 3.7 18.4 36.2 39.2 4.06 4.0
I set goals for myself and achieve them
I am not curious about the world 2.0 1.4 9.1 25.6 61.9 4.44 5.0 I am curious about the world
Source: own study.
The authors hypothesized that the impact of culinary television programs on the
frequency of using gastronomic services is greater the higher the consumers’ propensity for
experimentation is, the stronger motivations are, and the greater the curiosity about the
world is, as well as greater use of technology is (H3). The obtained correlation statistics
in this regard only indicate a statistically significant relationship between the variable
“frequency of using gastronomic services” and the variable “propensity for experimen-
tation” (Table 11). The greater is the propensity for experimentation among the study
participants, the more willingly and frequently they dine out. The other personality traits
do not significantly influence the frequency of dining out among the respondents.
Foods 2024,13, 115 18 of 26
Table 11. Statistics of the relationship between the frequency of using gastronomic services and the
personality traits of the respondents.
Traits Pearson’s
Chi-Squared Test df Asymptotic Significance
(Two-Sided)
Propensity for
experimentation 19.625 4 <0.001
Interest in technology 13.161 4 0.011
Engagement 5.534 4 0.237
Achieving goals 9.749 4 0.045
Curiosity about the world 8.410 4 0.078
Source: own study.
The analyzed variables in the study are interconnected in several ways, revealing the
complex dynamics of consumer behavior in the gastronomy services market and the influ-
ence of culinary TV programs. The emotional responses, such as delight or disappointment
in the taste and appearance of dishes, influence the overall dining experience, contributing
to shaping the frequency of dining out. The sensation after consumption index, which
incorporates satisfaction with taste and appearance, reflects the overall positive or negative
sentiments after dining and is influenced by dish ratings for taste and appearance. The
study explores the impact of culinary TV programs, specifically “Kitchen Revolutions”,
on the frequency of dining out, indicating a moderate influence on actual dining habits.
Personal recommendations from friends and family have a stronger influence on dining
frequency compared with recommendations from culinary TV programs, with a significant
portion of individuals relying on personal networks for making dining choices.
The study also investigates whether dining at restaurants recommended by culinary
TV programs affects the perceived quality of life, showing limited agreement among re-
spondents and suggesting that factors like satiety, cleanliness, and ambiance are more
influential. The study also examines personality traits, including the propensity for experi-
mentation and interest in technology, and their correlation with dining choices. Individuals
with a higher propensity for experimentation are more likely to dine out frequently, in-
dicating a connection between personality traits and dining behavior. These connections
emphasize the multifaceted nature of the variables, where emotional experiences, exter-
nal influences like TV programs and personal recommendations, and individual traits
collectively contribute to shaping consumer decisions in the gastronomy services market.
5. Discussion
The study set out to investigate the impact of culinary TV programs, such as “Kitchen
Revolutions”, on the dining-out frequency of consumers. According to the uses and
gratifications theory [
100
,
101
], viewers engage with media for various reasons, including
information, entertainment, personal identity, and integration. In the context of culinary TV
programs, viewers might seek both entertainment and information about dining options.
However, the study’s data suggest that only 32.3% of the respondents reported an increase
in their dining-out frequency after watching the program.
Ngqangashe et al. [
102
] used the gratification theory for the analysis of food media
consumption among adolescents. Comparing with the research presented in this paper,
adolescents consume food media both incidentally and selectively. TV cooking shows are
more often incidentally consumed, while online food media is more selectively sought.
Different motives drive the consumption of food media. TV cooking shows are primarily
consumed for companionship and entertainment, while online food media serves a more
diverse range of motives, with a focus on information, inspiration, and social interaction.
This study also sheds light on different aspects of food media consumption and provides
insights into the motivations and effects of engaging with food-related content. Some of
those effects, such as looking for entertainment, are similar.
Foods 2024,13, 115 19 of 26
The data illustrate the variance in responses. It is noteworthy that the delightful
taste of the appetizer received a high rating (43.9%), indicating that viewers may derive
enjoyment from watching the show and experiencing the featured cuisine. However,
the translation of this enjoyment into a significant change in dining-out behavior was
limited. This result aligns with the uses and gratifications theory, as the program appears
to gratify the viewers’ need for entertainment and culinary information but does not lead
to a substantial behavioral change. The importance of delightful taste in a restaurant was
also found out as an important factor by Barnes et al. [
103
], which was also reported by
Kim et al. [104].
