Agroforestry versus integrated farming system: Two versions of farm diversification in India

Abstract

Agroforestry has been age-old practice that evolved as an ecologically viable land use system yielding diversified farm outputs, whereas integrated farming system is introduced among small farmers to augment income through diversified enterprises. These two forms of farm intervention in Indiaappear to have much in common yet, these two interventions are completely contrasting to one another. Utilizing the research weaving approach, this study brings in the systematic argument distinguishingagroforestry from integrating farming system on structural, ecological and economic basis. Prior to which the search analysis facility of Google Trends as well as Google Ngram viewer were deployed to illustrate the evolution and usage of these two terms. Overall, the study exemplifies ample evidence to narrate agroforestry as an integrated agroecological system, while the new narration for the integrated farming systemencompasses pooling together various forms of enterprises into the farming practice in a unit area.

Full text

Indian Journal of Agroforestry 25(2): 12-31 (2023)
Agroforestry versus integrated farming system: Two versions
of farm diversification in India
Ayyanadar Arunachalam*, Suresh Ramanan S. and Rajbir Singh
© Indian Society of Agroforestry 2023
ABSTRACT: Agroforestry has been age-old practice that evolved as an ecologically viable
land use system yielding diversified farm outputs, whereas integrated farming system is
introduced among small farmers to augment income through diversified enterprises. These two
forms of farm intervention in Indiaappear to have much in common yet, these two interventions
are completely contrasting to one another. Utilizing the research weaving approach, this study
brings in the systematic argument distinguishingagroforestry from integrating farming system
on structural, ecological and economic basis. Prior to which the search analysis facility of
Google Trends as well as Google Ngram viewer were deployed to illustrate the evolution and
usage of these two terms. Overall, the study exemplifies ample evidence to narrate agroforestry
as an integrated agroecological system, while the new narration for the integrated farming
systemencompasses pooling together various forms of enterprises into the farming practice in a
unit area.
1. INTRODUCTION
Farm diversification and sustainability at the farm level
have been the two main agendas for agricultural
research systems in the post-green-revolution scenario
of India . Agriculture
steers the Indian economy as 54.6% of the country's
population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities
for livelihood security
. It contributed to
about 18.8% of the country's Gross Value Added (GAV)
for the year 2021-2022 (GoI 2022).
Around 72% of the working population of India in
1947 was agri-dependent and through industrialization
and liberalization, the country could generate
diversified employment opportunities whereby the
number of people engaged in agriculture got reduced
but not substantially. As per the agricultural census
report 2016, about 44% of the Indian population is
engaged in the agricultural sector .
However, it is reported that there are more agricultural
labourers compared to agriculturists/farmers. There is
a wide array of challenges in agricultural sector listed
out including fragmented landholding, excess usage of
pesticides and fungicides and more water-intensive
agriculture practices, etc. .
Finding a viable and adaptable alternate solution is the
need of the hour so that our food production system is
sustainable given the country's population growth.
(Pretty et al. 2010; Pental 2021)
(Hesterman and Thorburn 1994;
Jat et al. 2019; Kumari et al. 2020)
(Pental 2021)
(DACFW 2017)
The typical characteristic of a sustainable food
production system is resource efficiency, acceptable
le vel of produ cti vity and prof itabili ty and
environmental protection .
Before the green revolution in India, it was believed
that the agricultural systems behaved linearly and
predictably, but it is characterized by non-linearity,
uncertainty, and prone to dramatic changes
. Nonetheless, the Indian farmers at the
community level have been cautious and meticulous
in maintaining different forms of plant life and animals
on their farmland . In this
regard, there are two schools of thought that
picturesque the diversification of farms which are
'Agroforestry' and 'Integrated Farming system(s)'.
Agroforestry is defined as land-use systems and
technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs,
palms, bamboos etc.) are deliberately used on the same
land management unit as crops and/or animals, in
some form of spatial arrangement or temporal
sequence. Thereby, the tradeoff between the
ecological and economic interaction in agroforestry
manifests livelihood security vis-à-vis environmental
security"
.
Whereas, Integrated Farming Systems are defined as
"the integration of more than one different types of
agriculture and allied enterprises based on the sound
principles of scientific agriculture for optimum
utilization and management of available resources,
recycling of waste/byproducts, engagement of family
labour to lower the cost of cultivation and increase in
input use efficiency to maximize production,
(Rahimifard et al. 2017)
(Ray and
Ghose 2014)
(Ponnusamy and Devi 2017)
(Somarriba, 1992; Raj and Lal, 2013;
Atangana et al., 2014; Dagar and Tewari, 2017)
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 04.05.2022
Accepted: 01.12.2022
Keywords:
Agroforestry,
Diversification,
Farming,
Trees,
Woody Perennials
Research Article
Ayyanadar Arunachalam
a.arunachalam@icar.gov.in
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute,
Jhansi 284003, India
22 23
productivity, income generation and provide gainful
employment from a unit land area over a stipulated
time period" . There is ample scope
for deliberations on the definitions of these two forms
of farm diversification. This study however attempts
to investigate both these concepts using the research
weaving approach, essentially to distinguish
'agroforestry' and 'integrated farming system(s)'.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
To achieve the objective of the study, research
weaving approach was used where scientific
literature was analysed for evidences elucidating the
si m il ar i ti e s a n d di s si m il ar i ti e s b e t we en
'Agroforestry' and 'Integrated farming system'
. First, the exploration of the
electronic cor pus: the google books corpus
(https://books.google.com/) was done through its
Ngram Viewer interface coupled with the NGRAM
R package. It was used to reveal the usage of both
these terms in the literature in English language
between 1900 to 2019, by matching n-grams with
text within the selected corpus
. We want to assess the
origin and usage of two forms of farm diversification
taken up in this study even before the pre-Green
Revolution period. Secondly, the search analysis
fa c il i t y of G o o gl e t re n ds ( h tt p s :/ / ww w.
google.com/trends/) was also used in this study
[Accessed on 11.03.2023]. Typically, the Google
trends measure the interest in a particular topic based
on the search phrase used, in comparison with the
total search volume across the world
. Finally, on examination in Web of Science
(WoS) (https://webofknowledge.com/) using
specific keywords string – 'Agroforestry' and
another set of keyword string ('Integrated farming
system' OR 'Integrated farming') between 1935 to
2022. [Accessed on 17.10.2022]. The WoS has
comprehensive coverage and also provides reliable
and comprehensive information but also provides
certain analyzing options too
. The metadata collected from
the WoS was analysed using in R version 4.0.1 along
with Rstudio Version 1.3.959 using a special
package - bibliometrix R-package (http://www.
bibliometrix.org) (Aria and Cuccurullo 2017).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The initial results using n-gram based keyword search
revealed that there was distinct usage of both these terms
in the google books corpus. N-gram can be defined as
the contiguous sequence of n items from a given sample
of text or speech. The items can be letters, words, or base
pairs according to the application. The N-grams
typically are collected from a text or speech corpus (A
(Dash et al. 2015)
(Nakagawa et al. 2019)
(Kousha and Thelwall
2015; Pechenick et al. 2015)
(Nuti et al.
2014)
(Zyoud et al. 2017;
Ramanan et al. 2020)
Figure 1. The frequency (y-axis) of words a)'agroforestry'
and b)'integrated farming system' in the Google Books
Corpus from 1900 to 2019 (x-axis).
long text dataset). Figure 1 indicates the frequency of an
n-gram normalized by the total number of words a given
year, and evident by confirms that 'agroforestry' is more
predominately used rather than the 'integrated farming
system(s)'. To have a clear picture of the frequency of n-
gram, the frequency has been time sliced a) 1950-1980
b) 1981-2000 and c) 2001-2019. It is further confirmed
that agroforestry was more in the usage across all time
scales.
The Interest over time is the numbers that represent
search interest relative to the highest point on the chart
for the given region and time. A value of 100 is the
peak popularity for the term. A value of 50 means that
the term is half as popular. Figure 5 represents the
global search trends based on the n-gram that was most
popular from 2004 to till data (as google trends data is
available from 2004). Values are calculated on a scale
from 0 to 100, where 100 is the location with the most

Indian Journal of Agroforestry 25(2): 12-31 (2023)
Agroforestry versus integrated farming system: Two versions
of farm diversification in India
Ayyanadar Arunachalam*, Suresh Ramanan S. and Rajbir Singh
© Indian Society of Agroforestry 2023
ABSTRACT: Agroforestry has been age-old practice that evolved as an ecologically viable
land use system yielding diversified farm outputs, whereas integrated farming system is
introduced among small farmers to augment income through diversified enterprises. These two
forms of farm intervention in Indiaappear to have much in common yet, these two interventions
are completely contrasting to one another. Utilizing the research weaving approach, this study
brings in the systematic argument distinguishingagroforestry from integrating farming system
on structural, ecological and economic basis. Prior to which the search analysis facility of
Google Trends as well as Google Ngram viewer were deployed to illustrate the evolution and
usage of these two terms. Overall, the study exemplifies ample evidence to narrate agroforestry
as an integrated agroecological system, while the new narration for the integrated farming
systemencompasses pooling together various forms of enterprises into the farming practice in a
unit area.
1. INTRODUCTION
Farm diversification and sustainability at the farm level
have been the two main agendas for agricultural
research systems in the post-green-revolution scenario
of India . Agriculture
steers the Indian economy as 54.6% of the country's
population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities
for livelihood security
. It contributed to
about 18.8% of the country's Gross Value Added (GAV)
for the year 2021-2022 (GoI 2022).
