50th International Association for the Philosophy of Sport Annual Conference Book of Abstracts

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Book of Abstracts of the 50th International Association for the Philosophy of Sport Annual Conference held in Split from 19th to 22nd September 2023

Full text

50
th
International Association for the
Philosophy of Sport Annual
Conference
(19th - 22nd September 2023, Radisson Blu Resort & Spa, Split, Croatia)
Book of Abstracts

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ORGANISERS
of
50
th
ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL
ASSOCIATION FOR THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPORT
UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB
Croatia
Research Committee for Bioethics and Sport
Centre of Excellence for Integrative Bioethics
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
&
UNIVERSITY OF SPLIT
Croatia
Faculty of Kinesiology

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ORGANISATION COMMITTEE
Presidents:
Matija Mato Škerbić
(University of Zagreb, Research Committee for Bioethics and Sport
Centre of Excellence for Integrative Bioethics
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences / Faculty of Croatian Studies)
&
Goran Gabrilo
(University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology)
Members of Organisation Committee:
Bruno Ćurko (University of Split, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences)
Marko Erceg (University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology)
Marijana Geets Kesić (University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology)
Peter Hopsicker (Penn State University, Faculty of Kinesiology)
Miloš Marković (University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education)
Sandra Radenović (University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education)
Emily Ryall (Gloucestershire University, School of Sport and Exercise)
Damir Sekulić (University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology)
Ivana Zagorac (University of Zagreb, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences)

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PUBLISHER
Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split
EDITORS
Matija Mato Škerbić
Goran Gabrilo
Emily Ryall
ISBN 978-953-7988-07-4

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HALF CENTURY OF SPOR TS PHILOSOPHY CONFERENCES. A REFLECTION
The very first academic lecture on the philosophy of sport that I gave at the University of Zagreb, Croatia was over a decade ago,
and it was observed by a few senior philosophy academics. After the lecture, one of them addressed me in front of the larger
group of scholars, with obvious intention to degrade me - he said: 'Your lecture was quite entertaining, just – it would be great if
you would do some real philosophy. I honestly hope you do understand that sport is actually 22 adult people running after the
ball, trying to put the ball between two columns. How stupid is that?! More so, there are thousands of other adults cheering for
them. What an unintelligent waste of human time and agency!?“
This was a typical view on sport (actually soccer in this particular case) in the philosophical circles with the basic viewpoint that
sport is not worthy of philosophical discussion. However, the given comment was supposed to shame me on the one hand, but
also make me realize that further engaging in such work is worthless on the other.
My response was quick and immidiate, while my mouth were quicker than my mind – I just said: 'I feel really sorry for you!“
While he was in a state of shock and disbelief, going towards feeling offended and disrespected, I was thinking of how much a
person can gain from sports, and how sports bring life meaning to so many. Also, how many values and goods in sports are
completely hidden from someone like him. As a philosophy scholar, I couldn't stop thinking of the rich content that sports provide
for philosophical research, reflection and discussion from the point of view of every philosophy discipline such as ethics,
epistemology, metaphysics, or aesthetics. But most importantly, I was thinking of how sad it is in my view when one is living life
without sports - missing so much in terms of emotions, intersubjectivity, spirituality, aesthetics, ethics, and - entertainment, and
joy.
However, I never received anything similar anymore. It is my strong impression that among the philosophy community in Croatia
right now, there is no doubt that the philosophy of sport is a respected field of general philosophy, just as sport is an interesting
and engaging philosophical topic. Well, not so many sports philosophers in Croatia thou, but we find this very conference an
important step forward in this regard.
The described incidence is probably one among many similar that the IAPS community and sports philosophy had to face over the
decades. Today, it is clear that these were the battles worth fighting. And a part of the long road that led from dealing with much
prejudice, ignorance, underestimation, and receiving similar comments, to this very point in which we are celebrating 50 years of
development and expansion around the globe, as well as the hard-earned status of the respected and important branch of general
philosophy. In this regard earlier in 2023, prof. Luca Scarantino, president of FISP - International Federation of Philosophical
Societies1 said:
"My feeling is that the philosophy of sport is a very significant domain for philosophy, one that might potentially become
a critical field for cross-cultural philosophical work. My sense is that philosophical reflection on sport may have a more
sizeable social and cultural impact than other, more traditional domains.“
It is interesting how far we have come in Croatia in a little less than a decade – from receiving such comments to developing sport-
philosophy as an important field or branch of philosophy and organizing the 50th global meeting of a particular community and
having Croatian scholar as an acting president of the European Association of the Philosophy of Sport.
50 IAPS Conferences
After a challenging few years and three delays because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the global sport-philosophy community is
finally meeting in Split, Croatia for the 50th time. What was supposed to happen in 2020, is happening in 2023.
Hosting the 50th conference of the International Association for the Philosophy of Sport (IAPS) is a special honor and privilege for
the two biggest and most successful Croatian universities: the University of Zagreb and the University of Split. Their joint effort in
organizing this event was initiated by Matija Mato Škerbić (University of Zagreb, Faculty of Croatian Studies), who authored the
1 International Federation of Philosophical Societies (FISP) was stated in 1900, as the leading global philosophical organization
that aims to gather all the world's philosophical societies. Its main activity is organizing The World Congress of Philosophy, which
has been happening every five years from 1900. In 2024 FISP is preparing its 25th Conference in Rome, Italy under the title
‘Philosophy Across Boundaries’.

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winning bid to host the conference but is also responsible for connecting the two universities and their institutions in collaboration.
The University of Zagreb is represented by the Research Committee for Bioethics and Sport of the Centre of Excellence for
Integrative Bioethics at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, while the University of Split by the Faculty of Kinesiology.
Number 50 is quite significant in several aspects. Namely, holding 50 IAPS conferences is a definitive proof of continuity and
development for the discipline that formally started in 1972 as a separate branch of general philosophy. In 1972, the Philosophic
Society for the Study of Sport (PSSS) was established, and the very first conference was held in Boston (USA). Since then, during
the half of the century period, the philosophy of sport has become an important academic discipline that has its own history,
tradition, global community, and quite impressive literature corpus.
In this regard, it is a huge privilege having some of the early 'pisars' (members of PSSS) with us in Split - Scott Kretchmar and
William John Morgan. Both are still making essential contributions to the field through their publications and lectures but also
through giving guidance and support to younger scholars, their initiatives, and their research. Here, it is important to mention
Warren Fraleigh, the most important person for establishing the philosophy of sport association and initiating the first conference.
Guided by his vision for the philosophy of sport discipline and its association to become internationally recognized and globally
spread, and after his proposal in 1999, PSSS changed its name to its current name IAPS – International Association for the
Philosophy of Sport.
On the other hand, 50 maintained conferences denote a point where the IAPS community has to autoreflect and look back and
forward at the same time. On the one hand, look back to acknowledge what has been done, which are the milestones, and to
point out who we need to praise and thank for bringing us to this point. On the other hand, look forward to anticipating the future
of both – sport per se and the philosophy of sport discipline. For the IAPS community and association, some of the tasks and paths
are obvious, like:
- bringing more diversity, multiculturality, and gender balance in the predominantly white male community;
- including other methodologies and philosophical traditions to almost exclusively analytical and anglo-saxon
philosophy;
- allowing other languages to thrive in the presiding English-speaking environment and literature;
- promoting philosophy of sport in different particular countries and geographical regions, as well as supporting
associations and communities of scholars in them;
- dividing and/or establishing USA and Canadian (or North American) associations apart from IAPS, and in this
way, making IAPS a true and actual umbrella association that accompanies all particular global communities of
sports philosophers;
- promoting interdisciplinarity as a sine qua non methodology for further research of today's sport because most
of the problems and issues in today's sports are so complex that needs necessary involvement and collaboration
of different disciplines and viewpoints, such as doping, integrity, and/or gender issues.
50th IAPS in Croatia
For the first time in the history of IAPS and the philosophy of sport Croatia and the town of Split is hosting an annual global meeting
of the sports philosophy community. Croatia is a rather young country that earned its independence from ex-Yugoslavia in 1991
and became the part of European Union in 2013. Geographically, the country is placed on the Balkan Peninsula and was historically
part of Central European and Mediterranean cultural and civilization circles.
In terms of sport, despite its short history, Croatia is a country of many global high-level professional success, with numerous
European, World and Olympic medalists such as Sandra Perković (athletics), Janica Kostelić (skiing), Marin Čilić (tennis) and Luka
Modrić (football), or handball, waterpolo, tennis, and football national teams. On the other hand, the town of Split is often called
the 'sports capital of Croatia' due to a high number of globally successful sportsmen such as Goran Ivanišević (tennis), Blanka Vlašić
(high jump) or Toni Kukoč (NBA basketball), and sports teams like Jugoplastika (best basketball team of 20th Century) or POŠK
(Waterpolo European Champions).
For the first time, Croatia entered the Olympic program in the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, Spain. IOC made an exception
for the newly established state mostly because of the impressive Croatian basketball team with the best European players such
as Dražen Petrović, Toni Kukoč, and Dino Rađa. The Croatian team took part in probably the most memorable moment - the
basketball finals against the original USA Dream Team with Michael Jordan, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and others.