The research presents the ratings of emotions after leaving the restaurant. These
emotions are related to the taste and look of different dishes. The results show that there
is a significant variation in the emotional responses of diners, both positive and negative.
This indicates that the quality of the dining experience can vary widely and may depend
on individual preferences. For instance, when it comes to the taste of the dishes, some
diners reported disappointment, while others found the tastes delightful. This suggests
that different consumers have different expectations and preferences when dining out.
The results underline the subjectivity of taste and the challenge for restaurants in meeting
diverse customer expectations. Many other researchers also pointed out the role of emotion
in restaurant service [105–107] and differentiation in their emotional response [108,109].
Similarly, the emotions related to the look of dishes vary, indicating that the visual
presentation of food is also an important aspect of the dining experience. While some cus-
tomers may be disappointed with the look of their dishes, others may find them delightful.
Findings highlight the complex and nuanced nature of customer emotions and the need for
restaurants to cater to a wide range of tastes and preferences.
The research hypothesizes that such programs would increase the frequency of dining
out. However, the results show that only a third of the respondents claimed that the
program influenced them to dine out more frequently. Interestingly, a higher percentage of
the respondents reported being influenced by recommendations from friends and family
compared with those influenced by Magda Gessler’s recommendations. A significant
portion of those who dine out more frequently do not base their choices on any recommen-
dations at all. These findings suggest that while culinary TV shows may have an impact,
word-of-mouth recommendations from personal networks play a more significant role in
shaping consumer behavior in the restaurant industry. The problem was also analyzed
by Curnutt [
110
] and Hollow and Jones [
111
]. In those papers, the rising role of cooking
programs as a factor shaping consumers behavior could be observed.
Additionally, the research investigated whether dining at restaurants featured on TV
shows, especially those recommended by Magda Gessler, had a positive impact on the
quality of life. The results indicate that this was not the case for most respondents. Only
a minority agreed that dining at such restaurants improved their quality of life. For the
majority of consumers, factors like satiety, cleanliness, and restaurant ambiance seemed to
be more important than media exposure and celebrity endorsements.
The study also explored the relationship between personality traits and dining habits.
The existence of this relationship has been highlighted by researchers, such as Golestanbagh
et al. [
112
] and Goldberg [
113
]. Personality traits taken into account encompass a disposition
for experimentation, enthusiasm for technology, motivation levels, and curiosity. The results
showed a significant positive correlation between the propensity for experimentation and
the frequency of dining out. This suggests that individuals with a higher inclination to
try new things are more likely to dine out frequently. Additionally, a positive correlation
between eating out and interest in technology was observed. One possible explanation for
the observed positive correlation between eating out and an interest in technology could
be the increasing integration of technology in the restaurant industry. Technology-driven
advancements, such as online reservations, mobile ordering, digital menus, or interactive
dining experiences, may attract individuals with a keen interest in technology. People
Foods 2024,13, 115 20 of 26
who enjoy exploring and adopting new technological tools and innovations may find the
tech-enhanced aspects of dining out appealing, contributing to the observed correlation.
In contrast, other personality traits such as motivation and curiosity did not have a
significant influence on dining frequency.
The theory of parasocial interaction [
114
,
115
] posits that viewers develop emotional
connections with media personalities or characters. In the case of culinary TV programs,
such as “Kitchen Revolutions”, viewers may form parasocial relationships with the hosts,
like Magda Gessler, which can affect their perceived quality of life. However, the study
results do not strongly support this hypothesis. Only 20% of the respondents agreed with
the statement that eating at restaurants recommended by Magda Gessler influenced the
quality of their lives.
The study revealed that emotional responses to culinary TV programs can be sub-
stantial. For instance, in our survey, approximately 43.9% of the respondents reported
delight in the taste of the appetizer after watching the program, while 33.4% found the
dessert’s taste delightful. On the contrary, 20.6% of the respondents were disappointed
with the appetizer’s taste, and 28.0% were disappointed with the soup’s taste. The research
underscores that while emotional engagement with the TV program may occur, it does
not necessarily translate into a significant influence on the overall quality of life. This is
consistent with the parasocial interaction theory, as the emotional connection established
with Magda Gessler or the show does not profoundly affect the respondents’ daily lives.