Around 72% of the working population of India in
1947 was agri-dependent and through industrialization
and liberalization, the country could generate
diversified employment opportunities whereby the
number of people engaged in agriculture got reduced
but not substantially. As per the agricultural census
report 2016, about 44% of the Indian population is
engaged in the agricultural sector .
However, it is reported that there are more agricultural
labourers compared to agriculturists/farmers. There is
a wide array of challenges in agricultural sector listed
out including fragmented landholding, excess usage of
pesticides and fungicides and more water-intensive
agriculture practices, etc. .
Finding a viable and adaptable alternate solution is the
need of the hour so that our food production system is
sustainable given the country's population growth.
(Pretty et al. 2010; Pental 2021)
(Hesterman and Thorburn 1994;
Jat et al. 2019; Kumari et al. 2020)
(Pental 2021)
(DACFW 2017)
The typical characteristic of a sustainable food
production system is resource efficiency, acceptable
le vel of produ cti vity and prof itabili ty and
environmental protection .
Before the green revolution in India, it was believed
that the agricultural systems behaved linearly and
predictably, but it is characterized by non-linearity,
uncertainty, and prone to dramatic changes
. Nonetheless, the Indian farmers at the
community level have been cautious and meticulous
in maintaining different forms of plant life and animals
on their farmland . In this
regard, there are two schools of thought that
picturesque the diversification of farms which are
'Agroforestry' and 'Integrated Farming system(s)'.
Agroforestry is defined as land-use systems and
technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs,
palms, bamboos etc.) are deliberately used on the same
land management unit as crops and/or animals, in
some form of spatial arrangement or temporal
sequence. Thereby, the tradeoff between the
ecological and economic interaction in agroforestry
manifests livelihood security vis-à-vis environmental
security"
.
Whereas, Integrated Farming Systems are defined as
"the integration of more than one different types of
agriculture and allied enterprises based on the sound
principles of scientific agriculture for optimum
utilization and management of available resources,
recycling of waste/byproducts, engagement of family
labour to lower the cost of cultivation and increase in
input use efficiency to maximize production,
(Rahimifard et al. 2017)
(Ray and
Ghose 2014)
(Ponnusamy and Devi 2017)
(Somarriba, 1992; Raj and Lal, 2013;
Atangana et al., 2014; Dagar and Tewari, 2017)
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 04.05.2022
Accepted: 01.12.2022
Keywords:
Agroforestry,
Diversification,
Farming,
Trees,
Woody Perennials
Research Article
Ayyanadar Arunachalam
a.arunachalam@icar.gov.in
ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute,
Jhansi 284003, India
22 23
productivity, income generation and provide gainful
employment from a unit land area over a stipulated
time period" . There is ample scope
for deliberations on the definitions of these two forms
of farm diversification. This study however attempts
to investigate both these concepts using the research
weaving approach, essentially to distinguish
'agroforestry' and 'integrated farming system(s)'.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
To achieve the objective of the study, research
weaving approach was used where scientific
literature was analysed for evidences elucidating the
si m il ar i ti e s a n d di s si m il ar i ti e s b e t we en
'Agroforestry' and 'Integrated farming system'
. First, the exploration of the
electronic cor pus: the google books corpus
(https://books.google.com/) was done through its
Ngram Viewer interface coupled with the NGRAM
R package. It was used to reveal the usage of both
these terms in the literature in English language
between 1900 to 2019, by matching n-grams with
text within the selected corpus
. We want to assess the
origin and usage of two forms of farm diversification
taken up in this study even before the pre-Green
Revolution period. Secondly, the search analysis
fa c il i t y of G o o gl e t re n ds ( h tt p s :/ / ww w.
google.com/trends/) was also used in this study
[Accessed on 11.03.2023]. Typically, the Google
trends measure the interest in a particular topic based
on the search phrase used, in comparison with the
total search volume across the world
. Finally, on examination in Web of Science
(WoS) (https://webofknowledge.com/) using
specific keywords string – 'Agroforestry' and
another set of keyword string ('Integrated farming
system' OR 'Integrated farming') between 1935 to
2022. [Accessed on 17.10.2022]. The WoS has
comprehensive coverage and also provides reliable
and comprehensive information but also provides
certain analyzing options too
. The metadata collected from
the WoS was analysed using in R version 4.0.1 along
with Rstudio Version 1.3.959 using a special
package - bibliometrix R-package (http://www.
bibliometrix.org) (Aria and Cuccurullo 2017).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The initial results using n-gram based keyword search
revealed that there was distinct usage of both these terms
in the google books corpus. N-gram can be defined as
the contiguous sequence of n items from a given sample
of text or speech. The items can be letters, words, or base
pairs according to the application. The N-grams
typically are collected from a text or speech corpus (A
(Dash et al. 2015)
(Nakagawa et al. 2019)
(Kousha and Thelwall
2015; Pechenick et al. 2015)
(Nuti et al.
2014)
(Zyoud et al. 2017;
Ramanan et al. 2020)
Figure 1. The frequency (y-axis) of words a)'agroforestry'
and b)'integrated farming system' in the Google Books
Corpus from 1900 to 2019 (x-axis).
long text dataset). Figure 1 indicates the frequency of an
n-gram normalized by the total number of words a given
year, and evident by confirms that 'agroforestry' is more
predominately used rather than the 'integrated farming
system(s)'. To have a clear picture of the frequency of n-
gram, the frequency has been time sliced a) 1950-1980
b) 1981-2000 and c) 2001-2019. It is further confirmed
that agroforestry was more in the usage across all time
scales.
The Interest over time is the numbers that represent
search interest relative to the highest point on the chart
for the given region and time. A value of 100 is the
peak popularity for the term. A value of 50 means that
the term is half as popular. Figure 5 represents the
global search trends based on the n-gram that was most
popular from 2004 to till data (as google trends data is
available from 2004). Values are calculated on a scale
from 0 to 100, where 100 is the location with the most

popularity as a fraction of total searches in that
location, and a value of 50 indicates a location which is
half as popular. Also, the related queries in regard to
'integrated farming system' are integrated agriculture,
integrated farming system model, integrated farming
system pdf, integrated farming system in India, what is
integrated farming system, what is farming system,
what is integrated farming, fish farming, integrated
fish farming, ifs, integrated organic farming, organic
farming, sustainable farming, integrated farming
system ppt, integrated farming meaning, integrated
farming system definition, livestock farming,
sustainable agriculture, integrated farming systems,
cropping system, advantages of integrated farming
system, integrated farming system upsc and poultry.
These keywords list as related queries are listed in the
google trends based on the relative scale of user
searched query.
While the related queries for 'agroforestry' are
agroforestry systems, world agroforestry, what is
agroforestry, forestry, agroforestry system, forest,
agriculture, agroforestry pdf, agroforestry definition,
agroforestry in india, agroforestry meaning, world
agroforestry centre, agroforestry practices, agro,
importance of agroforestry, types of agroforestry,
definition of agroforestry, benefits of agroforestry,
agro forestry, climate change, social forestry, define
ag rofor e stry, bio diver sity, agr o fore s try and
advantages of agroforestry. Figure 5 further depicts
that the term 'integrated farming system' is confined to
the Southeast Asian countries, especially India and on
the contrary 'agroforestry' seems to have a global
reach. Yet the African countries dominated the search
trends where Rwanda topped the list. It should be
noted that the search trends value is influenced by the
total searches in that country and internet reach. Given
that Google is the most popular search engine which
has global reach; thus, it can be concluded that the
'integrated farming system' is still underdeveloped and
has no wider acceptance.
Through the bibliometric approach, the search for the
keyword string – 'Agroforestry' in WoS yielded about
9272 publications and for the keyword string
('Integrated farming system' OR 'Integrated farming') in
WoS yield about 450 publications. There was an
apparent distinction in the usage of terms/n-gram in
scientific publications, as only 31 researchers have used
both terms together in the same scientific publication
itself (Figure 6). About 21 publications from India
which had used both the terms together in their attempt
to describe the farm diversification
. The remaining publications
(10 Nos.) outside India perceive that agroforestry itself
as integration of components. Given that there are
independent school of thoughts on agroforestry as well
as integrated farming system, there is a need for
theoretical examination on the technical similarity
between both these terms from scientific dimensions.
(Behera and France
2016; Singh et al. 2016)
24 25
Figure 2. The frequency (y-axis) of words 'agroforestry' and
'integrated farming system' in the Google Books Corpus
from a) 1950-1980 b) 1981-2000 and c) 2001-2019 (x-axis).
Figure 3. The frequency (y-axis) of words related to
'integrated farming” in the Google Books Corpus
from1900 to 2019 (x-axis).
Figure 4. Google Trends output for Web search queries for the term “agroforestry” and integrated farming system” worldwide
from January 2005 to March 2023.
Figure 5. Overview of countries in a) 'agroforestry' and b) 'integrated farming system' search terms at global
Google Trends, as of October 2022.

popularity as a fraction of total searches in that
location, and a value of 50 indicates a location which is
half as popular. Also, the related queries in regard to
'integrated farming system' are integrated agriculture,
integrated farming system model, integrated farming
system pdf, integrated farming system in India, what is
integrated farming system, what is farming system,
what is integrated farming, fish farming, integrated
fish farming, ifs, integrated organic farming, organic
farming, sustainable farming, integrated farming
system ppt, integrated farming meaning, integrated
farming system definition, livestock farming,
sustainable agriculture, integrated farming systems,
cropping system, advantages of integrated farming
system, integrated farming system upsc and poultry.