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It seems to me that Croatia is the perfect place for hosting the 50th IAPS conference for several reasons. Firstly, this is definitive
proof of the success of internationalization and the worldwide spreading of the philosophy of sport and IAPS. Both definitely
become global things and not just North American or Anglo-Saxon (Great Britain, Australia) anymore, with a special case and
exception of Japan.
Secondly, Split IAPS 2023 is the next step in the continuation of opening new centers of philosophy of sport in Europe in the last
few years (Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, Croatia), as well as the connected processes of strengthening sports philosophy in Europe
and starting to take much more significant role in the global terms. In this regard, two centers play the most significant role,
accompanying dozens of scholars from all over the globe: KU Leuven in Belgium where Mike McNamee initiated interdisciplinary
studies in sports ethics and integrity as a master (MAISI) and doctoral programme (DAISI); and Charles University in Prague, Czech
Republic where Jim Parry and Irena Martinkova established sports ethics centre and very strong PhD programme.
Thirdly, this is a perfect depiction of the IAPS modus operandi of being open and bringing all needed support for strivings and
development of sports philosophy in different countries and regions. Namely, Croatia and other regional countries like Serbia,
Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Bulgaria, are sports countries with many great
achievements in high-level competitions, but also countries that love, promote, and practice sports in all of its forms and levels.
Just, without critical reflection on and about sports, or (bio)ethical examination of problems and issues in sport – videlicet, without
philosophy of sport. Thus, the IAPS 50th conference is an important step forward for the regional community. With this conference
region is not only acknowledged as relevant and important to the global community but also recognized as a growing potential
for the future. Moreover, the work and strivings of pioneers in the field in different countries are finally getting larger appreciation
and attention: Lev Kreft, Jernej Pisk, Milan Hosta in Slovenia, Ivana Zagorac, Morana Brkljačić and Matija Mato Škerbić in Croatia,
Jovo Radoš and Časlav Koprivica in Serbia, Boryana Angelova Igova in Bulgaria.
50 years of IAPS
Last year at Penn State 50th birthday of IAPS was celebrated, and this year 50th IAPS conference was held. According to Plato,
who we often consider to be the first professional athlete (wrestler) that was also exceptional philosopher and vice versa, and
whose name is not his born name – Aristocles, but an athletic one (platys mean broad-shouldered) given by his wrestling coach -
50 years of age means that you have wisdom, ability for reflection and practical reasoning (phronesis), capacity for leadership
which mean enough experience to lead the community properly with wisdom. As our community turned 50 last year, and has its
50th conference this year – according to Plato, we are finally okay to lead forward. And this conference definitely offer many
different looking forwards, the anticipation of the future to come, but also realization that IAPS can lead towards the future of
both - sports per se, and sports philosophy discipline.
Finally, I cannot but wonder if the foundational members such as Warren Fraleigh, Ellen Gerber, Paul Weiss, and Hans Lenk, as
well as other early pissars could ever imagine being like this one day after a few decades. Especially during their struggle to
survive in the 70s, after they established and started to promote new academic discipline. Again, it is a special privilege and sign
of continuity and richness that some of them are still here with the community – witnessing the fruits of what they've planted
50 years ago and nurtured ever since, but also receiving respect and appraisal from the community that they initiated and built.
Finally, we can only wish for Warren Fraleigh, the early 'father' of IAPS and pioneer of philosphy of sport to be in Split and see
for himself how his vision of international community, and spreding the discipline globally - actually came true.
Matija Mato Škerbić

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CONTENTS
Keynote Lectures ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Ivana Zagorac, University of Zagreb, Croatia ........................................................................................................................... 13
Emotions in sport: an interesting case of shame and guilt ...............................................................................
John Sutton, Macquarie University, Australia / University of Stirling, UK ............................................................................... 14
What is it like to bat? Hitting, thinking, and the mind-body problem ..............................................................
Kenneth Aggerholm, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Norway ....................................................................................... 15
Sport Humanism - Contours of a Humanist Theory of Sport ............................................................................
Ivo Jirásek, Palacký University Olomouc, Czech Republic ........................................................................................................ 16
‘The hand of God’: hierophany and transcendence through sport ...................................................................
General presentations ..................................................................................................................................................................
Rafal Adametz, The Open University, UK .................................................................................................................................. 17
Rate of Perceived Exertion - a challenge for the phenomenology of exercise ...................................................
Rafal Adametz, The Open University, UK ................................................................................................................................. 18
Can basic action be difficult? Can non-basic action be simple? Action theory and automatization in sport. ..
Marija Anđelković, Singidinum University, Belgrade; Nenad Dikić and Sanja Žarković, Sports Medicine Association of Serbia
.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
DR. EVA CARNEIRO'S SYNDROME .....................................................................................................................
Alfred Archer and Georgina Mills, Tilburg University, Netherlands ......................................................................................... 20
A Defence of Foul-weather Fandom .................................................................................................................
Luísa Ávila da Costa, University of Porto, Portugal; Constantino Pereira Martins, University of Coimbra, Nova University of
Lisbon, Portugal ........................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Sport philosophy in Portugal ............................................................................................................................
Adam Berg, University of North Carolina Greensboro, USA .................................................................................................... 22
Why Have North American Sport Philosophers Ignored Race? ........................................................................
Gordon Birse, Swansea University, UK ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Ready, Player Two? Joint action and the limitations of methodological individualism about sport. ...............
Steffen Borge, Nord University, Norway .................................................................................................................................. 24
Two Concepts of Sporting Excellence ...............................................................................................................
Paulo Augusto Boccati, Universidade de Campinas, Brazil; Odilon José Roble, Universidade de Campinas, Brazil ................ 25
Philosophical assumptions to understand bodybuilding as a sport and its specific skills .................................
Whitney Bragagnolo and Yanei Lezama, Charles University Prague, Czechia .......................................................................... 26
Power, Sex & Corruption in Sport: Sextortion, an international examination into a silent abuse of power .....
Sylvia Burrow, Cape Breton University, Canada ....................................................................................................................... 27
Sport, Self-confidence, and Gender Violence ....................................................................................................
Marcus Campos, Pascal Borry and Mike McNamee, KU Leuven, Belgium ............................................................................... 28
What principles should coaches abide by? The case of placebo use in sport. ..................................................
Alberto Carrio, Pompeu Fabra University, SPAIN ..................................................................................................................... 29
Athletes safeguarding first. Ethical guidelines for safe AI in sports. ................................................................
Tafara Gary Chivasa, Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK ....................................................................................................... 30
To mark or not to mark? Korfball through the lens of the elements of excellence ...........................................

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Soraia Chung Saura & Ana Cristina Zimmermann, University of São Paulo, Brazil .................................................................. 31
Archery: a traditional game in the scope of phenomenology of image ...........................................................
Nenad Dikic and Marija Andjelkovic, Singidunum University; Sanja Zarkovic, Sports Medicine Association of Serbia ........... 32
ADVOCATE ATHLETES WHO HAVE BEEN ACCUSED WITHOUT VALID EVIDENCE ..............................................
Colleen English, Penn State Berks, USA .................................................................................................................................... 33
Not Everyone Can be an Olympian: Gender and rights for limiting athletes in sport competitions .................
Erin Flynn, Ohio Wesleyan University, USA .............................................................................................................................. 34
The Normative Status of Sports Penalties ........................................................................................................
Leslie Francis and John Francis, University of Utah, USA ......................................................................................................... 35
Looking at Bodies in Sports ...............................................................................................................................
Koyo Fukasawa, University of Tsukuba, Japan ......................................................................................................................... 36
Fairness in Sport as Amateurism, Commercialism, and Professionalism..........................................................
Paul Gaffney, St. John’s University, USA .................................................................................................................................. 37
Formalism Reconsidered ..................................................................................................................................
Jacob Giesbrecht, Charles University, Czechia ......................................................................................................................... 38
Commodified Authenticity: Questioning the Athlete Identity as a Vehicle for Politics in Sport ........................
Eric Gilbertson, Texas State University, USA ............................................................................................................................ 39
Time preference and the Partisan defense of risking brain injury in dangerous sport .....................................
John Gleaves, California State University, Fullerton, USA ........................................................................................................ 40
Can We Make a Case for Elite Sport as Human Right? Examining a rights-based argument for trans-athlete
inclusion ............................................................................................................................................................
Mike Griffiths, Edge Hill University, UK .................................................................................................................................... 41
Esport: Human After All ....................................................................................................................................
Maria Altimira Hackerott, Ana Cristina Zimmermann and Soraia Chung Saura, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil ............... 42
Sailing Experience: The emergence of a multiple way of being ........................................................................
Daniel Hague, University College London (UCL), UK ................................................................................................................ 43
Two Concepts of Rules in Sport .........................................................................................................................
Susan Hall, Stellenbosch University, South Africa .................................................................................................................... 44
Fair Treatment? Sex Verification and the Eligibility Regulations for Female Classification..............................
Marwan Hellal, Western University, Canada ........................................................................................................................... 45
Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Sport - a critical analysis ......................................................................................
Sara Kim Hjortborg, Macquarie University, Australia .............................................................................................................. 46
Embodied listening: Exploring embodied forms of ‘thinking’ in Tai Chi oppositional practice .........................
Douglas Hochstetler, G. Fletcher Linder and Jason Ball, James Madison University, USA ....................................................... 47
A Map of Ethical Discourses in Doping Scholarship ..........................................................................................
Aldo Houterman, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands .............................................................................................. 48
Marx on Movement ..........................................................................................................................................
Leslie A. Howe, University of Saskatchewan, Canada .............................................................................................................. 49
Preferences, Goods, and Aesthetic-Ethical Conflict in Nature Sports ...............................................................
Olivia Howe, FTVS Charles University, Czech Republic ............................................................................................................ 50
Ethical Issues Surrounding Female Athlete Reproductive Rights in a Digital Age ............................................
Yan Huang, Xinyang Normal University, China; Jesús Ilundáin-Agurruza, Linfield University, USA ......................................... 51

