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The Impact of a Developed Instructional Program Based on Sociolinguistic Principles on
Improving the Speaking Skills of Tenth Grade EFL Female Students in Jordan
Alaa Mohammed Saleh * , Hamzah Ali Al-Omari
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The School of Educational Sciences, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
Received: 15/9/2022
Revised: 3/11/2022
Accepted: 16/11/2022
Published: 30/10/2023
* Corresponding author:
alaaalsheikh2019@yahoo.com
Citation: Saleh , A. M. ., & Al-
Omari, H. A. . (2023). The Impact of
a Developed Instructional Program
Based on Sociolinguistic Principles
on Improving the Speaking Skills of
Tenth Grade EFL Female Students in
Jordan. Dirasat: Human and Social
Sciences, 50(5), 581–595.
https://doi.org/10.35516/hum.v50i5.2
319
Abstract
Objectives: This study aimed at investigating the impact of a developed instructional
program based on sociolinguistic principles on improving the speaking skills of tenth
grade EFL female students in Jordan.
Methods: The study used the quasi-experimental approach. The sample of the study
consisted of (50) tenth-grade students in two sections; one of these was randomly selected
to be the control group (25 students) and the other was the experimental group (25
students). A speaking test was developed by the researchers to test students orally based
on a rubric that covered eight sub-skills of speaking. Data were analyzed using (SPSS)
package to find means and standard deviations, ANCOVA and MANCOVA.
Results: The results showed that there are differences between the mean score of the
experimental group and that of the control group on the post-test of speaking skills, which
was statistically significant. This difference was in favour of the students of the
experimental group since the adjusted mean score was (30.261), which was significantly
higher than the adjusted mean score of the students of the control group (20.339).
Conclusions: The developed instructional program based on sociolinguistic principles
was significantly better than the conventional method in developing students’ speaking
skills. The study recommends that sociolinguistic principles be incorporated into
developing EFL curricula to enhance students’ speaking skills.
Keywords: Instructional program, sociolinguistic principles, speaking skills, EFL, tenth
grade, Jordan.
.
50
25
25
SPSS
(MANCOVA ANCOVA).
30.261
(20.339).
.
The Impact of a Developed Instructional … Alaa Mohammed Saleh, Hamzah Ali Al-Omari
582
1.1 Introduction
Nowadays, English language has become an effective means of communication because of its great status as a lingua
franca. English language is the most spoken second/foreign language in the world; thus, it plays a crucial function in
managing academic, professional and social matters. Speaking skills are one of the most important skills which enable
interlocutors to communicate, express their thoughts and feelings and achieve their purposeful desires.
Richards (2008) stated that many second or foreign-language learners strive to have a gratifying level of speaking skills.
Additionally, speaking seems intuitively the most important language competence (Al-Sobhi & Preece, 2018). Therefore,
spoken language proficiency is often used as a crucial measure to determine one’s success in language learning. However,
language learners lack the opportunities to communicate normally with native speakers and learn with a high degree of
motivation and a low degree of tension. Short, Becker, Cloud & Hellman (2018) claimed that the learner’s mastery of
speaking skills is affected by getting sufficient opportunities for language use and interaction, as well as effective teaching
methods. This imposes the need for implementing effective learning principles which are derived from well-researched
theories and practices to address the lack of speaking proficiency.
Moreover, many scholars of sociolinguistics recommended incorporating sociolinguistic principles in EFL classrooms
(Goffman; 1967; Labov, 1972; Lakoff, 1977; Norton, 1997; Schumann, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978). They highlighted the
principles that are focused on various variables and aspects of teaching and learning in EFL instruction such as learners’
sociolinguistic variables [age, gender, social class]; the cultural aspects of a specific language; learners’ psychological
factors; learners’ attitudes towards learning languages; linguistic variation which refers to regional, social, or contextual
differences of a particular language; the devices and strategies which constitute politeness in a particular language, i.e.,
intonation, irony, address forms and discourse strategies; learners’ identities; and learners’ zone of proximal development.
The scholars of sociolinguistics also asserted that the implementation of sociolinguistic principles in teaching languages
can enhance learners’ sociolinguistic competence and communicative competence which are necessary to develop English
language skills (Goffman; 1967; Labov, 1972; Lakoff, 1977; Norton, 1997; Schumann, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978).
Sociolinguistic competence refers to a learner’s ability to internalize the social meaning of different utterances; learners
must be able to realize information about the appropriateness of an utterance and the intended meaning of the speaker, even
if the intended meaning is not identical to the literal one. In addition, communicative competence includes an ability called
strategic competence, which refers to the ways that learners compensate when there are breakdowns in communication
(Hornberger & McKay, 2009).
Moreover, teachers need to provide students with real communication situations, like negotiating before making a
decision and exchanging opinions before different tasks. In this regard, scholars who work in the field of sociolinguistics
conducted studies on how language is used in different social contexts and on the appropriateness of language used in a
particular context, taking into account etiquette, interpersonal relations and regional dialects (Bayyurt, 2013). Therefore,
it is essential to consider that communication has a social dimension given by the use of language in social interactions.
Since society is governed by rules and conventions, certain rules define how we use language in different contexts with
different people. In other words, what is appropriate to say to whom, when and where (Negoescu, Boştină-Bratu, & Morar,
2019).