These keywords list as related queries are listed in the
google trends based on the relative scale of user
searched query.
While the related queries for 'agroforestry' are
agroforestry systems, world agroforestry, what is
agroforestry, forestry, agroforestry system, forest,
agriculture, agroforestry pdf, agroforestry definition,
agroforestry in india, agroforestry meaning, world
agroforestry centre, agroforestry practices, agro,
importance of agroforestry, types of agroforestry,
definition of agroforestry, benefits of agroforestry,
agro forestry, climate change, social forestry, define
ag rofor e stry, bio diver sity, agr o fore s try and
advantages of agroforestry. Figure 5 further depicts
that the term 'integrated farming system' is confined to
the Southeast Asian countries, especially India and on
the contrary 'agroforestry' seems to have a global
reach. Yet the African countries dominated the search
trends where Rwanda topped the list. It should be
noted that the search trends value is influenced by the
total searches in that country and internet reach. Given
that Google is the most popular search engine which
has global reach; thus, it can be concluded that the
'integrated farming system' is still underdeveloped and
has no wider acceptance.
Through the bibliometric approach, the search for the
keyword string – 'Agroforestry' in WoS yielded about
9272 publications and for the keyword string
('Integrated farming system' OR 'Integrated farming') in
WoS yield about 450 publications. There was an
apparent distinction in the usage of terms/n-gram in
scientific publications, as only 31 researchers have used
both terms together in the same scientific publication
itself (Figure 6). About 21 publications from India
which had used both the terms together in their attempt
to describe the farm diversification
. The remaining publications
(10 Nos.) outside India perceive that agroforestry itself
as integration of components. Given that there are
independent school of thoughts on agroforestry as well
as integrated farming system, there is a need for
theoretical examination on the technical similarity
between both these terms from scientific dimensions.
(Behera and France
2016; Singh et al. 2016)
24 25
Figure 2. The frequency (y-axis) of words 'agroforestry' and
'integrated farming system' in the Google Books Corpus
from a) 1950-1980 b) 1981-2000 and c) 2001-2019 (x-axis).
Figure 3. The frequency (y-axis) of words related to
'integrated farming” in the Google Books Corpus
from1900 to 2019 (x-axis).
Figure 4. Google Trends output for Web search queries for the term “agroforestry” and integrated farming system” worldwide
from January 2005 to March 2023.
Figure 5. Overview of countries in a) 'agroforestry' and b) 'integrated farming system' search terms at global
Google Trends, as of October 2022.

Figure 6. The proportion of scientific publications in the WoS
database for 'Agroforestry' and 'Integrated farming
system'-based keyword string search.
Agroforestry: origin and definitions
The significant foundational work of agroforestry was
carried out by the International Development Research
Centre (IDRC) of Canada in July 1975 under the
leadership of Dr John Bene. The IRDC came out with
some major recommendations to improve the
productivity of agricultural lands and one of them was to
focus on a combined production system that includes
forestry, crops and animal husbandry. This paved way
for the establishment of agroforestry as a science. After
the establishment of the International Centre for
Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), presently known as
World Agroforestry, the role of agroforestry has been
showcased in farmland . It seems that
Agroforestry as a subject gained momentum in 1975
and correspondingly, the n-gram graph steadily
increased in the 1970s. Today, agroforestry research has
entered the fifth phase focusing more on dynamics and
socio-ecological systems at the landscape, livelihoods
and policy levels. Yet, there are misconceptions about
the definitions of agroforestry among different
stakeholders. The recent publication from the World
Agroforestry titled "Sustainable development through
trees on farms: agroforestry in its fifth decade"
systematically brings in analogy to elucidate the
development of agroforestry and enlighten the readers
on the definition of agroforestry .
It is stated that the initial years of agroforestry research
were mainly devoted to proving the existence of
agroforestry as such. Historically, the farmers have
incorporated trees in farmlands globally and a recent
study at a global scale also proves that more than 40% of
agricultural land has 10% of tree cover
. Therefore, scientific works on agroforestry have
always attempted to provide a framework for the
existing practice in the farmer's field. And the definition
for agroforestry in the 1970s was "Agroforestry is a
collective name for land-use systems and technologies
where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboo
etc.) are deliberately used on the same land management
unit as crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial
arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry
systems, there are both ecological and economic
(Nair 1993)
(van Noordwijk 2019)
(Zomer et al.
2016)
interactions between the different components".
Subsequently, the definition of agroforestry was
simplified and modified to highlight its contribution to
the environment and natural resource management. For
instance, "Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically
based, natural resource management system that,
through the integration of trees on farms and in
agricultural landscapes, diversifies and sustains
production for increased social, economic and
environmental benefits for land users at all levels", and
according to "Agroforestry, a
combination of agriculture and forestry, is a land use that
combines aspects of both, including the agricultural use
of trees".
In the Indian context, agroforestry research began with
the installation of the All India Coordinated Research
Project (AICRP) on Agroforestry by the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1983 and later it was
institutionalised as the National Research Centre for
Agroforestry in 1988 (presently known as Central
Agroforestry Research Institute) (https://cafri.
icar.gov.in/). With the enactment of the National
Agroforestry Policy in 2014, India became the first
country to institutionalise focus for upscaling
agroforestry . However, fundamentally, the
difference was the usage of the word "trees" instead of
"wood perennials". This subsequently led to
contextualizing agroforestry as a forestry-centric
subject but on the contrary, it is more multidisciplinary.
Given that there was more focus on timber-yielding
trees initially, there were however opportunities to
integrate perennial horticultural crops as well. This has
exactly been reflected in the usage of agroforestry
typologies like agri-horticultural systems, horti-
silvipastoral systems, agri-silvi-horticultural systems,
etc. in the scientific literature for the past 20 years.
Overall, it indicated that our assumption on agroforestry
has to change, and a grofores try i s not a n
intervention/practice, but a system of land-use where
perennials are intentionally cultivated on agricultural
land along with animal integration. Notwithstanding,
the significance of agroforestry prompted a National
Agroforestry Policy in India during 2014 which defines
agroforestry as "a land use system which integrate trees
and shrubs on farmlands and rural landscapes to
enhance productivity, profitability, diversity and
ecosystem sustainability. It is a dynamic, ecologically
based, natural resource management system that,
through integration of woody perennials on farms and in
the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains
production and builds social institutions".
Integrated farming system: Origin and Definitions
`There is no waste in agriculture but only misplaced
resources' is the foundational principle of the integrated
farming system(s). The results from google n-gram has
indicated that the origins were in the 1980s. The exact origin
of the 'Integrated farming system' is however not traceable.
van Noordwijk (2019)
(GoI 2014)
26
Yet the oldest scholarly research work was published in
1982 about the constraints in the Integrated Farming System
in Thailand . Yet, there are some opinion and
perspective papers which suggest an integrated farming
system as a holistic next step for integrated pest or nutrient
management . The N-gram
graph also had a steady rise after the 1980s only.
Additionally, there are numerous definitions for 'integrated
farming system' and some of them are,
Integrated farming system is the scientific integration of
different interdependent and interacting farm
enterprises for the efficient use of land, labour and other
resources of a farm family which provides year-round
income to the farmers especially those located in the
handicapped zone .
Integrated farming system (IFS) involves the utilization
of primary produce and secondary produce of one
system as basic input of other system, thus making the
mutually integrated as one whole unit. There is a need
for effective linkages and complementarities of various
components to develop holistic farm system
.
Integrated farming is defined as a biologically
integrated system, which integrates natural resources in
a regulation mechanism into farming activities to
achieve maximum replacement of off-farm inputs,
secures sustainable production of high-quality food and
other products through ecologically preferred
technologies, sustains farm income, eliminates or
reduces sources of present environment pollutions
generated by agriculture and sustains the multiple
functions of agriculture. It emphasizes a holistic
approach .
(Ruddle 1982)
(Vereijken 1989; Sharma 2021)
(Archer et al. 2019)
(Behera
and France 2016)
(Khobragade et al. 2021)
IFS approach can be described as "A judicious mix of
two or more components using cardinal principles of
minimum competition and maximum complementarity
with advanced agronomic management tools aiming for
sustainable and environment friendly improvement of
farm income, family nutrition and ecosystem
services" .
In all these definitions, the entire concept of the
integrated farming systems revolves around the farm
and improving farm level output as well as income. In
the Indian context, the origins of the 'integrated farming
system' can be traced back to the Fertiliser trials of the
All India Coordinated Agronomic Research Project
(AICARP) which began in 1953 and led to the
establishment of the ICAR-Project Directorate for
Cropping System Research (PDCSR) in 1989. This
PDCSR was also implementing the All India
Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Cropping
System Research. This project later was referred to as
AICRP on Cropping/Farming System Research.
Ultimately in only 2009-10 – it was renamed as the
AICRP on Integrated Farming System. Tracing back the
research development of this 'integrated farming
system', it was apparent that an attempt to develop a
resource-efficient cropping system led to the birth of the
'integrated farming system' in India. This further led to
renaming PDCSR as a dedicated institute on farming
system research i.e. Indian Institute for Farming System
Research (IIFSR)( https://iifsr.icar.gov.in/icar-iifsr/). In
2014, another institute named ICAR-Mahatma Gandhi
Integrated Farming System Research Institute
(https://mgifri.icar.gov.in/), Motihari, Bihar also came
into existence.