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Physical Literacy and Somaesthetics: A Rejuvenating Combination for the Elderly .........................................
Emanuel Hurych, Masaryk University in Brno, Czech Republic ................................................................................................ 52
Gamification supported by AI: challenges and threads for the field of movement activities ...........................
Ryutaro Ichihara, California State University, Fullerton, USA .................................................................................................. 53
How to Be in the Body: Developing a Phenomenology of Physical Activity with Cerebral Palsy ......................
Miroslav Imbrisevic, The Open University, UK ......................................................................................................................... 54
Remedies for Injustice in Sport .........................................................................................................................
Kenji Ishigaki, Tokaigakuen University, Japan .......................................................................................................................... 55
An education for intercorporeality on school physical education: Toward to the corporeal “we” ...................
Jens-Ole Jensen and Henrik Taarsted Jørgensen, VIA University College, Denmark ............................................................... 56
Resistance in Physical Education – the direct or indirect path to the top of the mountain ..............................
Carwyn Jones, Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK ................................................................................................................. 57
Disorder in Sport: pathologizing (sporting) normalcy.......................................................................................
Filip Kobiela, University of Physical Education in Krakow, Poland ........................................................................................... 58
Are music competitions sports – according to the acknowledged definitions of sport? ..................................
Lev Kreft, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia .............................................................................................................................. 59
Sport and Politics? ............................................................................................................................................
Kevin Krein, University of Alaska Southeast, USA .................................................................................................................... 60
First-Person Aesthetic Experiences in Sport ......................................................................................................
Scott Kretchmar, Penn State University, USA .......................................................................................................................... 61
Searching for Borderlands Between Sport Philosophy and Sport Science: Recommendations from Husserl and
Merleau-Ponty ..................................................................................................................................................
Pavel Gregory B. Krippa, KU Leuven, Belgium .......................................................................................................................... 62
To what extent is a harm-reduction doping proposal ethically justifiable? .....................................................
Vid Kučko, University of Zagreb, Croatia .................................................................................................................................. 63
The Implementation Of The Challenge System In Football ...............................................................................
Teresa O. Lacerda and Luísa Ávila da Costa, University of Porto, Portugal .............................................................................. 64
Aesthetic reading of velocity in contemporary sports ......................................................................................
Kasper Lasthein Madsen, VIA University College, Denmark; Annemari Munk Svendsen and Anne Wollf Jacobsen, University
of Southern Denmark; Torben Hansen, Dansk Skoleidræt ...................................................................................................... 65
Meaningful Physical Education - philosophy in practice: Experiences from an action-research project ..........
Yaneí Lezam, KU Leuven, Belgium ............................................................................................................................................ 66
***Winner of the Kretchmar Student Essay Award***..................................................................................
When ‘Higher, Faster, Stronger’ Implies Harm .................................................................................................
Sigmund Loland, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences; Øyvind Sandbakk and Gertjan Ettema, NTNU, Norway .................... 67
Overcoming dualism in movement skills research: an integrative approach ...................................................
Ole Lund & Kasper Lasthein Madsen, VIA University College, Denmark ................................................................................. 68
Play and the good life in sport: A question of swinging in and out of control? ................................................
Cam Mallett, Penn State University, USA ................................................................................................................................. 69
Gamifying Health: The Bioethics of Wearable Devices and Fitbit’s Transformation of Fitness and Movement into a
Game ................................................................................................................................................................
Lukáš Mareš, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic ................................................................................................... 70
‘Philosophising with Athletes and Their Coaches’: On Using Philosophical Thinking and Dialogue in Sport

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Irena Martínková, Charles University, Czech Republic ............................................................................................................. 71
Ultra Sports as Nature Sports Proper ...............................................................................................................
Lou Matz, University of the Pacific, USA .................................................................................................................................. 72
The Real Ethical Problems with Strategic Fouling in Basketball .......................................................................
Breana McCoy, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic .................................................................................................... 73
Democracy and Good Governance ...................................................................................................................
Douglas McLauglin, California State University, Northridge, USA ........................................................................................... 74
The Importance of Pick-up ................................................................................................................................
Mike McNamee, KU Leuven, Belgium / Swansea University, UK and Marcelo Moriconi, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa,
Portugal .................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Mapping the landscape of sport competition integrity ....................................................................................
Sandra Meeuwsen, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands ........................................................................................... 76
How to recharge sport’s ethical core; plea for a materialist sport ethics .........................................................
Rafael Mendoza González, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, ITaly ........................................................................................ 77
Football for good? Analyzing the initiatives that aim to foster the "good game" ...........................................
Eric Moore, Longwood University, USA ................................................................................................................................... 78
Does the “policeman and the footrace” example show the necessity of the lusory attitude or just the opposite?
Nelson Morales and Angela Schneider, Western Ontario University, Canada ........................................................................ 79
The coach-young athlete relationship and doping: institutional paternalism and exploitation ......................
Bill Morgan, University of Southern California, USA ................................................................................................................ 80
The Aesthetics of ‘Purposive’ Sports: A Critical Re-Appraisal ...........................................................................
Hiraku Morita, Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences; Koji Takahashi, Nagasaki University; Takayuki Hata, Takai
Gakuen University, Japan ......................................................................................................................................................... 81
Examination of “being and oughtness” and “the good and the right” in sports ..............................................
S.P. Morris, Miami University, USA .......................................................................................................................................... 82
The Capabilities Approach and Hunting: A Review, Critique, and Development ..............................................
Arno Müller, Erfurt University, Germany ................................................................................................................................. 83
On Nietzsche and modern sports ......................................................................................................................
Ryan Murtha, The University of Texas at Austin, USA ............................................................................................................. 84
A Philosophical Argument for the Adoption of the Elam Ending in Basketball.................................................
Arto Mutanen, Finnish Naval Academy & Finnish National Defence University, Finland ........................................................ 85
Bodily Knowledge in Sport ................................................................................................................................
Adam North, The University of Manchester, UK ...................................................................................................................... 86
The Increasing Political Power of the Sporting Gesture: Athletes and Alternative Forms of Communication .
Yoshiko ODA, Hosei University, Japan; Yoshitaka KONDO, Nagoya-Gakuin University; Soichiro TODA, Tohoku University ... 87
The Issue of Gene Doping through the application of CRISPR-Cas9 technology ...............................................
Alan Oldham, University of Western Ontario, Canada ............................................................................................................ 88
Scales of Ignorance: an ethical framework to justify acceptable risk in sport classification regimes ..............
Jim Parry and Jacob Giesbrecht, Charles Univerity, Czech Republic ........................................................................................ 89
Esports, Real Sports and the Olympic Virtual Series .........................................................................................
Constantino Pereira Martins, NOVA University of Lisbon / IEF- Coimbra University / CECH – Coimbra University, Portugal . 90
Broken body: anthropo-philosophical observations on Muay Thai ..................................................................

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José Luis Pérez Triviño, Pompeu Fabra University, Spain ........................................................................................................ 91
Is sport possible in the Metaverse? Conceptual and technical issues ...............................................................
Keegan T. Peterson, Pennsylvania State University, USA ......................................................................................................... 92
Examination of Sport Participation among Queer Individuals .........................................................................
Alexander Pho, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA ........................................................................................................... 93
A Preliminary Confucian Assessment of the Ethics of Sport Category Eligibility Criteria Vis-à- vis Transwomen
Athletes.............................................................................................................................................................
Jon Pike, The Open University, UK ........................................................................................................................................... 94
An Essentialist Theory of Sport (synopsis) ........................................................................................................
Jernej Pisk, St. Stanislav Institution, Slovenia........................................................................................................................... 95
Hidden reality: fetishism in sport ......................................................................................................................
Sandra Radenović, Miloš Marković, Branka Savović, University of Belgrade, Serbia ............................................................... 96
Bioethics of Sport as a Subject at the University of Belgrade – Faculty of Sport and Physical Education ........
Heather Reid, Morningside College / Fonte Aretusa, Italy....................................................................................................... 97
“Sweat before Virtue” - On the Educational Value of Effort in Sport ...............................................................
Lise Réol, VIA University College, Teacher Education at Aarhus, Denmark ............................................................................. 98
Grounding – Should teachers work with their students´ and their own ability to stand still in contexts of movement?
..........................................................................................................................................................................
Odilon José Roble, University of Campinas, Brazil ................................................................................................................... 99
The tragic dimension of sport as an affirmation of life and power of destiny ..................................................
Michael Rohlf, Catholic University of America, uSA ............................................................................................................... 100
Striving, Embodiment, and Sociality in Sport ....................................................................................................
J.S. Russell, Langara College, Canada ..................................................................................................................................... 101
Boredom, Games, and Sport .............................................................................................................................
Emily Ryall, University of Gloucestershire, UK ....................................................................................................................... 102
The Ontology of Being in Games ......................................................................................................................
Pam R. Sailors, Missouri State University, USA ...................................................................................................................... 103
Competing Views of Competition .....................................................................................................................
Jenny Schiff, The Graduate Center, CUNY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai .................................................. 104
Disabled, but not in the Right Way: Exclusion in Paralympic Sport ..................................................................
Angela Schneider and Alan Oldham, Western University, Canada ........................................................................................ 105
Fairchild’s Abjection: Rehabilitating a useful concept for Sport .......................................................................
Joel Seickell, KU Leuven, Belgium .......................................................................................................................................... 106
Guilty of Prohibited Association: Exploring Strict Liability and the moral responsibility of anti-doping organisations
Matija Mato Škerbić, University of Zagreb, Croatia; Miloš Marković, University of Belgrade, Serbia ................................... 107
Intentional Rule–Breaking in EuroLeague Basketball – Professional Players Talking ......................................
Maja Smrdu, University of Primorska, Slovenia; Jesús Ilundáin-Agurruza, Linfield University, USA ...................................... 108
When the Chips are Down … Just Be There: Athletic Performance and Mindfulness .......................................
Djordje Stefanovic, University of Belgrade, Serbia ................................................................................................................ 109
Sport in a new cognitive context ......................................................................................................................
Jinfeng Sun, KU Leuven, Belgium ........................................................................................................................................... 110
From Competition to Inclusion: Competitive Sports in Special Olympics ..........................................................