In Jordan, English speaking skills play a significant role in EFL instruction because English language has been
increasingly a prerequisite requirement for the job market and enrolling in universities (Hamdan & Hatab, 2009). Thus, the
first core subject outcome for the English language curriculum for elementary stages is "to communicate information, ideas,
opinions and feelings effectively for a variety of purposes in written, spoken and visual forms to interact and collaborate
with others to accomplish goals". (Ministry of Education, 2013:9). However, EFL students’ speaking abilities are
insufficient to communicate. It was concluded that they had little motivation, little proficiency, negative attitudes towards
speaking English, less confidence and an inability to respond to spontaneous questions. Consequently, EFL students avoid
taking part in oral activities because of English speaking anxiety; they feel that their peers would criticize their performance
(Batiha, Noor & Mustaffa, 2016). Furthermore, EFL learners concentrate on memorizing grammar, sentence structure and
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vocabulary, but they find difficulty using English language in everyday interactions (Shdefat, 2022).
Consequently, the researchers of the present study explored the effectiveness of a program based on sociolinguistic
principles on improving tenth graders’ speaking skills in Jordan.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
Many studies revealed that most language programs need to develop learners’ automaticity of various social speech
conversations. Having reviewed different articles about sociolinguistic principles (e.g., Geeslin, 2014; Norton, 1997; Schumann,
1986; Vygotsky, 1978), the researchers realized the significance of implementing such principles in teaching speaking to tenth
grade EFL students in Jordan. In particular, these principles cater for learners’ social and cultural needs, encouraging them to use
English functionally and communicatively.
Being instructors of EFL in Jordan for more than 10 years, the researchers have realized that sociolinguistic principles are not
sufficiently addressed in the EFL curriculum in Jordan. On the other hand, elementary-stage students are reluctant to communicate
orally in speaking classes. Some of them cannot also use socially or culturally appropriate vocabularies and structures, which are
necessary for communicating in authentic situations. Therefore, the researchers assumed that a developed instructional program
based on sociolinguistic principles might enhance tenth graders’ speaking skills.
1.3. Purpose and Question of the Study
This study aims at investigating the impact of a proposed program based on sociolinguistic principles on developing the
speaking skills of tenth-grade EFL female students in Jordan. Therefore, this study is intended to answer the following question:
To what extent does a program based on sociolinguistic principles compared to the conventional teaching method affect
tenth-grade female students in Jordan regarding their speaking skills?
1.4. Significance of the Study
Improving English language speaking skills can create many opportunities for EFL learners to own effective conversations,
career boosts and better education (Mirzaee & Maftoon, 2016 & Tahmasebi, 2011). It is hoped that the findings of the present
study will give curricula developers more insights into incorporating the principles, techniques, assessment tools and activities
that are based on sociolinguistic principles to enhance EFL learning. Furthermore, the present study, as far as the researchers
know, is the first study which aims at investigating the impact of a program based on sociolinguistic principles on tenth graders’
speaking skills in Jordan. In addition, applying instructional programs based on sociolinguistic principles might guide teachers to
reflect on their pedagogies as teachers of speaking. Other researchers may also benefit from the findings of this study to conduct
more studies on the effectiveness of sociocultural factors in teaching different language skills at different grade levels.
1.5. Limitations of the study
The study was conducted on two tenth–grade sections (25 students in each) at Maymoona Om Al- Mu’mineen School
for Girls in Marka Directorate of Education during the second semester of the academic year 2021-2022. This school was
selected purposefully because it contains several sections with a sufficient number of students to apply the treatment. The
school staff also agreed to cooperate with the researchers to apply for the instructional program.
2. Related Studies
Abdullateef & Muhammedzein (2021) conducted a study aimed at examining the effect of Dynamic Assessment,
which is based on Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and advocates mediation through a good social setting and
practice, on enhancing EFL students` language learning. The sample of the study consisted of 25 EFLs from Prince Satam
bin Abdulaziz University representing the experimental group and 43 teachers from the same university. The researchers
used two tests as pre-test and post-test: a writing task and a reading task. Furthermore, an online questionnaire was
distributed to the 43 university teachers. Findings showed that using proper mediation, in identifying learning gaps and
treatment via intervention and interaction as classroom assessment, enhanced the students` language learning. Furthermore,
the results of the questionnaire revealed that most teachers prefer giving clues as guidance to control the thoughts of the
learners, especially in the EFL context.
Uztosun, (2021) conducted a study to explore the extent to which variables related to self-regulated speaking motivation
The Impact of a Developed Instructional … Alaa Mohammed Saleh, Hamzah Ali Al-Omari
584
contribute to the prediction of foreign language speaking competence. The sample of the study was 84 Turkish university
students using self-regulated motivation. The researcher used Multiple regression analyses and the Pearson correlation
coefficient. The findings revealed that self-regulated speaking motivation may be one of the predictors of improved
speaking competence; individuals, with high self-regulated motivation, can develop positive task value perceptions which
is an essential feature for developing EFL speaking skills. Self-regulated students also created opportunities to practice
English outside the class and motivate themselves to engage in classroom activities.
Al-Khazaali & Mohammed (2021) attempted at identifying the strategies that increase interactive classroom
management including the students talking time instead of the teacher’s talking time. The instrument of the study was the
Teachers Classroom Management Proficiency Questionnaire which was distributed to private schools in Misan, Iraq.