(Vereijken 1989)
27
Table 1a. Structural comparison between agroforestry and integrated farming system
Parameters Agroforestry Integrated farming system
Landholding size Large, Medium, Small Small and Marginal
Woody perennials Intentionally included Not essential
Number of components Not more than three components n -number of components as possible
at the time
Complexity Complex Arranged
Gestation period Shorter Shorter than agroforestry
Approach to cultivation Perennials are admixed with crops Different crops are admixed at the will
of the end-users
Cropping duration More than one rotation Each component is independent, yet
connected as an entity: no admixture
Skill requirement for adopters Minimum Maximum depending on the number of
components
Harvesting pattern Independent harvest for each Simultaneous or independent
component harvest for each component
Scope for vertical integration Possible Not possible
Integration of livestock Well integrated Well integrated but not on all models
component
Integration of fisheries May or May not be Well integrated
component

Figure 6. The proportion of scientific publications in the WoS
database for 'Agroforestry' and 'Integrated farming
system'-based keyword string search.
Agroforestry: origin and definitions
The significant foundational work of agroforestry was
carried out by the International Development Research
Centre (IDRC) of Canada in July 1975 under the
leadership of Dr John Bene. The IRDC came out with
some major recommendations to improve the
productivity of agricultural lands and one of them was to
focus on a combined production system that includes
forestry, crops and animal husbandry. This paved way
for the establishment of agroforestry as a science. After
the establishment of the International Centre for
Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), presently known as
World Agroforestry, the role of agroforestry has been
showcased in farmland . It seems that
Agroforestry as a subject gained momentum in 1975
and correspondingly, the n-gram graph steadily
increased in the 1970s. Today, agroforestry research has
entered the fifth phase focusing more on dynamics and
socio-ecological systems at the landscape, livelihoods
and policy levels. Yet, there are misconceptions about
the definitions of agroforestry among different
stakeholders. The recent publication from the World
Agroforestry titled "Sustainable development through
trees on farms: agroforestry in its fifth decade"
systematically brings in analogy to elucidate the
development of agroforestry and enlighten the readers
on the definition of agroforestry .
It is stated that the initial years of agroforestry research
were mainly devoted to proving the existence of
agroforestry as such. Historically, the farmers have
incorporated trees in farmlands globally and a recent
study at a global scale also proves that more than 40% of
agricultural land has 10% of tree cover
. Therefore, scientific works on agroforestry have
always attempted to provide a framework for the
existing practice in the farmer's field. And the definition
for agroforestry in the 1970s was "Agroforestry is a
collective name for land-use systems and technologies
where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboo
etc.) are deliberately used on the same land management
unit as crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial
arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry
systems, there are both ecological and economic
(Nair 1993)
(van Noordwijk 2019)
(Zomer et al.
2016)
interactions between the different components".
Subsequently, the definition of agroforestry was
simplified and modified to highlight its contribution to
the environment and natural resource management. For
instance, "Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically
based, natural resource management system that,
through the integration of trees on farms and in
agricultural landscapes, diversifies and sustains
production for increased social, economic and
environmental benefits for land users at all levels", and
according to "Agroforestry, a
combination of agriculture and forestry, is a land use that
combines aspects of both, including the agricultural use
of trees".
In the Indian context, agroforestry research began with
the installation of the All India Coordinated Research
Project (AICRP) on Agroforestry by the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1983 and later it was
institutionalised as the National Research Centre for
Agroforestry in 1988 (presently known as Central
Agroforestry Research Institute) (https://cafri.
icar.gov.in/). With the enactment of the National
Agroforestry Policy in 2014, India became the first
country to institutionalise focus for upscaling
agroforestry . However, fundamentally, the
difference was the usage of the word "trees" instead of
"wood perennials". This subsequently led to
contextualizing agroforestry as a forestry-centric
subject but on the contrary, it is more multidisciplinary.
Given that there was more focus on timber-yielding
trees initially, there were however opportunities to
integrate perennial horticultural crops as well. This has
exactly been reflected in the usage of agroforestry
typologies like agri-horticultural systems, horti-
silvipastoral systems, agri-silvi-horticultural systems,
etc. in the scientific literature for the past 20 years.
Overall, it indicated that our assumption on agroforestry
has to change, and a grofores try i s not a n
intervention/practice, but a system of land-use where
perennials are intentionally cultivated on agricultural
land along with animal integration. Notwithstanding,
the significance of agroforestry prompted a National
Agroforestry Policy in India during 2014 which defines
agroforestry as "a land use system which integrate trees
and shrubs on farmlands and rural landscapes to
enhance productivity, profitability, diversity and
ecosystem sustainability. It is a dynamic, ecologically
based, natural resource management system that,
through integration of woody perennials on farms and in
the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains
production and builds social institutions".
Integrated farming system: Origin and Definitions
`There is no waste in agriculture but only misplaced
resources' is the foundational principle of the integrated
farming system(s). The results from google n-gram has
indicated that the origins were in the 1980s. The exact origin
of the 'Integrated farming system' is however not traceable.
van Noordwijk (2019)
(GoI 2014)
26
Yet the oldest scholarly research work was published in
1982 about the constraints in the Integrated Farming System
in Thailand . Yet, there are some opinion and
perspective papers which suggest an integrated farming
system as a holistic next step for integrated pest or nutrient
management . The N-gram
graph also had a steady rise after the 1980s only.
Additionally, there are numerous definitions for 'integrated
farming system' and some of them are,
Integrated farming system is the scientific integration of
different interdependent and interacting farm
enterprises for the efficient use of land, labour and other
resources of a farm family which provides year-round
income to the farmers especially those located in the
handicapped zone .
Integrated farming system (IFS) involves the utilization
of primary produce and secondary produce of one
system as basic input of other system, thus making the
mutually integrated as one whole unit. There is a need
for effective linkages and complementarities of various
components to develop holistic farm system
.
Integrated farming is defined as a biologically
integrated system, which integrates natural resources in
a regulation mechanism into farming activities to
achieve maximum replacement of off-farm inputs,
secures sustainable production of high-quality food and
other products through ecologically preferred
technologies, sustains farm income, eliminates or
reduces sources of present environment pollutions
generated by agriculture and sustains the multiple
functions of agriculture. It emphasizes a holistic
approach .
(Ruddle 1982)
(Vereijken 1989; Sharma 2021)
(Archer et al. 2019)
(Behera
and France 2016)
(Khobragade et al. 2021)
IFS approach can be described as "A judicious mix of
two or more components using cardinal principles of
minimum competition and maximum complementarity
with advanced agronomic management tools aiming for
sustainable and environment friendly improvement of
farm income, family nutrition and ecosystem
services" .
In all these definitions, the entire concept of the
integrated farming systems revolves around the farm
and improving farm level output as well as income. In
the Indian context, the origins of the 'integrated farming
system' can be traced back to the Fertiliser trials of the
All India Coordinated Agronomic Research Project
(AICARP) which began in 1953 and led to the
establishment of the ICAR-Project Directorate for
Cropping System Research (PDCSR) in 1989. This
PDCSR was also implementing the All India
Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Cropping
System Research. This project later was referred to as
AICRP on Cropping/Farming System Research.
Ultimately in only 2009-10 – it was renamed as the
AICRP on Integrated Farming System. Tracing back the
research development of this 'integrated farming
system', it was apparent that an attempt to develop a
resource-efficient cropping system led to the birth of the
'integrated farming system' in India. This further led to
renaming PDCSR as a dedicated institute on farming
system research i.e. Indian Institute for Farming System
Research (IIFSR)( https://iifsr.icar.gov.in/icar-iifsr/). In
2014, another institute named ICAR-Mahatma Gandhi
Integrated Farming System Research Institute
(https://mgifri.icar.gov.in/), Motihari, Bihar also came
into existence.
(Vereijken 1989)
27
Table 1a. Structural comparison between agroforestry and integrated farming system
Parameters Agroforestry Integrated farming system
Landholding size Large, Medium, Small Small and Marginal
Woody perennials Intentionally included Not essential
Number of components Not more than three components n -number of components as possible
at the time
Complexity Complex Arranged
Gestation period Shorter Shorter than agroforestry
Approach to cultivation Perennials are admixed with crops Different crops are admixed at the will
of the end-users
Cropping duration More than one rotation Each component is independent, yet
connected as an entity: no admixture
Skill requirement for adopters Minimum Maximum depending on the number of
components
Harvesting pattern Independent harvest for each Simultaneous or independent
component harvest for each component
Scope for vertical integration Possible Not possible
Integration of livestock Well integrated Well integrated but not on all models
component
Integration of fisheries May or May not be Well integrated
component

The origins and definition of both agroforestry and
integrated farming system have been narrated so far and
in the subsequent section, the similarities and
dissimilarities willbe discussed on the basis of a)
Structure b) Economics and c) Ecology.
On the structural front, both agroforestry and integrated
farming systems are completely different. For instance,
the deliberate incorporation/presence of a woody
perennial component is a mandatory criterion for
agroforestry, whereas the latter does not emphasize the
inclusion of woody perennials. e.g. Integrated rice-duck
farming system . Agroforestry emphasizes
woody perennials (which include trees, shrubs, bamboo
and palms) not for better returns but also other
ecological benefits (Table 1a). The ecological benefits
are not curtailed by carbon sequestration but also by
enhancing soil health. nutrient pumping, support for soil
microbiota, nutrient cycling and continuous biological
nitrogen fixation. The enhanced soil health will have a
positive impact on crop production. This makes
agroforestry a more self-sustaining system and circular
food production system provided optimal tree-crop
choices are made. Agroforestry is about woody
perennials+crop+/-livestock; livestock is a collective
word that encompasses fisheries, apiary and sericulture.