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Rafael Valencia Candalija, University of Seville, SPAIN .......................................................................................................... 111
Antisemitism In European Football...................................................................................................................
Robin Luke Varghese, Sreenarayanaguru Open University, Kerala, India .............................................................................. 112
Partisan Spectatorship And Team Sports: A Rejoinder .....................................................................................
Ask Vest Christiansen, Aarhus University, Denmark .............................................................................................................. 113
The Logical Consequences of Shifting from Fairness to Rights within the IOC’s Framework ...........................
Esben Volshøj, VIA University College, Aarhus, Denmark, and Norwegian School of Sport Sciences in Oslo, Norway ......... 114
Teaching Meaningful Physical Education in Primary School ............................................................................
Deborah P. Vossen, St. Francis Xavier University, Nova Scotia; Taliah L. Powers, Pennsylvania State University, USA ........ 115
Socratic Lessons in Grasshopper Philosophy Abstract: .....................................................................................
Forest Wagner and Kevin Krein, University of Alaska Southeast, USA .................................................................................. 116
Cowboy Professionalism: A Cultural Study of Big-Mountain Tourism in the Last Frontier ...............................
Qian Wang and Irena Martínková, Charles University, Czechia ............................................................................................. 117
The ontological significance of movement .......................................................................................................
Charlene Weaving, St. Francis Xavier University, Canada ...................................................................................................... 118
Big Air, $pins & Objectification: An analysis of Olivia Dunne and Eileen Gu ....................................................
Dylan Williams, Fort Lewis College, USA ................................................................................................................................ 119
‘Layered Conventional Theory of Sport’............................................................................................................
Gareth Wiltshire, Loughborough University, UK .................................................................................................................... 120
Sport and being-towards-death: possibility, anxiety and authenticity at the Transplant Games ....................
Nina Windgätter, University of New Hampshire, USA ........................................................................................................... 121
Commercializing Women’s Sports: How Far do we want to Go? .....................................................................
Junko Yamaguchi, Tsuda University, Japan ............................................................................................................................ 122
Sensation and Lived Experience ........................................................................................................................
Sanja Žarković, University of Belgrade, Serbia ....................................................................................................................... 123
Strange Bedfellows: The Uneasy Relationship Between Sports and Politics ....................................................
Xiaolin Zhang, Chengdu Sport University, China .................................................................................................................... 124
The Sport Epistemology of Paul Weiss..............................................................................................................
Ana Cristina Zimmermann and Soraia Chung Saura, University of São Paulo, Brazil; Bernard Andrieu UFR STAPS - Université
Paris Cité, France .................................................................................................................................................................... 125
The notion of harmony: reflections from traditional games with Brazilian indigenous peoples ......................
Claire C. Zvosec, Louisiana State University, USA; Nathan R. Baer, Louisiana State University, USA .................................... 126
Exploring a Subjectivist Perspective of Meaningful Work for Sport Employees ...............................................

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KEYNOTE LECTURES
Invited Speakers
IVANA ZAGORAC, UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB, CROATIA
EM OTIO NS I N SPOR T: A N INT ERESTI NG CASE OF SHAM E A ND GUI LT
This paper aims at revitalizing the discussion on the role of emotions in sports. Both the athletes and the spectators experience a
wide range of emotions, from pleasant ones like happiness or pride to unpleasant ones like fear or anxiety. While pleasant
emotions can enhance an athlete’s motivation and increase their energy level, unpleasant emotions can have a detrimental
effect on an athlete’s performance and psychological state. In this paper, I’m especially interested in the role of ‘moral
emotions’ in sport, i.e., emotions that are commonly linked to ethical and moral judgments (like shame, disgust, guilt, and anger,
but also compassion, gratitude, and pride). The usual claim is that they help individuals navigate complex moral situations and
generally serve to maintain the social system and moral order. It is argued that they function as a self-disciplinary mechanism in
the field of moral and social relations. As such, they may benefit society in general, but they also often have an opposite impact
on the individual; for example, shame is notorious for its devastating effects. While guilt results from realizing that our actions
were deficient, shame results from the view that our self is somehow a failure. Guilt can even benefit society through remedies,
while shame is isolating. In sport, shame can be brought on by a number of factors, including making a mistake, performing
poorly, losing a competition, or receiving criticism, and can lead to feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, and disconnection
from others. However, there is also an idealistic approach that claims that both shame and guilt can be used constructively and
turned into powerful motivators for athletes to improve and overcome their perceived inadequacies. In terms of morality, it is
often the absence of shame rather than its presence that is morally questionable. This paper aims at addressing this ambiguity in
the field of sport.
Keywords: shame, morality, unpleasant emotions, motivators
Bibliography
Emily S.T. Ryall (2019), Shame in sport, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 46:2, 129-146.
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and nothingness, translated and with an introduction by Hazel E. Barnes, Gramercy Books, New York,
1994.
Max Scheler, Shame and Feelings of Modesty, in: M.S. Frings (ed.), Person and Self-Value, Three Essays, Martinus Nijhoof
Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, Lancaster, 1987, pp. 1–85.
Dan Zahavi, Shame, in: Thomas Szanto, Hilge Landweer (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Phenomenology of Emotion, London
and New York, 2020, pp. 349–357.

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JOHN SUTTON, MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA / UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING, UK
WH AT I S I T LIK E TO BAT? HITTI NG, THINK ING , AND THE MI ND- BODY PR OBLEM
Cricket batting, like other dynamic interceptive actions in open sports, requires skilled practitioners to coordinate vision and
action under time constraints that push the limits of human cognitive and motor capacities. One error can end the project, and
failure is all too familiar. It may seem that there is nothing it is like to bat, because decision-making and skill execution happen so
fast, on the basis of consciously-inaccessible embodied mechanisms. But in fact, I argue, even in absorbed coping experts often
counteract automaticity, constantly interrogating their grooved skills so as to reset the repertoire of allowable embodied
responses and make adjustments on the fly. Among other things, what it is like to bat involves a kind of stretched temporality,
which we can probe in both phenomenological and mechanistic terms. Practitioners of dynamic movement skills like batting in a
sense operate in the future, acting on anticipation, responding to subtle perceptual cues on the basis of tuned embodied
experience, and also constantly regulating those responses to suit the changing, often challenging game situation. Experts have
no privileged access to their own visual strategies and movement dynamics: but they use indirect practical means to tap, assess,
and influence the springs of action, constantly (in performance as well as in practice) seeking to explore, share, and describe
their rich temporal and embodied experiences. Attention to such real-world cases can enrich the study of cognition in action,
offering clues as to the relation between subjective and objective perspectives on self and body. Drawing on cases from cricket,
baseball, and other ball sports, in this talk I hope to integrate conceptual analysis, expert reports, and evidence from sport
science to address inhibition and decision-making, anticipation and affect-regulation, time and sociality in the experience of elite
performers. Where many philosophers cite Nagel’s ‘What is it like to be a bat?’ as suggesting that there can be no science of the
mind, I build on his ‘speculative proposal’ of an ‘objective phenomenology’ to bring the mind-body problem to practical life in
the philosophy of sport.
Keywords: batting, thinking, perception-action coupling, mind-body problem, temporal phenomenology
Bibliography:
Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? Philosophical Review 83 (4), 435-450.
Sutton, J. (2007). Batting, habit, and memory: the embodied mind and the nature of skill. Sport in Society 10 (5), 763-786.
Toner, J., Montero, B., & Moran, A. (2021). Continuous Improvement: intertwining mind and body in athletic expertise. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

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Presidential Address
KENNETH AGGERHOLM, NORWEGIAN SCHOOL OF SPORT SCIENCES, NORWAY
SPO RT H UMANI SM - CONTO URS OF A H UMANI ST T HEORY OF S PORT
The world of sports today is grappling with dehumanising tendencies. In general terms, these consist of an instrumental
objectification of athletes and a push for transhuman enhancement of human nature by biotechnological means. These
tendencies call for new approaches to sport that take into account the human elements of sport. To this end, and as a response to
posthumanist arguments, I defend a humanist approach to sport, which I label sport humanism.
Humanism comes in a variety of historical, social, and philosophical forms. Recently, Thomas Fuchs (2021) proposed an embodied
humanism, which I use as a basis for my account. Sport humanism is grounded in existential philosophy and phenomenology,
particularly the philosophy of Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945/2012), and also draws on my earlier work (Aggerholm, 2015) and
Gernot Böhme’s (2001) account of moral existence. It is a stance that underscores our embeddedness in a natural and social
world, which forms the basis for our selfhood, freedom and responsibility. It also emphasises the ambiguity of human existence,
which arises from the inherent tension between our factual limitations and our potential for transcendence. I aim to show how
this embodied and social account of sport humanism can cast new light on the corporeal ways that athletes relate to the
environment, to themselves, and to others in sport.
On these grounds, I draw the contours of a humanist theory of sport, which can complement prevailing theories of sport like
formalism, broad internalism (or interpretivism) and conventionalism, and is better equipped to tackle the pressing concerns of
dehumanisation in sports. I focus on how the humanist theory can inform our understanding of sport as a human practice, the
meaning and value of sport, and moral questions in sport. I conclude by reflecting on the potential and limitations of sport
humanism and a humanist theory of sport.
Keywords: humanism, embodiment, subjectivity, intersubjectivity, ethics.
Bibliography:
Aggerholm, K. (2015). Talent Development, Existential Philosophy and Sport: On Becoming an Elite Athlete. Routledge.
Böhme, G. (2001). Ethics in Context: The Art of Dealing with Serious Questions. Polity.
Fuchs, T. (2021). In Defence of the Human Being: Foundational Questions of an Embodied Anthropology. Oxford University Press.
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1945/2012). Phenomenology of Perception (D. A. Landes, Trans.). Routledge.
Takeuchi, Seiichi. 2019. Flower Petals Fall but the Flower Endures – The Japanese Philosophy of Transience. Tokyo: Japan
Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture.
Thomson, Garrett, Scherto Gill and Ivor Goodson. 2021. Happiness, Flourishing, and the Good Life – A Transformative Vision for
Human Well-Being. London and New York: Routledge.