The data revealed a significant correlation between the respondents’ inclination to
experiment and their dining choices. This finding can be linked to the big five personality
traits theory, which includes the trait of openness to experience. Individuals scoring high
on openness to experience are more likely to be open to trying new things, which, in this
context, is reflected in their dining choices.
Our research demonstrates the significant correlation between the inclination to exper-
iment and dining frequency. This supports the notion that personality traits can influence
the impact of culinary TV programs, with individuals open to experimentation being more
influenced by the program.
The study’s findings provide valuable insights within the context of media theories
and personality traits. They suggest that the influence of culinary TV programs on dining
behavior and perceived quality of life is nuanced and multifaceted. While viewers may
form emotional connections with the program or its hosts, the translation of these emotions
into significant behavioral changes is not guaranteed. Additionally, personality traits, such
as the inclination to experiment, play a role in how viewers respond to these programs.
These results can be seen as a complex interplay between media influence, emotions,
and individual characteristics, aligning with various communication and psychological
theories [116–118].
There could also be various contextual factors influencing changes in consumer be-
havior beyond the scope of the culinary TV programs discussed in the paper. Economic
conditions, such as recessions or economic growth, can significantly impact consumers’
disposable income and, consequently, their dining-out habits [
104
]. During economic
downturns, consumers might opt for more cost-effective dining options or reduce their
overall frequency of dining out [104].
Shifts in cultural preferences and social trends can influence consumers’ choices. For
example, increasing health consciousness might lead to a rise in demand for healthier
dining options, affecting where and how often individuals choose to eat out [
105
]. Ongoing
technological advancements in the restaurant industry, such as the widespread adoption
of online ordering platforms, contactless payments, or innovative dining experiences, can
influence consumer preferences and dining habits [106].
Major global events, such as pandemics or geopolitical crises, can have a profound
impact on consumer behavior. The COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, led to widespread
changes in dining habits, with an increased reliance on takeout and food delivery ser-
vices [
119
]. Moreover, there are difference types of consumers in the market. Some make
Foods 2024,13, 115 21 of 26
decisions influenced by emotions, others by budgets, and still others are conscious of
sustainable consumption [
120
]. There are also stereotypical consumers on the market who
have not changed their preferences for years. Gastronomy developed under the influence
of television programs is a new form of influencing the tastes and preferences of consumers.
Effective marketing and advertising campaigns can influence consumer perceptions and
choices [
107
]. Promotions, loyalty programs, and advertising strategies by restaurants may
impact consumer decisions on where and how often to dine out [
108
]. Changes in food
safety regulations, health standards, or restaurant licensing requirements can affect the
choices consumers make. Compliance with new regulations may influence the perceived
trustworthiness and desirability of certain dining establishments [109].
6. Conclusions
This study examined the influence of culinary TV programs, with a specific focus
on “Kitchen Revolutions”, on consumer behavior in the gastronomy services market. It
delved into the realm of emotions, personality traits, and dining choices to unravel the
complexities of this relationship.
The study also examined personality traits and found that the inclination to experi-
ment, a trait indicating a willingness to try new experiences, had a significant influence on
dining choices. Respondents with a higher inclination to experiment were more likely to
dine out frequently.
The hypothesis H1 that culinary TV programs would increase the frequency of dining
out, in restaurants recommended by either the TV hosts or by friends and family, was
partially supported.
The hypothesis H2 positing that dining at establishments featured in these TV shows,
often associated with celebrity chefs like Magda Gessler, would influence consumers’ per-
ceptions of life quality was not strongly supported. Approximately 20% of the participants
agreed that eating at these restaurants influenced the quality of their lives.
The hypothesis H3 suggesting that the influence of culinary TV programs would be
greater among consumers with higher levels of certain personality traits was only partially
supported. The inclination to experiment was found to be significantly correlated with
dining choices, but other personality traits did not have a substantial impact.
Results offer several important implications for the restaurant industry. First, under-
standing the emotional impact of dining experiences is crucial. Restaurants should focus
on consistently delivering high-quality food and an appealing presentation, as these factors
directly influence customer satisfaction.
Regarding the influence of culinary TV shows, while they can attract customers,
the power of personal recommendations cannot be underestimated. Restaurants should
encourage positive word-of-mouth marketing and reviews from satisfied customers.
The study’s findings on personality traits suggest that targeting experimental con-
sumers could be a potential marketing strategy for restaurants. Restaurants may consider
offering unique and innovative dining experiences to attract this segment of customers.