Findings revealed that teachers believe that interactive classroom management is the process of creating and upholding a
positive learning atmosphere which can direct learners to flourish in the classroom and their characters in class to students’
educational achievement.
Mirzaee & Maftoon. (2016) aimed at examining the impact of higher-order thinking enhancing techniques of Vygotsky’s
Socio-Cultural Theory on the learners’ speech production. In addition, they investigated the relationship between the learners’
private speech production and their reasoning power. The researchers followed the quasi-experimental design. The sample
included (30) participants in each control and experimental group attending an English RC course, an English Language
Teaching major at a university in Iran. The findings revealed that techniques based on Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory have
a positive and significant influence on the learners’ speech production and subsequently on their reasoning.
Tahaineh, & Daana (2013) aimed at investigating the two most important social psychological variables: The motivation
orientations (instrumental & integrative) of the Jordanian EFL female undergraduates and their attitudes towards learning
the target language and its community. The sample of the study consisted of 184 students majoring in English language and
literature at Al Balqa' Applied University. The instrument of the study was Attitude/ Motivation Test Battery. The domains
used to achieve the purpose of the study were: interest in foreign languages, attitudes towards learning English, attitudes
toward English-speaking people and desire to learn English and others. The findings revealed that Jordanian undergraduates
majoring in English as a foreign language had positive attitudes towards English language, English-speaking people and
their culture. The results also revealed that the instrumental motivation of the students outperformed their integrative one.
Tahmasebi (2011) examined instruction based on the principles of Sociocultural Theory (SCT) on English language
skills. The principles included mediation by others, mediation by self, scaffolding and private speech. The participants were
engaged in social or interpersonal activities. The study was conducted on fifty-four participants who were divided randomly
into experimental and control groups and tested by using the TOEFL test of reading comprehension and oral presentation.
The findings showed that there is no difference between the two groups in reading comprehension. However, the
experimental group outperformed the control group in an oral presentation. The friendly and active atmosphere prevailing
in the experimental group provided the students with sufficient opportunities to participate more voluntarily in class
discussions. Furthermore, they were no longer afraid of taking part in a conversation because their peers helped them to
overcome the problems that they faced in managing oral presentations.
Watson (2007) attempted to test the effectiveness of an enhanced learning process based on the principles of
Sociocultural Theory on students’ learning of English language. The participants were five Russian students at Bryn Mawr
College who received the experimental treatment over two semesters. The enhanced learning process contains interaction,
and collaborative problem-solving to make students autonomous and conscious of their learning preferences. It also aimed
at promoting multidimensional language awareness. The researcher collected data through pre-and post-tests, video-taped
participant observation, structured interviews and structured journal entries. The findings revealed that the enhanced
learning process based on SCT principles developed the students` learning of English language.
Bani Abdel-Rahman (2005) conducted a study to explore the effect of a proposed instructional program based on some
cultural strategies on the learning of cultural content among tenth- grade students in Jordan. The subjects of this study
consisted of 105 male and female tenth grade students allocated to four classes. Two male classes constituted a control
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585
group, an experimental one and two female classes formed a control group and an experimental one. The participants of
the study were pretested and post-tested using the cultural- achievement test. The findings of the study showed that there
were statistically significant differences in favour of the experimental group who was taught according to the instructional
programme based on some cultural teaching strategies such as the cultural capsules and cultural assimilator, which were
superior to the other two cultural strategies. Moreover, the results revealed that there were no statistically significant
differences attributed to the interaction between gender and the instructional programme.
Inspection of the previous literature related to the effectiveness of constructing an instruction based on sociolinguistic
principles on enhancing students' mastering of language skills in general and on speaking skills in specific, sociolinguistic
principles can be integrated into curricula to enhance students’ speaking skills. Consequently, the present study was
conducted to build an instructional program as recommended in the previous studies. As mentioned above, the researchers
constructed their program based on the principles found in one or two sociolinguistic approaches. The present study
integrated multi principles derived from various sociolinguistic approaches as explained in the instructional program below.
3. Method and Procedure
This section includes a description of the study design, participants of the study, the research instruments, the validity
and reliability of the instruments, and data analysis.
3.1. Study Design
The design of this study is quasi-experimental. There was one independent variable (the instructional program) which
has two levels: the developed instructional program and the conventional program. There was one dependent variable
(students’ English speaking skills). This design can be graphically represented as follows:
EG: O1 X O2
CG: O1 --- O2
EG stands for the experimental group; CG: stands for the control group; X: stands for treatment; O1: stands for speaking
achievement pre-test, and O2 stands for speaking achievement post-test.
3.2. Participants of the study
This study was conducted on two tenth–grade sections (25 students in each) at Maymoona Om Al- Mu’mineen School
for Girls in Marka Directorate of Education during the second semester of the academic year 2021-2022. The researchers
conducted the study on tenth-grade students since they are mature enough to internalize the social and cultural aspects of
English language. One of those sections was randomly assigned as the control group while the other section represents the
experimental group. Students of the experimental group were taught by applying a program based on sociolinguistic
principles, while students of the control group were taught using the conventional program. All students in both sections
were pre and post-tested by the same speaking test using the same rubric.