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Warren Fraleigh Distinguished Scholar
IVO JIRÁSEK, PALACKÝ UNIVERSITY OLOMOUC, CZECH REPUBLIC
‘T HE HAND OF GO D’: H IEROPH ANY AND TRANS CENDENC E TH ROUGH SPOR T
The designation of Maradona’s goal in Argentina’s match against England at the 1986 Football World Cup as a "handball" goal,
with the explanation that it was an intervention by God himself, has aroused much controversy and is seen as a classic example
for deeper reflection in the discourse of sports ethics. The unintentional transgression or deliberate breaking of the rules (in
football goals can only be scored with the foot, not the hand - albeit unintentionally) leads to extensive reflection on cheating, fair
play and sportspersonship. In this paper, however, I want to draw attention to another meaning of Maradona’s justification (or
excuse), which may sound in general terms like the role of religion and spirituality in the environment of sport.
The basic premise is that religion is not and cannot be in direct connection with sport; in other words, sport is not an environment
where hierophany, the manifestation of the divine in the profane realm, can take place generally and for everybody. Religion is
tied to a particular cultural system of religious ideas, activities, societies and other phenomena that are accessible only to the
followers of that religious system based on their belief. The sport, contrary to the idealistic ideas of the founder of the early
modern Olympism, Pierre de Coubertin, cannot become a new, humanistic religion of muscle and will, because the athlete-
Christian retains his/her religious convictions, just as the athlete-Muslim or the athlete-follower of any religion. Moreover, if we
were to admit that God (or a deity in the broader sense of any entity transcending the profane realm and dwelling in the sphere
of the sacred) actively intervenes in sporting matches and their outcomes, we would have to severely limit the free will of athletes
and thus reject the possibility of fair play in general, since it is embedded in free decision-making.
On the other hand, sport is an environment in which spiritual values and actions can be revealed through processes of
transcendence. Transcendence is a term for the crossing over of the profane realm of ordinary everyday experience into the
specific sphere behind the sensual evidence. Philosophically interesting idea of “mundus imaginalis” (Henry Corbin) can help with
understanding of spiritual dimension of sport. Spirituality as a distinctive dimension of the human way of being thus belongs to
the life of every individual and can be detected and developed in the environment of sport as possible way how to transcend
sport experience from sensual evidence to “imaginal” experiencing.
Keywords: religion; spirituality; sacred; profane; mundus imaginalis
Bibliography
Corbin, H. (2007). Mundus imaginalis, aneb Imaginární a imaginální. Praha: Malvern.
Eliade, M. (1959). The sacred and the profane: the nature of religion. New York: A Harvest Book.
Jirásek, I. (2022). Against idolatry of „sporting sacred“: A defense of spirituality of sport. Louvain Studies, 45(3), 271-290.
doi:10.2143/LS.45.3.3291396.

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PARELLEL SESSION PRESENTATIONS (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)
RAFAL ADAMETZ, THE OPEN UNIVERSITY, UK
RA TE OF PERCEIVED EXER TION - A CHALLENGE FO R TH E PH ENO MENOLOG Y OF EXERCISE
In the last half-century methods of tracking physical parameters of sport performance have significantly developed. A recreational
runner is now able to track her heart rate, breathing frequency and power output (to name a few) live, during every training
session. Accordingly, the capabilities of a well-equipped scientific laboratory improved to an impressive degree. Unfortunately,
we are not observing similar advancements in tracking the mental characteristics of an athlete during exercise.
Despite great developments in the psychology of sport, not enough attention is given to the subjective feelings of athletes. Widely
in use, Borg’s Rate of Perceived Exertion (Borg, 1970), albeit ingenious in its simplicity, flattens athlete’s experience of fatigue to
a single number. Even though it provides some information, it is far from being a comprehensive description of mental states
held by an exercising human agent. It is hard to understand this omission in the light of the well-established importance of
different psychological factors (emotional state, level of motivation etc.) for sport performance (McCormick et al., 2015; Noakes,
2012).
One may argue that it is the very nature of subjective feelings that they dodge our attempts to quantify them. However, a more
constructive approach would be to ask – how can we include them in the research process? From a philosophical perspective,
investigation in the theory of action is very instructive. For example, distinction between “basic” and “non-basic actions” (Danto,
1965) or distinct kinds of “trying” to achieve some sport-goal (Faulkner, 2014) may prove helpful in establishing some models that
could reflect athlete’s mental states during exercise or at least help to better understand their dynamics.
I claim that not only psychology but also phenomenology understood as a method of investigation of human first-person
experience based on a balanced combination of empirical observation, reflective introspection, and linguistic analysis (Gallagher,
2005), may bring progress in this field. More specifically, phenomenology and conceptual analysis can provide tools for better
understanding athlete’s subjective experiences which in turn can enrich the investigation in exercise science and be useful for
developing new mental strategies in sport and improving performance.
Keywords: rate of perceived exertion, phenomenology, exercise, action theory
Bibliography:
Borg, G. (1970) 'Perceived Exertion as an Indicator of Somatic Stress', Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 2(2), pp.
92-98.
Danto, A. C. (1965) 'Basic Actions', American Philosophical Quarterly, 2(2), pp. 141-148.
Faulkner, P. (2014). 'Really trying or merely trying', Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 41(3),363–380.
Gallagher, S. (2005) How the Body Shapes the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McCormick, A., Meijen, C., & Marcora, S.
(2015). 'Psychological Determinants of Whole-Body Endurance Performance', Sports Medicine (Vol. 45, Issue 7, pp. 997–1015).
Montero, B. G. (2016) Thought in Action: Expertise and the Conscious Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Noakes, T. (2012). 'Fatigue is a brain-derived emotion that regulates the exercise behavior to ensure the protection of
whole body homeostasis', Frontiers in Physiology: Vol. 3 APR.
Pike, J. (2019) 'Action theory and the value of sport', Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 46(1),pp. 14-29.

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RAFAL ADAMETZ, THE OPEN UNIVERSITY, UK
CAN BAS IC A CTI ON BE DIFFIC ULT? CA N NON-BAS IC ACT ION BE SIMPLE? ACTI ON THE ORY AND
AU TOMA TIZATI ON I N SPORT .
Physical skills are constitutive for sport (Parry, 2020). Successful performance of a difficult action carries a value foundational for
sport (Pike, 2019). According to the classic theory of skill acquisition, continued training leads to automatization of skill,
consequently highly practiced skills start to resemble reflexes (Fitts et al., 1967). Does it mean that automatized skilled sport
performances are becoming more like basic actions, that “do not require an agent to cause them by performing any other
action” (Danto, 1965)? Are they not difficult actions anymore? In this project I want to look closer at the relation between ‘basic
actions’ and ‘non-basic actions’ as well as between ’simple actions’ and ’difficult actions’ in the context of elite and non-elite
sport.
There are two instructive perspectives to look at this problem. One comes from highly technical sports like tennis. Elite player
has automatized the action of “serving”. Tennis serve is from biomechanical perspective a very complex movement that requires
coordination of different asymmetric moves of all our limbs. It is against common sense to call it a basic action. Another insight
comes from endurance sports. In this case from the aggregation of simple moves that could be labeled as basic actions (such as
taking a step or pushing a pedal) and through necessity of re-asserting the resolution to perform the action, a difficult action
may emerge, such as running a marathon distance and pacing yourself correctly. To support the claim that automatized actions
seen in skilled sport performance are not basic actions, I will refer to the notion of volitions (Annas, 1978) and intentional action
(Anscombe, 1957).
Subsequently, I want to claim that basic actions can also be difficult because of two reasons. Firstly, the constitutive for difficult
actions is effort (Bradford, 2015) and the fact that accomplishing them is an achievement (Pike, 2019) - effort and achievement
are relative categories and depend not only on learned physical skills of a subject but also on her actual abilities. Secondly, the
difficulty of action depends on our mental attitude to a given action. Therefore, running 100 meters might be simple for an
agent S1 but be difficult for agent S2 or difficult for S1 under different circumstances. Moreover, action such as running 100
meters even if simple for the agent S1 can become difficult if S1 will try to do it as fast as she possibly can.
Keywords: basic actions, automatization, effort, intentional action, difficulty
Bibliography
Annas, J. (1978). How Basic are Basic Actions? Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 78(1), pp. 195–214.
Anscombe, G. E. M. (1957). Intention. Oxford University Press, pp.1-27.
Bradford, G. (2015). Achievement. Oxford University Press, pp. 26-63.
Danto, A. C. (1965). Basic Action. In Source: American Philosophical Quarterly (Vol. 2, Issue 2), pp. 141-148. Fitts, P. M., Fitts, P.
M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance. Brooks, pp. 8-19.
Parry, J. (2020). The Concept of Sport in Olympism. 4, pp. 131–148.
Pike, J. (2019). Action theory and the value of sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 46(1), pp. 14–29

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MARIJA ANĐELKOVIĆ, SINGIDINUM UNIVERSITY, BELGRADE; NENAD DIKIĆ AND SANJA ŽARKOVIĆ, SPORTS MEDICINE
ASSOCIATION OF SERBIA
DR . E VA CARNEI RO'S SY NDROM E
A syndrome in medicine is a group of symptoms that consistently occur together or a condition characterized by associated
symptoms. However, a syndrome in society is a characteristic combination of thoughts, emotions, or behavior towards a
particular concept or phenomenon.
It all happened in the 1st round of the Premier League in 2015 when Chelsea played against Swansea, and at the end of the
game, Chelsea player Eden Hazard was left lying on the ground. Dr. Eva Carneiro jumped off the bench and ran at the judge's
call. The player had to let the game go. He did not make a shot that could have brought victory to the team. The match ended
2:2.
Coach Jose Mourinho was furious because he felt the doctor had left him with a lesser player. Dr. Carneiro had to leave the club,
but a year later, she received satisfaction in court through an apology and financial compensation. However, it is perhaps best
embodied in the title of the article published in the British Medical Journal - "No way Jose! Doctors must have authority over the
care of patients," which best demonstrated the rebellion of the profession against everything that happened to Dr. Carneiro.
Dr. Eva Carneiro's Syndrome can be deduced from everything because it represents the attitude toward women who are
doctors. Dr. Snezana Bankovic says, "The difference between a doctor and a doctor in sports should not exist, but it is evident.
Female doctors in sports are unjustifiably underrepresented. They are discriminated against in key positions. There are often no
female doctors when deciding on important trips, going to major competitions or the Olympic Games." While Dr. Jadranka
Mandic says that the expertise and opinion of a female doctor are still questioned more often than her male colleagues and that
female doctors still have to earn their position repeatedly. However, perhaps the most straightforward opinion is that of Dr.
Biljana Marinkovic, who says that being a female doctor in sports is, simply put, difficult!
It is not only the attitude towards female doctors that is a problem, but also the small number of those in that position. So in the
NBA, 2.4% are female doctors, while in the WNBA, 28.6% are female doctors, even though it is one of the best world women's
leagues. The situation is similar in the NCAA, where women represent 12.7% of all team doctors.
Based on everything, in order to define the syndrome of Dr. Eva Carneiro, we can say that it is an underestimating and different
opinion towards female doctors, which stems from the overall behavior in sports where women are minimized even though in
many sports, they represent the majority, which leads to justified dissatisfaction not only of female doctors but everyone who
understands the position of women in sports.
Suppose we know that there are always more women at medical schools, that a higher percentage of them complete not only
primary but also doctoral studies, and that they are better students. In that case, the question is justifiably asked when their
knowledge was insufficient in sports. Why is their diagnosis being questioned and not accepted like their male counterparts? It
turns out that in that position of a female doctor, as in the case of Dr. Carniero, evidence is not considered relevant. The choice
of those who ignore them affects the outcome and unjustifiably discriminates against the woman as a team of doctors.
Keywords: female team doctor, elite performance, concussion in sport
Bibliography:
O'Neill L. “No way Jose!” Clinicians must have authority over patient care: the manager's scope of practice does not cover
medical decisions. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2016;50:259.
Holtzhausen L, Dijkstra HP, Patricios J. Shared decision-making in sports concussion: rise to the 'OCAsion' to take the heat out of
on-field decision-making. Br J Sports Med. 2019 May;53(10):590-592.
King J, Roberts C, Hard S, Ardern CL. Want to improve return to sport outcomes following injury? Empower, engage, provide
feedback and be transparent: 4 habits! Br J Sports Med. 2019 May;53(9):526-527.