The main scientific value of this paper lies in its contribution to understanding the
complex interplay of factors that influence consumer behavior in the gastronomy services
market, particularly the influence of culinary TV programs and the role of emotional
responses and personality traits. It could be stated that the scientific value of this paper is
its holistic exploration of factors influencing consumer behavior in the gastronomy services
market, its empirical nature, and the insights it offers to enhance our understanding of how
customers make dining choices. These findings can inform not only academic discussions
but also practical strategies for restaurants and marketers in the culinary industry.
7. Limitations and Future Research
A significant limitation of the field research was the timing of its execution, which
coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic period. The authors initially planned to conduct
the research using face-to-face interview techniques. However, the restrictions on the
Foods 2024,13, 115 22 of 26
operation of restaurants due to the lockdown necessitated the implementation of the
studies using the CAWI technique. The data collected for the study rely on self-reported
responses from participants. Self-reporting can introduce response bias, as participants
may not always provide completely accurate or objective information about their dining
experiences. The paper primarily centers around the influence of the “Kitchen Revolutions”
program. While this program is popular, studying the effects of a broader range of culinary
TV shows would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the media’s impact.
Several other limitations should be acknowledged based on our restaurant-focused
research. It should be mentioned that a noteworthy observation is the over-representation
of female respondents in our study. This gender imbalance raises questions about the
generalizability of our findings and whether it may have influenced the outcomes. For
example, if there are gender-specific trends in dining habits or preferences, the prevalence
of female respondents could potentially skew the results. Additionally, factors like a higher
proportion of females watching TV shows might introduce a bias, potentially impacting
the patterns depicted in Figure 5.
Furthermore, the decision-making process regarding dining out was not extensively
explored in our research. Understanding who makes the decisions to dine out and the
factors influencing those decisions could provide valuable insights. Exploring this aspect
might uncover nuances in the relationship between various variables and restaurant-
related behaviors.
Demographic distributions, beyond gender, were not deeply delved into, and these
could introduce confounding variables. Differences in age, income, or cultural background
might play a role in shaping attitudes and behaviors related to restaurant choices.
Future research could employ longitudinal designs to track changes in consumer
behavior over an extended period. This would help in understanding the long-term impact
of culinary TV programs on dining choices and whether any influence diminishes or
intensifies over time. Expanding the scope to include a broader range of culinary TV
programs would be valuable. A comparative analysis could explore how different program
styles, hosts, and contents affect consumer behavior. Examining international shows and
their impact on local dining choices could be of particular interest.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.J., B.G., R.W. (Radosław Wolniak) and R.W. (Robert
Wolny); methodology, M.J. and R.W. (Robert Wolny); software, B.G., M.J., R.W. (Radosław Wolniak)
and R.W. (Robert Wolny); validation, M.J. and R.W. (Robert Wolny); formal analysis, M.J. and R.W.
(Robert Wolny); investigation, R.W. (Robert Wolny), M.J. and B.G.; resources, M.J., R.W. (Radosław
Wolniak), B.G. and R.W. (Robert Wolny); data curation, M.J. and R.W. (Robert Wolny); writing—
original draft preparation, B.G., M.J., R.W. (Radosław Wolniak) and R.W. (Robert Wolny); writing—
review and editing, B.G., R.W. (Radosław Wolniak), R.W. (Robert Wolny) and M.J.; visualization, M.J.
and R.W. (Robert Wolny); supervision, B.G., M.J., R.W. (Radosław Wolniak) and R.W. (Robert Wolny).
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Silesian University of Technology: 13/990/KPW21/0166.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The article uses the results of surveys conducted using the
computer-assisted Internet interview (CAWI) technique. The study used the online research platform
Webankieta.pl (online research tool https://www.webankieta.pl/). Participants were guaranteed
anonymity and confidentiality, and the scope and goals of the study were informed in the introductory
part of the survey. Participants' identities and personal information were kept confidential throughout
the study. The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of research ethics, the Code of
Ethics of the University of Economics in Katowice (Order of the Rector No. 40/22) and the University
Ethical Policy of the Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice (Order of the Rector of the Silesian
University of Technology No. 107/2021). Participation in the study was voluntary. By providing their
answers, the respondents agreed to participate in the study. Attached is the entire questionnaire used
in the study. The study was conducted in Polish.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request.
Foods 2024,13, 115 23 of 26
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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