3.3. Instruments of the study
The instruments of the study were a speaking test and an eight-domain rubric, which were used to measure the speaking
achievement of tenth grade EFL students in Jordan. The speaking test was developed by the researchers as a pre-test and post-
test for both groups. There were two topics on the pretest (social media and tourist attraction) and two topics on the posttest
(fast food and architecture). The topics were chosen to match the thematic module that was presented to the students of both
groups. Each student in the two groups was interviewed separately to talk about one topic on the pretest and one topic on the
posttest of his choice. Each interview lasted for five minutes. First, students were asked three questions as introductory
questions to prepare them for the interview. Then, students were asked four questions on the topic they chose.
To grade students on their speaking achievement, a speaking rubric was also developed by the two researchers based
on related literature (Aboura, & Awad, 2017; Krajangjob & Yimwilai, 2021; Salem, 2016; Ta’amne, & Smadi, 2013). The
rubric was used to grade students on eight sub-skills of speaking: vocabulary, functions, fluency, interaction, body language,
pronunciation and sentence structure. Each of the speaking domains had five grades of performance indicators (1-5). The
total score on the speaking test was (40).
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586
Instructional Program
The instructional program was developed by the two researchers based on sociolinguistic principles. These principles
included the principle of sociolinguistic variables (i.e., age, gender and social class), linguistic variations (i.e., regional,
social and contextual) and the principle of sociolinguistic competence (the ability to communicate appropriately by using
the right words, expressions and attitude towards a specific topic, setting and relationship (Labov, 1972). Other
sociolinguistic principles were derived from the Sociocultural Theory which included the principle of intercultural
competence (i.e., meaning, structure, and use of language are socially and culturally relative), the principle of self-
regulation, the principle of the zone of proximal development [ZPD], the principle of autonomous learners, and the principle
of the dynamic assessment (Vygotsky, 1978). Other principles also included the principles of the Identity Approach and
the principle of the investment of students’ background and experience in learning the target culture (Norton, 1997).
Additionally, the principle of learners’ attitudes towards the target language and culture, and the principle of learners’
motivation towards learning the target language and culture were derived from the Acculturation Model (Schumann,1986).
In the same vein, the principle of the interaction in the classroom (i.e., the opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to
developing L2 proficiency) and the principle of the time for learning the target culture were derived from Interactional
Sociolinguistics (Goffman, 1967 and Lakoff, 1977). It is worth mentioning that the principles of the communicative
approach introduced in Action pack 10 Teacher’s Book were also utilized to develop this program (Johnson, 2013).
The sociolinguistic principles which were derived from related literature were used to develop the content, learning
strategies and assessment measures of the instructional program. First, authentic sources of language data (i.e., news
magazines, popular magazines, and fiction) were the sources of language data in the proposed program as recommended
by (Hornberger& McKay, 2009). Videos of naturally occurring speech were also used to study the rhythmic organization
of speech and nonverbal behaviour in interaction (Hornberger& McKay, 2009). The videos were chosen from YouTube
such as a video about British Recycled Plastic Products.
Some culturally-based texts of English culture were also integrated into the EFL instruction to enhance student’s
understanding of English culture and promote their attitudes towards acquiring the target culture (i.e., The Palace of
Westminster, the Utah National Park in the west of the United States, The statues of liberty, The Great Salt Lake in the
United States). In addition, Some English values, English taboos, English food, English etiquette and so on were presented
in the proposed program. Moreover, the devices and strategies which constitute politeness in a given culture and promote
sociolinguistic competence and discourse strategies such as greetings, rhetorical devices (logos, pathos, ethos), the ways of
asking for permission politely and analysing formal and informal conversations were included in the proposed program.
Second, the program consisted of many cultural strategies that arouse students’ interest in learning the cultural content in the
EFL classroom. The cultural learning strategies employed in the program were culture capsules, assimilators, culture clusters,
critical incidents, cultural fact-based approach and research-based learning. Furthermore, several interactional strategies that
ensure the student’s participation in naturally occurring second language experiences were included in the present program such
as Board Race, Taboo Games, Discussion, Role Play, Simulations, Information Gap, Think-pair-share (TPS), Story Completion,
Picture Describing, Debates: agree or disagree politely, Bingo, Last Man Standing and Desert Island activity.
Third, the assessment tools and strategies of the present instructional program were drawn on the principles based on
sociolinguists concerning authentic assessment. The authentic assessment assessed the student’s ability to efficiently used a
repertoire of knowledge and skills to negotiate a complex task. It requires judgment and innovation such as performance-based
strategy (i.e., student’s portfolio), self-assessment and online investigation. The dynamic assessment claimed by Vygotsky
(1978) was also involved. Dynamic assessment helps the teacher in understanding where a student's ZPD is. The checklist and
rubrics of the proposed program were derived from Action Pack 10 and then adapted based on sociolinguistic principles.
The Conventional Program
The conventional program refers to the teaching method that is described in the Teachers’ Book of Action pack 10.
This method is based on the principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). These principles mainly include
integrating English language skills and encouraging students to use English inside the classroom. It is based on the
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proposition that successful language learning requires the knowledge of functions and purposes that a language serves in
different communicative settings, besides the knowledge of the structures and forms of that language. This approach to
teaching focuses on the communication of meaning in interaction rather than the manipulation of grammatical forms in
isolation. Action Pack 10 deals with English language skills in an integrated way in terms of tasks and activities. It also
“encourages students to use English in classroom exchanges to make them feel confident.” (Johnson, 2013, 6).