The combination of woody perennials+crop+fisheries
is notated as Aquaforestry; while woody perennials+
crop+apiary is notated as 'Apiculture with Trees' and
there are documented practices at the farm level for the
above-stated agroforestry system. Agroforestry as
science began with listing out the best-suited
combinations among the farmers which were later
refined to suit the local conditions. Unlike agroforestry
which is time-tested and experienced, an integrated
farming system brings on >3 different successfully
independent components to the same piece of land
which are useful and workable. Since the different
(Suh 2015)
independent components are brought together, the
gestation period might be shorter than the simplest
agroforestry (e.g. alley cropping) but it requires high-
skill development for implementation at the field level.
The independent components in the integrated farming
system can be harvested simultaneous or independently
which provides a diversified farm output. However, the
lack of marketing facilities might defeat the purpose as
increased income from the land cannot be achieved.
On the constraint of lack of market facility, the
integrated farming system is recommended for small
and marginal farmers; thereby providing diversified
products and increasing farm resilience. However, the
adoption of the Integrated Farming System at a large
scale becomes an operational constraint and it also
requires large numbers of differentially skilled labours.
The added cost of skilled labour at a larger scale defeats
the purpose of the integrated farming system (Table 1b.).
On the contrary, agroforestry as the practice is farmer-
known and it requires skilled labour only at systematic
intervals. Eventually, this provides the farmer with
flexibility in agronomic and cultural practices.
Therefore, agroforestry befits small, marginal as well as
large landholding. With today's perspective of land
pooling and grouping farming, agroforestry shall have
better reach and acceptability per se. This is a classical
distinction between agroforestry and integrated farming
system on an economic basis. Also, the multi-strata
agroforestry provides real time example for the vertical
integration (via vertical farming) by exploring the
additional growing space . This
ensures increased production in terms of volume and
biomass within the carrying capacity of the land which is
not possible in integrated farming system.
Further, the input requirement of agroforestry is
minimal compared to the latter, especially the inorganic
fertilizers. Therefore, the promotion of agroforestry can
(Parthiban et al. 2019)
28
also lower the usage of inorganic fertilizers to a certain
extent. Going by the principle of an integrated farming
system, the waste/by-product of one component
becomes the input for the next component. Thus, these
components are interconnected and the absence/failure
of one component can cause a cascading effect on the
other components. On the contrary, the components in
agroforestry are independent but their interactions are
manag ed to a chieve the com ple mentary o r
supplementary effect. For instance, in simple Poplar-
based Agroforestry system, the choice of crop has
negligible effect on the growth of trees and in a complex
agroforestry system like homegardens, removal on
perennial component will not have cascading effect on
the overall output.
Comparing the crop yields, there can be a possible
decline of yield in agroforestry due only after the tree
crown expansion is complete. A meta-analysis of
European Agroforestry Systems concludes that the
traditional agroforestry systems like Dehesa (Spain)
and Montado (Portugal) agrosilvopastoral systems
reported no yield decline. However, agroforestry
systems like alley cropping which has more number of
perennials per unit area reported a yield decline of up to
2.6% . Another study report in Africa
concludes that species like Faidherbia albida exert a
more positive impact on crop yield but other forms of
perennial inclusion like green manure and mulching
with coppicing trees and parklands slightly reduced the
cereal yield. It can be argued that is slightly declining in
the yield may not constitute a risk for farmers while a
slightly positive response may be just as risky, because it
may not fully compensate for labour and/or capital
expended in implementing the practice
. In the Indian context, there is always a tradeoff
for reduced crop yield in agroforestry. The study from
Central India states that the residual effect of nitrogen
from felled Acacia nilotica plantation enhances the
yield of the paddy crop . Further,
traditional agroforestry systems in India have reported
better crop yield compared to monocropping like the
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) based agroforestry systems
(Ivezić et al. 2021)
(Bayala et al.
2012)
(Pandey 2007)
29
Table 1b. Comparison between agroforestry and integrated farming system based on economics
Factors Agroforestry Integrated farming system
Product Volume Large Low
Product diversification High High
Recommended landholders All sorts of landholders Only for small and marginal farmers,
i.e., integrated farming at a large scale
> 2 ha will be difficult to manage
Inputs Relatively lower Higher
Inorganic fertilizer usage Sometimes Used
Production /Yield A slight decline in yield per ha Yield may be on par with monocropping
compared to monocropping
Monetary output High Dependent on the market facility
Yield maximization/optimizing Maximization Maximization
Labour Systematic Differential
Employment generation Good Poor
Stakeholders Farmers, Industry Farmers
Table 1c. Ecological comparison between agroforestry and integrated farming system
Factors Agroforestry Integrated farming system
Fragility Low High
Homeostasis Medium External Control High External Control
Green cover Increases the green cover Not exclusively
Biodiversity High Low
Carbon sequestration High Depends upon model
Soil Organic carbon High Depends on the nature of the component
Non-CO2 GHG reduction Medium Low
Regeneration Artificial/managed Artificial
Potential nutrient loss Low Medium
Potential nutrient addition High Medium
Pathogen/Disease risk More risk More Risk
Connectance (Biotic Independent components High
interdependence) interact with each other for the
complementary or supplementary
outcome
Irrigation Moderate Intensive
Soil Fertility management Well managed Well managed with additional inputs
Tillage Minimum Tillage Conventional Tillage
Energy source High Low
Nutrient sourcing Internally Recycled High external input
Carrying capacity of the land Utilised to the maximum Not fully realised
Ecological status Simple to Complex Well connected
Erosion control High Low
Ecosystem services On par with a forest ecosystem No concern for ecosystem services
Systematic Differential
Employment generation Good Poor
Stakeholders Farmers, Industry Farmers

The origins and definition of both agroforestry and
integrated farming system have been narrated so far and
in the subsequent section, the similarities and
dissimilarities willbe discussed on the basis of a)
Structure b) Economics and c) Ecology.
On the structural front, both agroforestry and integrated
farming systems are completely different. For instance,
the deliberate incorporation/presence of a woody
perennial component is a mandatory criterion for
agroforestry, whereas the latter does not emphasize the
inclusion of woody perennials. e.g. Integrated rice-duck
farming system . Agroforestry emphasizes
woody perennials (which include trees, shrubs, bamboo
and palms) not for better returns but also other
ecological benefits (Table 1a). The ecological benefits
are not curtailed by carbon sequestration but also by
enhancing soil health. nutrient pumping, support for soil
microbiota, nutrient cycling and continuous biological
nitrogen fixation. The enhanced soil health will have a
positive impact on crop production. This makes
agroforestry a more self-sustaining system and circular
food production system provided optimal tree-crop
choices are made. Agroforestry is about woody
perennials+crop+/-livestock; livestock is a collective
word that encompasses fisheries, apiary and sericulture.
The combination of woody perennials+crop+fisheries
is notated as Aquaforestry; while woody perennials+
crop+apiary is notated as 'Apiculture with Trees' and
there are documented practices at the farm level for the
above-stated agroforestry system. Agroforestry as
science began with listing out the best-suited
combinations among the farmers which were later
refined to suit the local conditions. Unlike agroforestry
which is time-tested and experienced, an integrated
farming system brings on >3 different successfully
independent components to the same piece of land
which are useful and workable. Since the different
(Suh 2015)
independent components are brought together, the
gestation period might be shorter than the simplest
agroforestry (e.g. alley cropping) but it requires high-
skill development for implementation at the field level.
The independent components in the integrated farming
system can be harvested simultaneous or independently
which provides a diversified farm output. However, the
lack of marketing facilities might defeat the purpose as
increased income from the land cannot be achieved.
On the constraint of lack of market facility, the
integrated farming system is recommended for small
and marginal farmers; thereby providing diversified
products and increasing farm resilience. However, the
adoption of the Integrated Farming System at a large
scale becomes an operational constraint and it also
requires large numbers of differentially skilled labours.
The added cost of skilled labour at a larger scale defeats
the purpose of the integrated farming system (Table 1b.).
On the contrary, agroforestry as the practice is farmer-
known and it requires skilled labour only at systematic
intervals. Eventually, this provides the farmer with
flexibility in agronomic and cultural practices.
Therefore, agroforestry befits small, marginal as well as
large landholding. With today's perspective of land
pooling and grouping farming, agroforestry shall have
better reach and acceptability per se. This is a classical
distinction between agroforestry and integrated farming
system on an economic basis. Also, the multi-strata
agroforestry provides real time example for the vertical
integration (via vertical farming) by exploring the
additional growing space . This
ensures increased production in terms of volume and
biomass within the carrying capacity of the land which is
not possible in integrated farming system.
Further, the input requirement of agroforestry is
minimal compared to the latter, especially the inorganic
fertilizers. Therefore, the promotion of agroforestry can
(Parthiban et al. 2019)
28
also lower the usage of inorganic fertilizers to a certain
extent. Going by the principle of an integrated farming
system, the waste/by-product of one component
becomes the input for the next component. Thus, these
components are interconnected and the absence/failure
of one component can cause a cascading effect on the
other components. On the contrary, the components in
agroforestry are independent but their interactions are
manag ed to a chieve the com ple men tary o r
supplementary effect. For instance, in simple Poplar-
based Agroforestry system, the choice of crop has
negligible effect on the growth of trees and in a complex
agroforestry system like homegardens, removal on
perennial component will not have cascading effect on
the overall output.