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ALFRED ARCHER AND GEORGINA MILLS, TILBURG UNIVERSITY, NETHERLANDS
A DEFENC E O F FO UL- WEATHER FANDOM
A familiar debate in the philosophy of sport concerns the question of how whether fans should seek to be partisans (those who
support particular teams or individuals) (Eg. Dixon 2001; 2016) or whether they should instead adopt the impartial attitude of
the purist (eg. Mumford 2011). More recently, Fruh et al (2021) have argued in defence of fair-weather fandom, which they
understand as a form of fandom that involves adopting temporary allegiances in response to non-sporting considerations. The
purpose of this paper is two-fold. First, we will add a new form of fandom to this discussion: the foul-weather fan. While fair-
weather fans adopt temporary allegiances for teams when things are going well, foul-weather fans adopt temporary allegiances,
or strengthen existing allegiances, when things are going badly. Having explained this form of fandom and distinguished this
form of fandom from those discussed in the literature, we will then go on to explore the value of foul-weather fandom. Foul-
weather fandom can be instrumentally valuable for protecting valuable sporting institutions, such as sporting clubs threatened
with bankruptcy or liquidation. Moreover, foul-weather fandom also has non-instrumental value, as foul-weather fans display
concern, empathy, or support for sporting individuals or teams that are going through tough times. We take this concern and
empathy to be valuable for its own sake, in addition to the valuable ends that it promotes.
Keywords: fandom; purist; partisan; fair-weather fandom; foul-weather fandom
Bibliography:
Dixon, N. (2001). The ethics of supporting sports teams. Journal of Applied Philosophy 18(2): 149–158.
Dixon, N. (2016). In praise of partisanship. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 43(2): 233– 249.
Fruh, K., Hedahl, M., Maring, L., & Olson, N. (2021). A fair shake for the fair-weather fan. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport,
48(2), 262-274.
Mumford, S. (2011). Watching sport: Aesthetics, Ethics And Emotion. London: Routledge.

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LUÍSA ÁVILA DA COSTA, UNIVERSITY OF PORTO, PORTUGAL; CONSTANTINO PEREIRA MARTINS, UNIVERSITY OF
COIMBRA, NOVA UNIVERSITY OF LISBON, PORTUGAL
SPO RT PHILOSOPHY IN P ORTUGAL
A language is more than a lexical complex that facilitates communication between members of certain communities. A language
is a way of thinking. As a dynamic structure that develops and as it moves through time and space, it reflects ways of being in
the world, of reading, interpreting, embracing, constructing, and expressing it.
The Portuguese language speakers are heirs of a poetic-philosophical power of expression and representation that is often held
hostage to the purest academicism that annuls it, and to historicism as a safe trend of reflection. The relevance of language in
philosophical thought is, perhaps for these reasons, an element of critical importance. In this sense, a work analysing the
evolution of sport’s philosophical thought in different languages evidences the role that language has in thought which, in turn,
is made from its own forms of being in the world, and more radically, in a worldview.
Philosophy of sport is not formally established in Portugal. There are not, nor have there ever been departments, disciplines,
research groups, study cycles or post-graduate courses in philosophy of sport in the country's public universities. However, it
would be fallacious – and specially in the year of the creation of a Portuguese Language Association for the Philosophy of Sport
(AFDLP) - to conclude that there is no philosophy of sport in this country, given that, paradoxically, there are numerous works
academically published, presented, and discussed in the fields of sport’s ethics, aesthetics, epistemology and axiology.
Philosophy of sport is, then, a mare liberum navigable by all, and of nobody's possession.
Considering that the epistemological question has been marking the philosophical discussion on sport in Portugal, we’ve
conducted a research within the writings that cover the concept of sport in its multiple accesses. From the methodological
triangulation between history, texts, and authors, we try to present a global picture of the Philosophy of Sport’s field in Portugal,
also projecting its future perspectives.
We found two types of avenues that contributed to the structure of this study: a) the temporal cut, with some decisive authors
in the first and second half of the 20th century, pioneers of this field in Portugal; and later b) a disciplinary cut, when, already in
the 21st century, the philosophical thought of sport is proliferating, based on authors from different institutional and research
backgrounds, besides philosophy strictly understood. These authors have mainly focused on themes such as the concept of
sport, the nature and spirit of sports, sport axiology, ethics in and of sport, sport aesthetics and the contemporary thought of
sport. In the interest of bridging an arch of intelligibility, we propose in this work an order of reading toward the disperse
research that is anchored mostly in individual enterprises.
Keywords: sport, philosophy, Portugal
Bibliography:
Bento, J.O.; Marques, A. (1990). Desporto, Ética e Sociedade. Conference book of “Desporto, ética e sociedade”, December 5th,
6th, e 7th, 1989. Porto: Faculdade de Ciências do Desporto e de Educação Física - Universidade do Porto.
Lacerda, T.O. (2012). Education for the aesthetics of sport in higher education in the sports sciences: The particular case of the
portuguese-speaking countries. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 39(2), pp. 235-250.
Lima, S. (2002). Obras Completas. Lisboa: Gulbenkian
Sérgio, M. (1991). A pergunta filosófica e o desporto. Lisboa: Compendium.
Trovão do Rosário, A. (1997). O Desporto em Portugal. Reflexo e Projeto de uma Cultura. Lisboa: Instituto Piaget.

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ADAM BERG, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA GREENSBORO, USA
WH Y H AVE NOR TH AMERICAN SPORT PHILOSOPHERS I GNO RED RAC E?
Over recent decades, questions and analyses about race have become more prominent in various domains of philosophy. In
addition, within North America, race has served as a central analytical tool for the sport studies sub-disciplines of sport history
and sport sociology. However, North American sports philosophers—especially those engaged with the International Association
of the Philosophy of Sport (IAPS)—have mostly ignored inquiries that deploy theories of race or seek to understand racialized
experiences and/or outcomes. In this paper, I explore why North American sport philosophers have not become more drawn to
race-informed analyses. I conder a range of explanations. On one side, I contemplate the possibility that race does not factor
into sport philosophy in the same ways as with other philosophical areas as well as with sport history and sport sociology. Race,
perhaps, is less relevant to the sport philosophy sub-field. Conversely, I catalog various places where greater awareness of race
has and could contribute to sport philosophy inquiries. I concluded that the shortage of discussions including references to race
or that are explicitly about race within North American sport philosophy is unjustified and likely driven by the dominance of
white phenomenological frameworks. Ultimately, by availing itself to more transparently racialized analyses, such as those
found in philosophy, sport history, and sport sociology, new horizons could open up for and strengthen sport philosophy.
Keywords: Race, Sport Philosophy, North America, Whiteness
Bibliography
Anderson, Paul M. (1996). Racism in Sports: A Question of Ethics, 6 Marquette Sports Law Review 6, 2: 357-408.
Farred, Grant. (2018). The Burden of Over-representation: Race, Sport, and Philosophy. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University
Press.
Møller, Ramus Bysted and Møller, Verner (2017). Philosophy, Race and Sport in Routledge Handbook of Sport, Race and Ethnicity
(Eds. John Nauright and David Wiggins). New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

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GORDON BIRSE, SWANSEA UNIVERSITY, UK
RE ADY, P LAY ER TWO? JOI NT ACTIO N A ND THE LIMI TATION S OF METH ODOLOGIC AL I NDIVI DUA LISM A BOUT
SPO RT.
An influential approach in the philosophy of sport explains sporting action by way of a ‘lusory attitude’ which individuals adopt
toward challenges made possible by constitutive rules. On this view, games involving multiple players are explicable by
attributing the lusory attitude distributively to various individuals. The difference between the unilateral pursuit of a lusory
challenge and the social activity of playing a game or sport with others is here conceived in merely quantitative terms.
Drawing on literature in the philosophy of action, I argue that this sort of ‘methodological individualism’ fails as a basis for the
explanation of action in sporting contests (like tennis or football) which involve multiple individuals or teams. In such contexts,
explanation of what I do must include a reference to the intentions of the other(s) with and against whom I am playing. For my
attitude to be coherent, I must conceive those others not merely as obstacles or aids in my pursuit of the goal, but as sharing my
intention to play this game. My attitude falls to the ground if it is not shared (if you are not playing with me, neither of us is
playing at all). Acting in sporting contests involves a special kind of mutual practical commitment expressible in the formula: ‘I
am playing X with you’ (Roessler, 2020). The sharing of the relevant intention is mediated by the generic social practice
(indicated in the formula by ‘playing X’) into which the players are trained and by reference to which they understand ‘what one
does’ in this context.
Contra the individualistic approach, the proposed account introduces a qualitative distinction between the individual and the
plural case because it involves an irreducibly social form of relation; one which cannot be captured by simple aggregation of
attitudes held separately by each player.
Keywords: Philosophy of Action, Philosophical Method, Theories of Sport, Individualism, Joint Action
Bibliography:

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STEFFEN BORGE, NORD UNIVERSITY, NORWAY
TWO CO NCEPTS OF SPORTI NG EXCEL LENCE
I hold that sport is “an extra-ordinary, rule-based, competitive, skilled-based physical activity”, where practitioners “aim at
fulfilling sport’s lusory goal of winning, minimally not losing, whichever sport competition they partake in”, which excludes
nature sports, while Kevin Krein includes them (Borge 2020: 309, Borge 2019: chapter 3, Krein 2014, 2019).
Krein calls my sports traditional sports. Recently Krein has argued that “what sport is really about, or what is valuable about it, is
(…) ultimately, that it provides frameworks for the pursuit of human excellence through skillful physical activity” (Krein 2022:
20). “[S]port really is about pursuing athletic excellence rather than beating everyone else” (Krein 2022: 21). Since not all
traditional sports are athletic – for example archery and dressage – to make proper contact with the demarcation problem of
sport we must talk of sporting excellence instead of mere athletic excellence. We then get the following Krein-argument.
P1: The core or essence of sport, which is what we value in sport, is achieving or aiming at achieving sporting excellence.
P2: If the core or essence of sport, which is what we value in sport, is achieving or aiming at achieving sporting excellence, then
competing or competition is not the core or essence of sport.
C1: Competing or competition is not the core or essence of sport Furthermore.
P3: If the core or essence of sport, which is what we value in sport, is achieving or aiming at achieving sporting excellence and
competing or competition is not the core or essence of sport, then nature sports are sport
C2: Nature sports are sports
The problem is that this argument builds on an equivocation. P1 with regard to traditional sports is acceptable, though here
sporting excellence is intrinsically linked to performance in sport competition. In traditional sports agon (competition) dictates
areté (excellence). If you in traditional sports never do well in sport competitions, you are not deemed or judged to be excellent
or display sporting excellence. The traditional sport concept of sporting excellence builds on or entails doing well in competitions
and on that reading P2 is false. If your concept of sporting excellence is taken from non-competitive for-sport activities like
nature sports (as understood by Krein), then P2 is true. However, on this conception P1 is untrue with regard to traditional
sports. Krein’s argument oscillates between two concepts of sporting excellence.
This gives us reason to regard traditional sports and nature sports as different in kind. Keywords: sport, nature sport,
competition, sporting excellence
Keywords:
Bibliography:
Borge, Steffen. 2019. The philosophy of football. London: Routledge.
—. 2021. What is sport? Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 15 (3).
Krein, Kevin. 2014. Nature sports. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 41 (2).
—. 2019. Philosophy and nature sports. Abingdon: Routledge.
—. 2022. Author’s response. In Kevin Krein, Jim Parry, Irena Martínková, Gunnar Breivik and Rebekah Humphrey, Book
symposium: Kevin Krein’s Philosophy and nature sports, Sport, Ethics and Philosophy.DOI:10.1080/17511321.2022.2117842

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PAULO AUGUSTO BOCCATI, UNIVERSIDADE DE CAMPINAS, BRAZIL; ODILON JOSÉ ROBLE, UNIVERSIDADE DE
CAMPINAS, BRAZIL
PH ILOS OPHI CAL A SSUMPTI ONS T O UND ERSTA ND BOD YBU ILDI NG AS A SPO RT AND ITS SPEC IFIC SKIL LS
Bodybuilding is still a controversial practice, with many people, even within the sporting community, viewing it as more of a
beauty competition than a true sport. In this study, we aim to investigate whether the Philosophy of Sport can provide support
for the claim that bodybuilding is indeed a sport.
On one hand, bodybuilding may be classified as a judged event, as created by Suits (1988). Bodybuilding requires judges, once
the main point of the practice is to reach an “ideal” performance. However, Suits defines sports as “competitive events involving
a variety of physical (usually in combination with other) human skills where the superior participant is judged to have exhibited
those skills in a superior way” (Suits, 1988, p. 2). In that case, whatwould be the skills used by competitors in a bodybuilding
event? Would it be just an exhibition of previous preparation or there are also stage skills? These are the questions we are
inquiring.
It's worth noting that bodybuilding is becoming increasingly popular, as evidenced by events like the Arnold Classic, held
annually in Ohio, US. This tournament is not just a competition, but also includes several activities related to bodybuilding. Since
2013, the event has also been held in São Paulo, Brazil. It's a three day event with thousands of people.
It's interesting to observe that bodybuilding practitioners use the term "training" instead of "playing", which is more commonly
used in regular sports. According to Fulkner (2019), even non-professional bodybuilding practitioners' training could be
considered a social practice, in line with MacIntyre's (1984) terms. If bodybuilding is indeed a practice, it also has internal goods,
which are unique to it.
The 1977 documentary film "Pumping Iron" played a significant role in popularizing bodybuilding. The film's main character,
Arnold Schwarzenegger, who coined the phrase "pumping," referred not only to muscle growth but also to the pleasurable
feeling that follows a workout, which is still commonly used in bodybuilding today. Thus, this pleasurable feeling could be
considered an internal good of bodybuilding.
MacIntyre's (1984) theory of social practice and internal goods can provide other valuable clues in approaching bodybuilding as
a sport and its own goods. Although bodybuilding is a popular activity, there is a lack of academic research on the topic, perhaps
due to the controversial questions surrounding the sport, such as the use of performance-enhancing drugs (Hutchinson et al.,
2018; Barkoukis et al., 2022), the problem about the standard used in female bodybuilding and the objectification of the female
body (Bell, 2008) and others. Besides these polemics there is the opportunity to inquire bodybuilding through philosophy and
offer further elements to its study.
Keywords: Bodybuilding; Internal Goods; Training; Judged events
Bibliography:
Barkoukis, V. et. al. (2022). Fitness professionals’ perceptions of acceptability and usability of anti-doping education tools for
recreational sports. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy. 29:6, 726-736.
Bell, M. (2008) Strength in Muscle and Beauty in Integrity: Building a Body for Her. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 35:1, 43-
62.
Faulkner, P. (2019) What Are We Doing When We Are Training?. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. 13:3-4, 348-362.
Hutchinson, B. et. al. (2018) Social validation: a motivational theory of doping in an online bodybuilding community. Sport in
Society. 21:2, 260-282.
MacIntyre, A. C. (1984). After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

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WHITNEY BRAGAGNOLO AND YANEI LEZAMA, CHARLES UNIVERSITY PRAGUE, CZECHIA
PO WER, SEX & C ORRUPTI ON IN SPORT: SEXTORTI ON, AN I NTERNATI ONAL EXAM INATION INTO A SI LENT ABUS E
OF POWER
At the intersection of gender-based violence and corruption, sextortion is recognized as a form of corruption in which an abuse
of power is exerted to obtain a sexual benefit or advantage (IAWJ, 2012). It exists worldwide and within numerous industries
(Transparency International, 2020). Sextortion also exists in sport.
Given that sex instead of money is the currency of the bribe, the inadequacy to measure undue gains in monetizable value has
made this wrongful behavior hard to identify, prosecute, and sanction. The abuse of authority, existing power imbalances, poor
governance structures, inefficient legislation and awareness are contributors which create opportunities for sextortion to arise,
threatening both athletes and sport career professionals’ human dignity and the integrity of sport institutions.
Supported by an international survey of 500+ athletes, community sport enthusiasts and sport industry career professionals
from diverse nations and sport practices, this study was conducted within the discipline of applied ethics, using a
multidisciplinary approach combining principles from law, anti-corruption, gender studies, governance and sport integrity, to
explore how various sport-specific cultural and institutional enablers have impacted the international permeation of sextortion
into sport.
With a gender-based and anti-corruption lens, this research is an exploratory investigation which seeks to quantifiably explore
and communicate the scale of the sextortion problem, its vulnerabilities and risk factors and provide explanations for sport
stakeholders on the need for greater awareness around sextortion and how leadership can embed preventive initiatives into
short- and long-term planning.
Keywords: Sextortion; Gender-Based Violence; abuse; Anti-Corruption; Governance; Sport Organizations; Sport Integrity
Bibliography