On the other hand, the sociolinguistic principles and their implications are not well-emphasized in Action pack 10. For
instance, English culture, represented in English symbols, language, norms, values, taboos, etc., is given less emphasis in
the content of Action Pack 10. The content of the conventional method of this study covered several topics such as
Alhambra Palace, buildings in Dubai and the Dead Sea.
Moreover, the learning strategies in Action Pack 10 focus on cognition strategies [e.g., predicting, problem-solving,
organizational planning, taking notes, etc.] and meta-cognition strategies [e.g., self-management, self-evaluation and so
on], whereas the cultural strategies, [e.g., cultural capsules and cultural assimilator], have been lacking so far. The socio-
affective strategies weren’t also covered sufficiently in action Pack 10. In addition, the project-based learning found in the
present conventional method was limited to researching some facts about a tourist attraction on the Internet, in the school
library or public library; Taj Mahal is given as an example.
Furthermore, the functions that are presented to the students in action Pack 10 are limited to giving information, expressing
opinions, making suggestions, making predictions, explaining reasons, comparing and contrasting scientific facts and so on.
Yet, the consideration of social variables which maintain sociolinguistic competence isn’t well- addressed in Action Pack 10.
Furthermore, linguistics variations aren’t shown explicitly in action Pack 10. For example, the differences between the British
accent and the American accent aren’t utilized sufficiently in the activities of Action Pack 10.
In addition, the dynamic assessment of Vygotsky isn’t mentioned in action Pack 10. Vygotsky (1978) recommended
the use of flexible and humanistic assessment rather than the conventional and static modes that are found in many curricula.
The assessments found in action Pack 10 are limited to peer review, observation, portfolio and so on.
3.4. Validation and reliability of the instruments
Validity of the research Instruments
To establish the content validity of the English-speaking test, the speaking rubric and the instructional program, a jury
of 11 experts were consulted (three TEFL professors, four professors of linguistics, two professors of curriculum and
instruction, and two professors of educational research). The main comments of the experts regarding the test were: the
pre-test and the post-test should not be the same but identical; some probing questions should be added such as ‘How’ or
‘Why’. Regarding the rubric, some items relating to self-confidence and interaction were added. The experts’ comments
regarding the instructional program were: adding more activities that can promote students’ awareness of English taboos
and politeness, and describing the interactional activities in the instructional material accurately.
Reliability of the research Instruments
The reliability of the speaking rubric was established by using Inter-rater reliability. Two experienced EFL instructors
rated each student of the two groups independently based on the eighth domain rubric. Agreement between the two raters
was established by applying the Holsty equation, which amounted to (96%).
3.5. Statistical Analysis
To analyze the data of the study, the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used. This included calculating
the means and standard deviations for both groups (i.e., experimental and control). One way- ANCOVA and MANCOVA
tests were also used to answer the question of the study.
4. Findings and Discussion
This study aims at investigating the impact of a developed program based on sociolinguistic principles on developing
the speaking skills of tenth grade EFL female students in Jordan. This section presents the results of the study and provides
an analysis of data by using different measurements and tests such as mean scores, standard deviations, Analysis of
The Impact of a Developed Instructional … Alaa Mohammed Saleh, Hamzah Ali Al-Omari
588
Covariance (ANCOVA) and Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA). One research question was addressed:
Are there any significant differences (α =0.05) between the mean scores of tenth-grade female students in Jordan
regarding their speaking skills, which can be attributed to a program based on sociolinguistic principles compared
to the conventional teaching method?
To answer this question, means and standard deviations of the students’ speaking skills total mean scores were
calculated. The results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Means and Standard deviations of tenth-grade students with regard to their speaking skills mean
scores due to the method of teaching (conventional vs. the program based on sociolinguistic principles)
Group
N
Pre-test
Post-test
Mean
Std. Deviation
Mean
Std. Deviation
Experimental
25
17.68
6.62
30.48
5.45
Control
25
17.08
5.19
20.12
5.13
Total
50
17.38
5.89
25.30
7.40
The results in Table 1 show that there are differences in the mean scores of students of both groups (experimental and
control). The mean score of the experimental group on the pre-test was (17.68 out of 40) and on the post-test was (30.48 out
of 40). The mean score of the control group on the pre-test was (17.08 out of 40) and the post-test was (20.12 out of 40).
To test if those differences were statistically significant (α=0.05), a one-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was
applied. The results are presented in Table 2:
Table 2. One-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of the speaking skills mean score due to the method of
teaching (conventional method vs. the program based on sociolinguistic principles)
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
Df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Partial Eta Squared
Pre
902.41
1
902.42
95.86
.000
.671
Group
1227.45
1
1227.45
130.38
.000*
.735
Error
442.46
47
9.41
Total
2686.50
49
* Statistically significance (α = 0.05).
The results in Table 2 reveal that there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of students of both
groups regarding their speaking skills due to the teaching method. The (F) value (130.38) is statistically significant (α=0.0 5).
The adjusted mean scores and standard errors were also calculated. The results are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Adjusted mean scores and standard errors of students of both groups (experimental vs. control) of the
speaking skills test due to the teaching program
Group
Mean
Std. Error
speaking skills
Experimental
30.26
0.61
Control
20.34
0.61
The results in Table 3 show that the adjusted mean of the experimental group (30.26 out of 40) was higher than the
adjusted mean score of the control group (20.34 out of 40). This means that the differences were in favour of the students
who were taught by using the program which was based on sociolinguistic principles. The Eta square obtained in Table 2
shows that the effect size was (0.735), which means that (73.5%) of the variance in the total scores is attributed to the
program based on sociolinguistic principles.