Comparing the crop yields, there can be a possible
decline of yield in agroforestry due only after the tree
crown expansion is complete. A meta-analysis of
European Agroforestry Systems concludes that the
traditional agroforestry systems like Dehesa (Spain)
and Montado (Portugal) agrosilvopastoral systems
reported no yield decline. However, agroforestry
systems like alley cropping which has more number of
perennials per unit area reported a yield decline of up to
2.6% . Another study report in Africa
concludes that species like Faidherbia albida exert a
more positive impact on crop yield but other forms of
perennial inclusion like green manure and mulching
with coppicing trees and parklands slightly reduced the
cereal yield. It can be argued that is slightly declining in
the yield may not constitute a risk for farmers while a
slightly positive response may be just as risky, because it
may not fully compensate for labour and/or capital
expended in implementing the practice
. In the Indian context, there is always a tradeoff
for reduced crop yield in agroforestry. The study from
Central India states that the residual effect of nitrogen
from felled Acacia nilotica plantation enhances the
yield of the paddy crop . Further,
traditional agroforestry systems in India have reported
better crop yield compared to monocropping like the
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) based agroforestry systems
(Ivezić et al. 2021)
(Bayala et al.
2012)
(Pandey 2007)
29
Table 1b. Comparison between agroforestry and integrated farming system based on economics
Factors Agroforestry Integrated farming system
Product Volume Large Low
Product diversification High High
Recommended landholders All sorts of landholders Only for small and marginal farmers,
i.e., integrated farming at a large scale
> 2 ha will be difficult to manage
Inputs Relatively lower Higher
Inorganic fertilizer usage Sometimes Used
Production /Yield A slight decline in yield per ha Yield may be on par with monocropping
compared to monocropping
Monetary output High Dependent on the market facility
Yield maximization/optimizing Maximization Maximization
Labour Systematic Differential
Employment generation Good Poor
Stakeholders Farmers, Industry Farmers
Table 1c. Ecological comparison between agroforestry and integrated farming system
Factors Agroforestry Integrated farming system
Fragility Low High
Homeostasis Medium External Control High External Control
Green cover Increases the green cover Not exclusively
Biodiversity High Low
Carbon sequestration High Depends upon model
Soil Organic carbon High Depends on the nature of the component
Non-CO2 GHG reduction Medium Low
Regeneration Artificial/managed Artificial
Potential nutrient loss Low Medium
Potential nutrient addition High Medium
Pathogen/Disease risk More risk More Risk
Connectance (Biotic Independent components High
interdependence) interact with each other for the
complementary or supplementary
outcome
Irrigation Moderate Intensive
Soil Fertility management Well managed Well managed with additional inputs
Tillage Minimum Tillage Conventional Tillage
Energy source High Low
Nutrient sourcing Internally Recycled High external input
Carrying capacity of the land Utilised to the maximum Not fully realised
Ecological status Simple to Complex Well connected
Erosion control High Low
Ecosystem services On par with a forest ecosystem No concern for ecosystem services
Systematic Differential
Employment generation Good Poor
Stakeholders Farmers, Industry Farmers

which can be attributed to the microclimate
modification . Also, research outputs
from more than 21 countries concluded that substitution/
complementation of animal feed with woody perennials-
based fodder has a positive effect overall
. Provided diligence managerial approach is
adopted to reduce the indigestibility owing to high
lignocellulose and secondary metabolite content in
perennials .
Overall, it can be concluded the choice of woody
perennial species de termines the ecological,
en v ironme n tal and econo m ic v iabil i t y a nd
sustainability of agroforestry systems .
Further, agroforestry is globally proven to cater the
needs of industry, especially the wood-based industries
and potentially generates
employment. For instance, Poplar based Agroforestry
system is reported to generate 144 man-days per hectare
in Punjab, India .
On an ecological basis, agroforestry is said to mimic the
natural forest to a certain extent
. There is a consensus that agroforestry adheres to
agroecological principles of the food production system
which is not true for the integrated farming system
. The woody perennials by and
large are the pivotal sources of ecosystem services and
their mandatory presence in agroforestry benefits the
adopters. This directly ensures the low fragility and rich
biodiversity support from agroforestry. In a market-
oriented production context, returns on integration and
diversification increase as farmers produce more
biomass of better nutritional quality. The adopters need
to achieve this within the available technologies while
becoming less dependent on external inputs; this, in
turn, makes them less sensitive to price fluctuations
. This is much more valid in an agroforestry
context rather than the integrated farming system.
From the context of increasing the tree cover of the
nation and reclamation of wastelands/degraded lands,
agroforestry has proven to be the best suitable option as
also a nature-based solution. Further,
reported that tree incorporation into the integrated
farming system models shall expectedly reduce
emissions. Notwithstanding, livestock and fisheries
components enhances the economic viability of
integrated farming systems, but contribute significantly
to the emission rates . In view of
this, agroforestry becomes the lighthouse for any
Government to harness all benefits of this man-made
ecosystem. This evidently gave forth the National
Agroforestry Policy which is being pursued by other
nations enthusiastically. This again indicates the global
veracity of the concept and reach of agroforestry as a
scientific discipline and a system of practice which is a
nature-based solution and enhances farmers' resilience
per se.
(Pandey 2007)
(Salem et al.
2020)
(Ruiz-Nieto et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2020)
(Jose 2011)
(Parthiban et al. 2019, 2021)
(Kareemulla et al. 2005)
(Wilson and Lovell
2016)
(Jeanneret et al. 2021)
(Tui
et al. 2020)
Meera et al. (2019)
(Paramesh et al. 2022)
4. CONCLUSION
An integrated farming system can however be an apt
form for the diversification of farm outputs seasonally.
However, it is only designed to provide short-term
benefits whereby neglecting the implication of
increasing the resource input per unit area. Farming is
more than food production as it encompasses the
farmers' welfare too. The profitability in food
production should not demean the ecologically security.
As land is a scarce resource and existing lands are also
degraded in one form or the other, agroforestry being a
land-use practice not only offers a viable win-win
solution for food production as well as for ecological
security, but also acts as means for restoring marginally
degraded lands that serving the global purposes of
climate mitigation/adaptation and sustainable
development goals. As of date, there is no proven
integrated farming system model to reclaim any
degraded land nor any advocacy for climate mitigation.
Evidently, agroforestry is proven to foster farm income
vis-à-vis environmental resilience
. Thus, it is universally known
and accepted that agroforestry in next to none for
achieving sustainable farming. It is therefore concluded
that agroforestry and integrated farming systems are
conceptually different and distinguishable on its
structure and functions thereof. Hence, it would be
prudent not to use agroforestry and integrated farming
system synonymously as the latter seems to be
Indianized version of farm diversification approach
whilst agroforestry being an ecological production
system.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support of the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research and Department of
Science and Technology (DST)-National Mission for
Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE).
REFERENCES
Archer, D.W., Franco, J.G., Halvorson, J.J., Pokharel, K.P. (2019)
Integrated Farming Systems. In: Encyclopedia of Ecology.
Elsevier, pp 508–514
Aria, M., Cuccurullo, C. (2017) bibliometrix : An R-tool for
comprehensive science mapping analysis. J Informetr
11:959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2017.08.007
Bayala, J., Sileshi, G.W., Coe, R., et al. (2012) Cereal yield response to
conservation agriculture practices in drylands of West Africa: A
quantitative synthesis. J Arid Environ 78:13–25. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.10.011
Behera, U.K., France, J. (2016) Integrated farming systems and the
livelihood security of small and marginal farmers in India and
other developing countries. Adv Agron 138:235–282
DACFW (2017) Report of the Committee on Doubling Farmers'
Income Volume I. New Delhi
Dash, A., Ananth, P., Singh, S., et al. (2015) Empirical Proof on B
enefits of Integrated Farming System in Smallholder farms in
Odisha. Curr Agric Res J 3:69–74. https://doi.org/
10.12944/CARJ.3.1.09
GoI (2022) Economic Survey
GoI (2014) National Agroforestry Policy. Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation, India
(Schoeneberger et al.
2012; Mbow et al. 2014)
30
Hesterman OB, Thorburn TL (1994) A Comprehensive Approach to
Sustainable Agriculture: W. K. Kellogg's Integrated Farming
Systems Initiative. J Prod Agric 7:132–134. https://doi.org/
10.2134/jpa1994.0132
Ivezić V, Yu Y, Werf W van der (2021) Crop Yields in European
Agroforestry Systems: A Meta-Analysis. Front Sustain Food
Syst 5:. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.606631
Jat ML, Rahut DB, Aryal JP, Sapkota TB (2019) Agricultural
sustainability under emerging climatic variability: The role of
climate-smart agriculture and relevant policies in India. Int J
In n ov Su sta in De v 1:1 . h ttp s:/ / doi . org /10 .15 04/
IJISD.2019.10020869
Jeanneret P, Aviron S, Alignier A, et al (2021) Agroecology
landscapes. Landsc Ecol 36:2235–2257. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10980-021-01248-0
Jose S (2011) Managing native and non-native plants in agroforestry
systems. Agrofor Syst 83:101–105
Kareemulla K, Rizvi RH, Kumar K, et al (2005) Poplar agroforestry
systems of western Uttar Pradesh in Northern India: A
socioeconomic analysis. For Trees Livelihoods 15:375–381.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2005.9752537
Khobragade S, Mohapatra S, Mahananda M, et al (2021) Integrated
Farming System (IFS): A Review. Int J Econ Plants 8:181–187
Kousha K, Thelwall M (2015) An automatic method for extracting
citations from Google Books. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol
66:309–320. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23170
Kumari CP, Goverdhan M, Nthebere K, et al (2020) Diversification of
Cropping Systems for Different Integrated Farming System
Models under Irrigated Situation of Southern Telangana Zone,
Telangana, India. Curr J Appl Sci Technol 51–60.
https://doi.org/10.9734/cjast/2020/v39i2930957
Mbow C, Smith P, Skole D, et al (2014) Achieving mitigation and
adaptation to climate change through sustainable agroforestry
practices in Africa. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 6:8–14.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.09.002
Nair PKR (1993) An introduction to agroforestry. Springer Science &
Business Media
Nakagawa S, Samarasinghe G, Haddaway NR, et al (2019) Research
Weaving: Visualizing the Future of Research Synthesis. Trends
E c o l E v o l 3 4 : 2 2 4 – 2 3 8 . h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g /
10.1016/j.tree.2018.11.007
Nuti S V, Wayda B, Ranasinghe I, et al (2014) The use of google trends
in health care research: a systematic review. PLoS One
9:e109583
Pandey DN (2007) Multifunctional agroforestry systems in India.
Curr Sci 455–463
Paramesh V, Ravisankar N, Behera U, et al (2022) Integrated farming
system approaches to achieve food and nutritional security for
enhancing profitability, employment, and climate resilience in
India. Food Energy Secur 11:. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/fes3.321
Parthiban KT, Fernandaz CC, Sudhagar RJ, et al (2021) Industrial
Agroforestry—A Sustainable Value Chain Innovation through
a Co nso rti um App roa ch. S ust ain abi lit y 13: 712 6.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137126
Parthiban KT, Jude Sudhagar R, Cinthia Fernandaz C, Krishnakumar N
(2019) Consortium of Industrial Agroforestry: An institutional
mechanism for sustaining agroforestry in India. Curr Sci
117:30–36. https://doi.org/ 10.18520/cs/v117/i1/30-36
Pechenick EA, Danforth CM, Dodds PS (2015) Characterizing the
Google Books Corpus: Strong Limits to Inferences of Socio-
Cultural and Linguistic Evolution. PLoS One 10:e0137041.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137041
Pental D (2021) Challenges for India in agriculture and the pivotal role
of R&D in meeting these. Dialogue – Sci Sci Soc 4:1–47.
https://doi.org/10.29195/dsss.03.01.0032
Ponnusamy K, Devi MK (2017) Impact of Integrated Farming System
Approach on Doubling Farmers' Income. Agric Econ Res Rev
30:233. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-0279. 2017.00037.4
Pretty J, Sutherland WJ, Ashby J, et al (2010) The top 100 questions of
importance to the future of global agriculture. Int J Agric
Sustain 8:219–236. https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0534
Rahimifard S, Woolley E, Webb DP, et al (2017) Forging new frontiers
in sustainable food manufacturing. In: Smart Innovation,
Systems and Technologies. Springer, pp 13–24
Ramanan S. S, George AK, Chavan SB, et al (2020) Progress and
future research trends on Santalum album: A bibliometric and
sci ence mappi ng ap pr oach. Ind Cro ps Pr od 15 8:.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112972
Ray SC, Ghose A (2014) Production efficiency in Indian agriculture:
An assessment of the post green revolution years. Omega
44:58–69
Ruddle K (1982) Traditional integrated farming systems and rural
development: The example of ricefield fisheries in Southeast
Asia. Agric Adm 10:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/0309-
586X(82)90036-X
Ruiz-Nieto JE, Hernández-Ruiz J, Hernández-Marín J, et al (2020)
Mesquite (Prosopis spp.) tree as a feed resource for animal
growth. Agrofor Syst 94: 1139–1149. https://doi.o rg/
10.1007/s10457-020-00481-x
Salem AZM, Kunst CR, Jose S (2020) Alternative animal feeds from
ag rof or e st ry pl ant s. Agr of or S yst 9 4: 11 33– 11 38.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-020-00525-2
Schoeneberger M, Bentrup G, de Gooijer H, et al (2012) Branching
out: Agroforestry as a climate change mitigation and adaptation
tool for agriculture. J Soil Water Conserv 67:128A-136A.
https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.67.5.128A
Sharma DK (2021) Integrated Farming System: An Approach for
Sustainable Management of Natural Resources. J Nat Resour
Con s e r v M an a g 2 : 1 . h t t ps : / / d o i .o rg / 1 0 . 5 1 3 96 /
ANRCM.2.1.2021.1-5
Singh AK, Gohain I, Datta M (2016) Upscaling of agroforestry
homestead gardens for economic and livelihood security in
mid–tropical plain zone of India. Agrofor Syst 90:1103–1112.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-015-9886-7
Singh RK, Dey A, Paul SS, et al (2020) Associative effects of plant
secondary metabolites in modulating in vitro methanogenesis,
volatile fatty acids production and fermentation of feed in
buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Agrofor Syst 94:1555–1566.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00395-3
Suh J (2015) An institutional and policy framework to foster integrated
rice–duck farming in Asian developing countries. Int J Agric
S u s ta in 1 3: 29 4– 30 7. h t t ps :/ /d oi .o rg /1 0. 10 80 /
14735903.2014.975480
Tui SH-K, Valdivia RO, Descheemaeker K, et al (2020) Crop-
livestock integration to enhance ecosystem services in
sustainable food systems. In: The Role of Ecosystem Services
in Sustainable Food Systems. Elsevier, pp 141–169
van Noordwijk M (2019) Sustainable development through trees on
Farms: agroforestry in its fifth decade. ICRAF, Nairobi
Vereijken P (1989) From integrated control to integrated farming, an
experimental approach. Agric Ecosyst Environ 26:37–43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(89)90036-4
Wilson MH, Lovell ST (2016) Agroforestry-The next step in
su st ain ab le an d re si lie nt a gri cu ltu re . Sus ta in 8: .
https://doi.org/10.3390/su8060574
Zomer RJ, Neufeldt H, Xu J, et al (2016) Global Tree Cover and
Biomass Carbon on Agricultural Land: The contribution of
agroforestry to global and national carbon budgets. Sci Rep
6:29987. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep29987
Zyoud SH, Waring WS, Al-Jabi SW, Sweileh WM (2017) Global
cocaine intoxication research trends during 1975–2015: a
bibliometric analysis of Web of Science publications. Subst
Abuse Treat Prev Policy 12:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13011-
017-0090-9
31

which can be attributed to the microclimate
modification . Also, research outputs
from more than 21 countries concluded that substitution/
complementation of animal feed with woody perennials-
based fodder has a positive effect overall
. Provided diligence managerial approach is
adopted to reduce the indigestibility owing to high
lignocellulose and secondary metabolite content in
perennials .
Overall, it can be concluded the choice of woody
perennial species determines the ecological,
en v ironme n tal and econo m ic v iabil i t y a nd
sustainability of agroforestry systems .
Further, agroforestry is globally proven to cater the
needs of industry, especially the wood-based industries
and potentially generates
employment. For instance, Poplar based Agroforestry
system is reported to generate 144 man-days per hectare
in Punjab, India .
On an ecological basis, agroforestry is said to mimic the
natural forest to a certain extent
. There is a consensus that agroforestry adheres to
agroecological principles of the food production system
which is not true for the integrated farming system
. The woody perennials by and
large are the pivotal sources of ecosystem services and
their mandatory presence in agroforestry benefits the
adopters. This directly ensures the low fragility and rich
biodiversity support from agroforestry. In a market-
oriented production context, returns on integration and
diversification increase as farmers produce more
biomass of better nutritional quality. The adopters need
to achieve this within the available technologies while
becoming less dependent on external inputs; this, in
turn, makes them less sensitive to price fluctuations
. This is much more valid in an agroforestry
context rather than the integrated farming system.
From the context of increasing the tree cover of the
nation and reclamation of wastelands/degraded lands,
agroforestry has proven to be the best suitable option as
also a nature-based solution. Further,
reported that tree incorporation into the integrated
farming system models shall expectedly reduce
emissions. Notwithstanding, livestock and fisheries
components enhances the economic viability of
integrated farming systems, but contribute significantly
to the emission rates . In view of
this, agroforestry becomes the lighthouse for any
Government to harness all benefits of this man-made
ecosystem. This evidently gave forth the National
Agroforestry Policy which is being pursued by other
nations enthusiastically. This again indicates the global
veracity of the concept and reach of agroforestry as a
scientific discipline and a system of practice which is a
nature-based solution and enhances farmers' resilience
per se.
(Pandey 2007)
(Salem et al.
2020)
(Ruiz-Nieto et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2020)
(Jose 2011)
(Parthiban et al. 2019, 2021)
(Kareemulla et al. 2005)
(Wilson and Lovell
2016)
(Jeanneret et al. 2021)
(Tui
et al. 2020)
Meera et al. (2019)
(Paramesh et al. 2022)
4. CONCLUSION
An integrated farming system can however be an apt
form for the diversification of farm outputs seasonally.
However, it is only designed to provide short-term
benefits whereby neglecting the implication of
increasing the resource input per unit area. Farming is
more than food production as it encompasses the
farmers' welfare too. The profitability in food
production should not demean the ecologically security.
As land is a scarce resource and existing lands are also
degraded in one form or the other, agroforestry being a
land-use practice not only offers a viable win-win
solution for food production as well as for ecological
security, but also acts as means for restoring marginally
degraded lands that serving the global purposes of
climate mitigation/adaptation and sustainable
development goals. As of date, there is no proven
integrated farming system model to reclaim any
degraded land nor any advocacy for climate mitigation.