As for the speaking sub-skills, means and standard deviations of tenth grade students’ total scores and their scores on
dimensions of speaking skills were also calculated. The results are shown in Table 4
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589
Table 4. Mean and standard deviations of tenth grade students with regard to their speaking dimensions due to
the instructional program (conventional vs. the program based on sociolinguistic principles)
Dimensions
Group
N
Pre-test
Post-test
Mean
Std. Deviation
Mean
Std. Deviation
Vocabulary
Experimental
25
2.36
0.91
3.96
0.84
Control
25
2.24
0.78
3.04
0.79
Total
50
2.30
0.84
3.50
0.93
Functional skills
Experimental
25
2.12
0.88
3.20
0.76
Control
25
2.08
0.70
2.24
0.78
Total
50
2.10
0.79
2.72
0.90
Fluency
Experimental
25
2.08
0.86
3.60
0.70
Control
25
2.04
0.68
2.20
0.76
Total
50
2.06
0.77
2.90
1.02
Interaction
Experimental
25
2.36
0.91
3.96
0.79
Control
25
2.08
0.70
2.60
0.71
Total
50
2.22
0.82
3.28
1.01
Body language
Experimental
25
2.32
1.10
4.12
0.88
Control
25
2.32
0.90
2.48
0.77
Total
50
2.32
1.00
3.30
1.17
Self-confidence
Experimental
25
2.16
0.94
4.20
0.82
Control
25
2.40
0.96
2.60
0.76
Total
50
2.28
0.95
3.40
1.13
Pronunciation
Experimental
25
2.20
0.82
3.52
0.71
Control
25
2.04
0.89
2.40
0.82
Total
50
2.12
0.85
2.96
0.95
Sentence Structure
Experimental
25
2.08
0.95
3.92
0.86
Control
25
1.88
0.60
2.56
0.87
Total
50
1.98
0.80
3.24
1.10
* Mean score is out of 5
The results in Table 4 reveal that there are differences in the mean scores of the students of both groups (experimental
and control) with regard to the eight dimensions of the speaking rubric.
The mean score of the experimental group with regard to the vocabulary post-test was (3.96) on the post-test compared
with (2.20) for the control group. As for the functional skills, the mean score of the students of the experimental group was
(3.20) compared with (2.24) for the control group.
Moreover, the mean score of the experimental group with regard to the fluency post-test was (3.60) on the post-test
compared with (2.20) for the control group. As for the interaction, the mean score of the students of the experimental group
was (3.96) compared with (2.60) for the control group.
In addition, the mean score of the experimental group with regard to the body language post-test was (4.12) on the post-
test compared with (2.48) for the control group. As for self-confidence, the mean score of the students of the experimental
group was (4.20) compared with (2.60) for the control group.
Furthermore, the mean score of the experimental group with regard to the pronunciation post-test was (3.52) on the
post-test compared with (2.40) for the control group. As for the sentence structure, the mean score of the students of the
experimental group was (3.92) compared with (2.56) for the control group.
The Impact of a Developed Instructional … Alaa Mohammed Saleh, Hamzah Ali Al-Omari
590
To test whether the differences in Table 4 were statistically significant or not (α = 0.05), the Multivariate Analysis of
Covariance (MANCOVA) test was applied. Table 5 shows these results.
Table 5. Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (One-way MANCOVA) regarding the difference in the mean
scores of each of the eight dimensions of the speaking skills due to the teaching method
Source
Dimensions
Type III Sum of
Squares
Df
Mean
Square
F
Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Vocabulary pre
Vocabulary
.13
1
.134
.52
.473
.013
Functional skills pre
Functional skills
1.06
1
1.06
2.91
.096
.068
Fluency pre
Fluency
.05
1
.05
.21
.651
.005
Interaction pre
Interaction
.33
1
.33
1.28
.263
.031
Body language pre
Body language
.35
1
.37
1.11
.297
.027
Self-confidence pre
Self-confidence
.27
1
.27
.86
.361
.021
Pronunciation pre
Pronunciation
.20
1
.20
.59
.447
.015
Sentence Structure
pre
Sentence
Structure
.27
1
.27
1.21
.277
.030
Group
Hotelling’s Trace=
4.803
Sig =0.000
Vocabulary
7.91
1
7.93
30.92
.000*
.436
Functional skills
11.16
1
11.16
30.73
.000*
.434
Fluency
19.35
1
19.35
75.92
.000*
.655
Interaction
17.13
1
17.13
67.30
.000*
.627
Body language
31.26
1
31.26
93.15
.000*
.700
Self-confidence
28.81
1
28.80
90.62
.000*
.694
Pronunciation
12.56
1
12.56
36.48
.000*
.477
Sentence
Structure
15.57
1
15.57
70.24
.000*
.637
Error
Vocabulary
10.26
40
.26
Functional skills
14.52
40
.36
Fluency
10.20
40
.26
Interaction
10.18
40
.26
Body language
13.42
40
.34
Self-confidence
12.72
40
.32
Pronunciation
13.77
40
.34
Sentence
Structure
8.87
40
.22
Total
Vocabulary
42.50
49
Functional skills
40.08
49
Fluency
50.50
49
Interaction
50.08
49
Body language
66.50
49
Self-confidence
62.00
49
Pronunciation
43.92
49
Sentence
Structure
59.12
49
* Statistically significance (α = 0.05).