Evidently, agroforestry is proven to foster farm income
vis-à-vis environmental resilience
. Thus, it is universally known
and accepted that agroforestry in next to none for
achieving sustainable farming. It is therefore concluded
that agroforestry and integrated farming systems are
conceptually different and distinguishable on its
structure and functions thereof. Hence, it would be
prudent not to use agroforestry and integrated farming
system synonymously as the latter seems to be
Indianized version of farm diversification approach
whilst agroforestry being an ecological production
system.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support of the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research and Department of
Science and Technology (DST)-National Mission for
Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE).
REFERENCES
Archer, D.W., Franco, J.G., Halvorson, J.J., Pokharel, K.P. (2019)
Integrated Farming Systems. In: Encyclopedia of Ecology.
Elsevier, pp 508–514
Aria, M., Cuccurullo, C. (2017) bibliometrix : An R-tool for
comprehensive science mapping analysis. J Informetr
11:959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2017.08.007
Bayala, J., Sileshi, G.W., Coe, R., et al. (2012) Cereal yield response to
conservation agriculture practices in drylands of West Africa: A
quantitative synthesis. J Arid Environ 78:13–25. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.10.011
Behera, U.K., France, J. (2016) Integrated farming systems and the
livelihood security of small and marginal farmers in India and
other developing countries. Adv Agron 138:235–282
DACFW (2017) Report of the Committee on Doubling Farmers'
Income Volume I. New Delhi
Dash, A., Ananth, P., Singh, S., et al. (2015) Empirical Proof on B
enefits of Integrated Farming System in Smallholder farms in
Odisha. Curr Agric Res J 3:69–74. https://doi.org/
10.12944/CARJ.3.1.09
GoI (2022) Economic Survey
GoI (2014) National Agroforestry Policy. Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation, India
(Schoeneberger et al.
2012; Mbow et al. 2014)
30
Hesterman OB, Thorburn TL (1994) A Comprehensive Approach to
Sustainable Agriculture: W. K. Kellogg's Integrated Farming
Systems Initiative. J Prod Agric 7:132–134. https://doi.org/
10.2134/jpa1994.0132
Ivezić V, Yu Y, Werf W van der (2021) Crop Yields in European
Agroforestry Systems: A Meta-Analysis. Front Sustain Food
Syst 5:. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.606631
Jat ML, Rahut DB, Aryal JP, Sapkota TB (2019) Agricultural
sustainability under emerging climatic variability: The role of
climate-smart agriculture and relevant policies in India. Int J
In n ov Su sta in De v 1:1 . h ttp s:/ / doi . org /10 .15 04/
IJISD.2019.10020869
Jeanneret P, Aviron S, Alignier A, et al (2021) Agroecology
landscapes. Landsc Ecol 36:2235–2257. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10980-021-01248-0
Jose S (2011) Managing native and non-native plants in agroforestry
systems. Agrofor Syst 83:101–105
Kareemulla K, Rizvi RH, Kumar K, et al (2005) Poplar agroforestry
systems of western Uttar Pradesh in Northern India: A
socioeconomic analysis. For Trees Livelihoods 15:375–381.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2005.9752537
Khobragade S, Mohapatra S, Mahananda M, et al (2021) Integrated
Farming System (IFS): A Review. Int J Econ Plants 8:181–187
Kousha K, Thelwall M (2015) An automatic method for extracting
citations from Google Books. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol
66:309–320. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23170
Kumari CP, Goverdhan M, Nthebere K, et al (2020) Diversification of
Cropping Systems for Different Integrated Farming System
Models under Irrigated Situation of Southern Telangana Zone,
Telangana, India. Curr J Appl Sci Technol 51–60.
https://doi.org/10.9734/cjast/2020/v39i2930957
Mbow C, Smith P, Skole D, et al (2014) Achieving mitigation and
adaptation to climate change through sustainable agroforestry
practices in Africa. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 6:8–14.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.09.002
Nair PKR (1993) An introduction to agroforestry. Springer Science &
Business Media
Nakagawa S, Samarasinghe G, Haddaway NR, et al (2019) Research
Weaving: Visualizing the Future of Research Synthesis. Trends
E c o l E v o l 3 4 : 2 2 4 – 2 3 8 . h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g /
10.1016/j.tree.2018.11.007
Nuti S V, Wayda B, Ranasinghe I, et al (2014) The use of google trends
in health care research: a systematic review. PLoS One
9:e109583
Pandey DN (2007) Multifunctional agroforestry systems in India.
Curr Sci 455–463
Paramesh V, Ravisankar N, Behera U, et al (2022) Integrated farming
system approaches to achieve food and nutritional security for
enhancing profitability, employment, and climate resilience in
India. Food Energy Secur 11:. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/fes3.321
Parthiban KT, Fernandaz CC, Sudhagar RJ, et al (2021) Industrial
Agroforestry—A Sustainable Value Chain Innovation through
a Co nso rti um App roa ch. S ust ain abi lit y 13: 712 6.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137126
Parthiban KT, Jude Sudhagar R, Cinthia Fernandaz C, Krishnakumar N
(2019) Consortium of Industrial Agroforestry: An institutional
mechanism for sustaining agroforestry in India. Curr Sci
117:30–36. https://doi.org/ 10.18520/cs/v117/i1/30-36
Pechenick EA, Danforth CM, Dodds PS (2015) Characterizing the
Google Books Corpus: Strong Limits to Inferences of Socio-
Cultural and Linguistic Evolution. PLoS One 10:e0137041.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137041
Pental D (2021) Challenges for India in agriculture and the pivotal role
of R&D in meeting these. Dialogue – Sci Sci Soc 4:1–47.
https://doi.org/10.29195/dsss.03.01.0032
Ponnusamy K, Devi MK (2017) Impact of Integrated Farming System
Approach on Doubling Farmers' Income. Agric Econ Res Rev
30:233. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-0279. 2017.00037.4
Pretty J, Sutherland WJ, Ashby J, et al (2010) The top 100 questions of
importance to the future of global agriculture. Int J Agric
Sustain 8:219–236. https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0534
Rahimifard S, Woolley E, Webb DP, et al (2017) Forging new frontiers
in sustainable food manufacturing. In: Smart Innovation,
Systems and Technologies. Springer, pp 13–24
Ramanan S. S, George AK, Chavan SB, et al (2020) Progress and
future research trends on Santalum album: A bibliometric and
sci ence mappi ng ap pr oach. Ind Cro ps Pr od 15 8:.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112972
Ray SC, Ghose A (2014) Production efficiency in Indian agriculture:
An assessment of the post green revolution years. Omega
44:58–69
Ruddle K (1982) Traditional integrated farming systems and rural
development: The example of ricefield fisheries in Southeast
Asia. Agric Adm 10:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/0309-
586X(82)90036-X
Ruiz-Nieto JE, Hernández-Ruiz J, Hernández-Marín J, et al (2020)
Mesquite (Prosopis spp.) tree as a feed resource for animal
growth. Agrofor Syst 94: 1139–1149. https://doi.o rg/
10.1007/s10457-020-00481-x
Salem AZM, Kunst CR, Jose S (2020) Alternative animal feeds from
ag rof or e st ry pl ant s. Agr of or S yst 9 4: 11 33– 11 38.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-020-00525-2
Schoeneberger M, Bentrup G, de Gooijer H, et al (2012) Branching
out: Agroforestry as a climate change mitigation and adaptation
tool for agriculture. J Soil Water Conserv 67:128A-136A.
https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.67.5.128A
Sharma DK (2021) Integrated Farming System: An Approach for
Sustainable Management of Natural Resources. J Nat Resour
Con s e r v M an a g 2 : 1 . h t t ps : / / d o i .o rg / 1 0 . 5 1 3 96 /
ANRCM.2.1.2021.1-5
Singh AK, Gohain I, Datta M (2016) Upscaling of agroforestry
homestead gardens for economic and livelihood security in
mid–tropical plain zone of India. Agrofor Syst 90:1103–1112.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-015-9886-7
Singh RK, Dey A, Paul SS, et al (2020) Associative effects of plant
secondary metabolites in modulating in vitro methanogenesis,
volatile fatty acids production and fermentation of feed in
buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Agrofor Syst 94:1555–1566.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00395-3
Suh J (2015) An institutional and policy framework to foster integrated
rice–duck farming in Asian developing countries. Int J Agric
S u s ta in 1 3: 29 4– 30 7. h t t ps :/ /d oi .o rg /1 0. 10 80 /
14735903.2014.975480
Tui SH-K, Valdivia RO, Descheemaeker K, et al (2020) Crop-
livestock integration to enhance ecosystem services in
sustainable food systems. In: The Role of Ecosystem Services
in Sustainable Food Systems. Elsevier, pp 141–169
van Noordwijk M (2019) Sustainable development through trees on
Farms: agroforestry in its fifth decade. ICRAF, Nairobi
Vereijken P (1989) From integrated control to integrated farming, an
experimental approach. Agric Ecosyst Environ 26:37–43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(89)90036-4
Wilson MH, Lovell ST (2016) Agroforestry-The next step in
su st ain ab le an d re si lie nt a gri cu ltu re . Sus ta in 8: .
https://doi.org/10.3390/su8060574
Zomer RJ, Neufeldt H, Xu J, et al (2016) Global Tree Cover and
Biomass Carbon on Agricultural Land: The contribution of
agroforestry to global and national carbon budgets. Sci Rep
6:29987. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep29987
Zyoud SH, Waring WS, Al-Jabi SW, Sweileh WM (2017) Global
cocaine intoxication research trends during 1975–2015: a
bibliometric analysis of Web of Science publications. Subst
Abuse Treat Prev Policy 12:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13011-
017-0090-9
31