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591
The results in Table 5 show that (F) values for the eight dimensions of the rubric (Vocabulary, Functional skills,
“Fluency, Interaction, Body language, Pronunciation, and Sentence Structure are: (30.92), (30.73), (75.92), (67.30), (93.15),
(90.62), (36.48) and (70.24) respectively. This indicates that all the obtained F values were statistically significant (α
=0.05). It can be noticed that all differences were in favour of the students of the experimental group as shown in Table 6.
Table 6. The adjusted mean scores and standard errors regarding each of the eight dimensions of the speaking
skills due to the teaching method
Dimensions
Group
Mean
Std. Error
Vocabulary
Experimental
3.94
.107
Control
3.06
.107
Functional skills
Experimental
3.25
.127
Control
2.20
.127
Fluency
Experimental
3.59
.107
Control
2.20
.107
Interaction
Experimental
3.93
.107
Control
2.63
.107
Body language
Experimental
4.18
.122
Control
2.42
.122
Self-confidence
Experimental
4.24
.119
Control
2.56
.119
Pronunciation
Experimental
3.52
.124
Control
2.40
.124
Sentence Structure
Experimental
3.86
.100
Control
2.62
.100
The results in Table 6 reveal that the adjusted mean scores on the eight dimensions were in favour of the students of the
experimental group. This means that students who were taught speaking by applying the sociolinguistic-based program
achieved much better compared to those who were taught using the conventional teaching program.
On the other hand, Eta-square was calculated for the eight dimensions of the rubric. As shown in Table 5, the effect size
of the program based on sociolinguistic principles regarding the vocabulary dimension was (0.436) which means that
(43.6%) of the variance in the vocabulary dimension was due to this program. All the same, the effect size of the other
seven domains was (.434) for the functional skills dimension; (.655) for the fluency dimension; (0.627) for the interaction
dimension; (.700) for body language skills dimension; (0.694) for self-confidence dimension; (0.477) for pronunciation
dimension; and (0.637) for sentence structure dimension. All these values indicate that variance was due to the program
that was based on sociolinguistic principles.
The results in Table 1 showed that there are differences between the mean score of the experimental group and that of
the control group on the post-test of speaking skills, which was statistically significant, as shown in Table 2. This difference
was in favour of the students of the experimental group since the adjusted mean score was (30.261), which was significantly
higher than the adjusted mean score of the students of the control group (20.339), as shown in Table 3.
In addition, the results in Table 5 also show that students of the experimental group outperformed those of the control
group on all the eighth dimensions of speaking skills. Also, the adjusted mean scores on the eight dimensions were in favour
of the students of the experimental group as shown in Table 6. This indicates that the instructional program based on
sociolinguistic principles had a significant effect on developing the English language speaking skills of the treatment group.
These findings are consistent with those of other researchers such Al-Khazaali & Mohammed (2021), Bani Abdel-Rahman
The Impact of a Developed Instructional … Alaa Mohammed Saleh, Hamzah Ali Al-Omari
592
(2005), Mirzaee & Maftoon. (2016), Tahaineh, & Daana (2013), Tahmasebi (2011), Uztosun, (2021) and Watson (2007).
All of these studies showed that incorporating sociolinguistic principles in EFL programs had positive effects on language
skills in general and on speaking skills in particular.
The significant improvement of tenth graders in speaking skills may be attributed to many reasons. For example,
incorporating sociolinguistic principles in the program seemed to have developed students’ ability to speak and interact
using certain strategies such as Board Race, Taboo Games, Discussion, Role Play, Simulations, Information Gap, Think-
pair-share (TPS), Story Completion, Picture Describing, Debates: agree or disagree politely, Bingo, Last Man Standing,
and Desert Island activity. In particular, those strategies helped students to ask for clarification, explain difficult words, and
acquire a range of vocabulary related to the speaking genres and topics they had discussed. This seems to have improved
students’ ability to use appropriate words for the social context such as showing politeness and respecting their partners. It
also encouraged them to become sensitive to purpose, context and register in which language is used and how this can
affect the use of certain structures. For example, the students worked collaboratively to win a board race competition.
Another example is practicing the taboo game; students practiced new words such as [dome, arch, courtyard and marble].
In this game, one student owns a card that contains a secret word. Another player has to say this word. In addition, tenth
grade students worked in groups and used pictures to describe Utah National Park in the west of the United States. This
was illustrated in the results of Table 6 which showed that the proposed program based on sociolinguistic principles
enhanced the students’ functional skills, as the adjusted mean score of the students of the experimental group, (mean: 3.25),
was statistically significant compared to the control group, (mean: 2.20).
Moreover, sociolinguistic principles incorporated in the developed program seem to have increased students’ oral
communication in English (Schumann, 1986). This may explain why students demonstrated a sustained ability to maintain a
conversation without pauses and spoke English more confidently feeling they communicated in their comfort zone (Vygotsky,
1978). The results shown in Table 6 indicated that the proposed program based on sociolinguistic principles promoted the
students’ self-confidence, as the adjusted mean score of the students of the experimental group, (mean: 4.24), was statistically
significant compared to the control group, (mean: 2.56). In addition, the results in Table 6 showed that the proposed program
based on sociolinguistic principles improved the students’ fluency, as the adjusted mean score of the students of the
experimental group, (mean = 3.59), was statistically significant compared to the control group, (mean: 2.20). In this respect,
Hornberger & McKay (2009) also argued that students could develop their fluency and self-confidence if they were given the
chance to participate in naturally occurring second language contexts and learn to monitor their own experience. For example,
the tenth-grade students were immersed naturally in different English cultural topics by using various learning cultural
strategies such as culture capsules, assimilators, culture clusters, critical incidents, cultural fact-based approach, and so on.
Furthermore, the sense of achievement seemed to have helped students to manage their learning effectively inside and
outside the classroom by making their own decisions about what to do rather than being influenced by someone. In a
similar vein, the teacher’s role as a scaffolder and a mediator seemed to have empowered students to critically analyze the
ways they use language in their everyday lives. The quality feedback allowed students to monitor their learning to achieve
self-regulation (Vygotsky, 1978). Thus, students can demonstrate an ability to use a variety of structures properly. This
was proved by the results in Table 6 which showed that the proposed program based on sociolinguistic principles developed
the students’ use of English structures, as the adjusted mean score of the students of the experimental group, (mean: 3.86),
was statistically significant compared to the control group, (mean: 2.62). For example, tenth grade students used the present
simple passive to compose general knowledge questions in authentic situations.
Moreover, using effective social strategies for communicating (Goffman 1967 and Lakoff 1977) might have helped
students to apply their newly acquired skills to another interactional context. For example, they were able to ask questions
taking into consideration when, where, to whom, in what manner, and under what specific circumstances. The results in
Table 6 showed that the proposed program based on sociolinguistic principles enhanced the students’ interaction, as the
adjusted mean score of the students of the experimental group, (mean: 3.93), was statistically significant compared to the
control group, (mean: 2.63).
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Another Justification for the students’ improvement in speaking may be due to the instructional material, which
governed the appropriate use of body language in authentic situations of everyday life. Thus, learners mastered nonverbal
communication such as using gestures, facial expressions and eye contact when they speak. The results in Table 6 showed
that the proposed program based on sociolinguistic principles improved the students’ use of body language, as the adjusted
mean score of the students of the experimental group, (mean: 4.18), was statistically significant compared to the control
group, (mean: 2.42). For instance, students used role play strategy to practice body language in different activities presented
to them in the instructional material.
It is worth noting that authentic sources of language data such as news magazines, popular magazines and fiction were
also helpful in enhancing students’ speaking skills. Videos of naturally occurring speech were used to teach the rhythmic
organization of speech. The student learned to pronounce utterances and use stress, intonation and rhythm appropriately.
The results in Table 6 showed that the proposed program based on sociolinguistic principles promoted the students’
pronunciation, as the adjusted mean score of the students of the experimental group, (mean: 3.52), was statistically
significant compared to the control group, (mean: 2.40). In addition, the tenth-grade students used Collins Dictionary to
check the stress of words and to differentiate between American English and British English. They also used the intonation
rules presented to them in the program to practice intonation in various conversation activities.
The students of the treatment group also employed a wide range of vocabulary, idioms and expressions in their talk
about the two topics of the posttest. The results in Table 6 showed that the proposed program based on sociolinguistic
principles improved the students’ vocabulary, as the adjusted mean score of the students of the experimental group, (mean:
3.94), was statistically significant compared to the control group, (mean: 3.06). For instance, the tenth-grade students
participated in a discussion about British recycled plastic products and used various related vocabulary. Another example,
the students were engaged in several activities to acquire some idioms about good behaviour and politeness [e.g., ‘the done
thing’, ‘mind your Ps and Qs’, ‘bowing and scraping’]. They were also engaged in some activities to practice English slang
[e.g., ‘Gutted’, Nosh’, ‘A cuppa’, ‘A fiver’, ‘Ta’].
All those speaking skills were emphasized in the sociolinguistic principles incorporated in the developed instructional
program.
5. Conclusion
It can be concluded that using an instructional program based on sociolinguistic principles to teach English speaking skills
to EFL students developed students’ speaking skills such as vocabulary, functional skills, fluency, interaction, body language,
pronunciation and sentence structure. The contributions of sociolinguistics in language teaching and learning are influenced
by a broad range of factors including societal, political, cultural, psychological and interpersonal issues. Accordingly,
implementing an instructional program based on sociolinguistic principles in EFL classes may help in using language taking
into consideration the different cultural, social and political contexts. This can give teachers insight into helping students in
improving their language proficiency when they communicate orally with different people in different situations by using
different sociolinguistic strategies. Furthermore, using an instructional program based on sociolinguistic principles to teach
English-speaking skills to EFL students can help the students to feel relaxed and willing to share their ideas.
Based on the results of the study, the researchers recommended that:
1. Sociolinguistic principles should be incorporated in the teaching of speaking skills to elementary stage students.
2. Teachers of English should devote more attention to developing speaking skills based on sociolinguistic principles.
3. Other researchers may conduct more studies on the effect of using an instructional program based on sociolinguistic
principles on students’ learning of other language skills at other grade levels.
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594
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