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SYLVIA BURROW, CAPE BRETON UNIVERSITY, CANADA
SPO RT, SELF -CON FIDEN CE, AN D GEN DER VIOL ENC E
Recent allegations and arrests of those abusing athletes have raised awareness of the pervasiveness of gender violence in sport.
We can understand gender violence as harms or injuries to persons based on perceived gender or sexuality, such as that
experienced by women, non-binary, trans, and queer persons (Burrow 2022). Impacts on individuals are extensive. Gender
violence is associated with multiple physical, sexual, and psychological harms (Skinner, Hester, and Malos, 2013; Merry 2011;
Westmarland and Bows 2018).
While research on violence in sport is quickly growing (Lang et al 2023; Alexander, Stafford, & Lewis, 2011; Evans, Adler,
Macdonald, & Cote, 2016; Fasting, Chroni, & Knorre, 2014; Vertommen et al., 2016), less attention is directed toward gender
violence in sport (see Lut, Arnaut, Vertommen, and Lang 2016; Lang et al 2023). Philosophical analyses of the impacts of gender
violence in sport contexts receives even less scholarly attention. I aim to address this gap through a rather narrow area of
analysis.
In this paper, I focus on harms to self-confidence due to gender violence. Self-confidence is integral to the flourishing of
individuals as a key component of autonomy (Burrow 2020) and sport participation would seem to contribute to the overall
flourishing of persons since self-confidence is a key outcome of sport participation (Gould et al 2020; Kim et al 2020; Ouyang et
al 2020; Heydari et al 2008; Hassmén et al 2004; Feltz and Weiss 1982). Improved self-confidence bears additional athlete
benefits since self-confidence seems particularly important to athletic success, including increased participation (Feltz 2007; Sari
et al 2015; Baĉanac 2014) and improved sport performance (Bostancı et al 2019; Beilock & Gray, 2007; Woodman & Hardy,
2001). Hence, targetting persons with gender violence is harmful not only to personal flourishing, it undermines sport
performance and participation for members of targetted groups.
Keywords: Gender violence; Self-confidence; Sport
Bibliography
Bostancı, Ö., Karaduman, E. and Mayda, M. (2019) “Investigation of self confidence levels in elite extreme athletes”, Physical
Education of Students, 23(3), pp. 106–111. doi: 10.15561/20755279.2019.0301.
Burrow, S., 2020. Recognition, respect and athletic excellence. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 14(1), pp.76-91.
Burrow, S., 2016. Trampled autonomy: Women, athleticism, and health. IJFAB: International Journal of Feminist Approaches to
Bioethics, 9(2), pp.67-91.
Feltz, D.L., 2007. Self-confidence and sports performance. studies, 33(41), pp.50-66.
Feltz, D.L. and Weiss, M.R., 1982. Developing self-efficacy through sport. Journal of physical education, recreation & dance,
53(3), pp.24-36.
Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K. and Moffett, A., 2002. Psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions.
Journal of applied sport psychology, 14(3), pp.172-204.
Hassmén, P., Raglin, J.S. and Lundqvist, C., 2004. Intra-Individual Variability in State Anxiety and Self-Confidence in Elite Golfers.
Journal of Sport Behavior, 27(3).
Heydari, A., Soltani, H. and Mohammadi-Nezhad, M., 2018. The effect of Psychological skills training (goal setting, positive
selftalk and Imagery) on self-confidence of adolescent volleyball players. Pedagogics, psychology, medical-biological problems of
physical training and sports, (4), pp.189-194.
Kim, A.C.H., Park, S.H., Kim, S. and Fontes-Comber, A., 2020. Psychological and social outcomes of sport participation for older
adults: A systematic review. Ageing & Society, 40(7), pp.1529-1549.
Lang, M. (2021). Developments in international policy on athlete welfare. In M. Lang (ed.) The Routledge Handbook of Athlete
Welfare (pp. 15–23). Routledge.

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MARCUS CAMPOS, PASCAL BORRY AND MIKE MCNAMEE, KU LEUVEN, BELGIUM
WH AT P RINCI PLES SHOUL D CO ACHES A BID E BY? THE CASE OF PLACEB O USE I N SPO RT.
Placebo administrations are commonly understood as deceptive interventions that often breach well-accepted principles of
medical ethics and bioethics, such as autonomy and beneficence. Those principles are often labeled as part of the ethical
framework for healthcare sciences developed by Beauchamp and Childress (2019). Although it is not uncommon for sport
coaches to have backgrounds in health-related fields, such as psychology, physiotherapy, or sports sciences –many coaches have
no professional background. Indeed, many have often limited licences and education or training for sport coaching. It is,
therefore, unclear if those principles are appropriate and desirable as well as it is unclear the ethical frameworks behind
coaching professional training in sport. Such a scenario leads us to the unclarity which, if any, ethical frameworks coaches should
follow or be regulated by. For example, healthcare personnel ae supposed to follow medical ethics and bioethical principles
when facing situations where their goal is to offer treatment to their patients, as opposed to optiming athletic performance.
Moreover, there is no authoritative guidance as to coaches’ conduct strays into health-related decision. Since the translation of
Beauchamp and Childress’ principlism to coaching has not been addressed yet, this research aims to analyze the desirability and
appropriateness of medical ethics and bioethics principles for sports coaches.
Moreover, we expand principlism’s quadractic model by focusing on the power relations, mutual respect, and trust surrounding
the coaching exercise by testing the case of the administration of deceptive placebos.
Keywords: coaching, bioethics, principlism
Bibliography:
Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2013). Principles of biomedical ethics (7th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Miller, F.G., & Colloca, L. (2009). The legitimacy of placebo treatments in clinical practice: evidence and ethics. American Journal
of Bioethics, 9(12), 39-47.
Simon, R. L. (2013). The ethics of sport coaching in sport. Routledge.

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ALBERTO CARRIO, POMPEU FABRA UNIVERSITY, SPAIN
AT HLETES SAFEGUARDING FIRST. ETH ICAL GUIDE LINES FOR SA FE A I IN SPO RTS.
The fast emergence and disruption of AI in sport has not triggered yet any legal and ethical concern in Sport Government Bodies.
That is surprising given the increasing applications of AI in sport which in many cases can put athletes’ rights at risk.
That lack of policies on AI uses in sport is worrying for several reasons, namely:
i) the lack of interest of the International Federations and Sport Government bodies on one of the most important
and disturbing challenges faced by Governments and International Institutions around the world,
ii) the ongoing inability of the IFs and SGB for developing and enacting innovative-safe policies addressing new
challenges for the sake of athletes’ safeguarding and the integrity of competition.
iii) it leaves it up to the sport industry how to use AI systems, even if that implies the manipulation of athletes and
their careers.
iv) the lack of effective policies in this regard leads to a failure in the protection of athletes’ fundamental rights,
such as privacy, autonomy and health, in a way that is equivalent to the tolerance of chemical doping.
In this article I shall argue for the need for an ethical framework that regulates the uses of AI in sport and protects the main
stakeholders, i.e., the athletes, from the potential harms that might thereby arise. Next, I shall propose some ethical guidelines
aimed at protecting athletes’ fundamental rights and autonomy. I will also further argue that this is not only an ethical
commitment to harm prevention and the avoidance of risk, but also a legal obligation to which IFs and SGBs are bound. In other
words, so long as the lack of policies remains, they are objectively liable for harms suffered by athletes as a result of AI in sports.
Keywords. Artificial Intelligence, athletes’ rights, health, neuro-doping, ethical guidelines,
Bibliography
Carrio, A., (2021) The case of AI in Sport. Some ethical concerns at play. Diagoras. Academic Journal of Olympic Studies, Vol 5,
2021, pp. 18-29
Carrio, A and Pérez J., (2017) “On the Compatibility of Brain Enhancement and the Internal Values of Sport, Sport, Ethics &
Philosophy, (2017) 11(3), 307-22
Erler, A (2021), Neuro-Doping and the Value of Effort in Endurance Sports. Neuroethics 14.
Erler, A & Müller. V.C. (2021), “AI as IA: The use and abuse of artificial intelligence (AI) for human enhancement through
intellectual augmentation (IA)” in Ienca M, & Jotterand F. (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the Ethics of Human Enhancement.
Loland, S. (2009). The Ethics of Performance-Enhancing Technology in Sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 36(2) 152-161.
Pugh, J., Pugh C. Neurostimulation, doping, and the spirit of sport. Neuroethics 14 (Suppl 2), 141–158 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12152-020-09435-7
Ryall, E. (2021) Critical Overview of Technological Enhancement in Sport, Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Games
(preprint)

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TAFARA GARY CHIVASA, CARDIFF METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY, UK
TO MA RK OR NO T TO MARK? KORFBALL THROU GH TH E L ENS O F THE ELEMENTS OF EXC ELLENC E
Devine (2022) provides several elements that are meant to make discussions around excellence in sport richer. This culminates
in the excellence principle, which states, “There is a pro tanto reason to disallow in any given sport any change that would
undermine the sport’s proper cluster, quantum, clarity or balance of excellence” (p.14). The paper closes with a call for further
inquiry into the excellence principle.
The current inquiry will apply this excellence principle towards a specific rule. I will look at korfball and its rules regarding
marking. Korfball is a mixed sex sport and it’s marking rule dictates that “players may only defend opponents from the same sex”
(Van Bottenburg & Vermeulen, 2011, p.14). Females cannot mark males and vice versa. The major criticism of the rule is that it
‘reinforces’ the differences between males and females (see Gubby 2019 & Martínková 2020). It has been suggested, however,
that removing the rule is untenable because it would be harder to create space and shoot within the current korfball rules.
(Gubby, 2019).
I will contend initially that a broader range of options is possible than wholly accepting or removing the marking rule.
Discussions around sex segregation in general suggest at least two other positions that korfball could take:
1. Allow limited mixed marking - increase the complexity of the sport (Martínková, 2020).
2. Allow categorised mixed marking – adapt the rules for different contexts (Sailors, 2014).
Considering 1 and 2, I propose a rule that would see mixed marking being allowed within a set radius around the scoring area.
This could offer positive consequences for the sport's excellence profile as well the perceptions of equality within the sport.
Some general observations can be made after considering this rule change. For one, the logical connection between the
elements of excellence makes ranking them difficult. Secondly, excellence in the case of mixed sexed sports is harder to
disentangle from equality because this is in a way the sports’ raison d'être.
Keywords: Excellence, Equality, Mixed Sex Sport
Bibliography:
Devine, J.W. (2022). Elements of excellence. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, DOI: 10.1080/00948705
Gubby, L. (2019). Can korfball facilitate mixed-PE in the UK? The perspectives of junior korfball players. Sport, Education and
Society, 24(9), 994-1005,DOI: 10.1080/13573322.2018.1519506
Martínková, I. (2020). Unisex sports: challenging the binary. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 47(2), 248-265, DOI:
10.1080/00948705.2020.1768861
Sailors, P.R. (2014). Mixed competition and mixed messages. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 41(1), 65-77
Van Bottenburg, M., & Vermeulen, J. (2011). Global basketball versus local korfball: towards a social- cultural understanding of
differences in sports preferences. Ethnologie Française , 41(4), 633- 643

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SORAIA CHUNG SAURA & ANA CRISTINA ZIMMERMANN, UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL
AR CHER Y: A TRAD ITI ONAL GA ME IN THE SCO PE OF PHEN OMENOL OGY OF IMAGE
This paper draws attention to traditional archery, considering its presence in many different traditional cultures and ethnicities,
from past to present. The discussion is based on data collected in the university course "Indigenous Peoples' Game and Native
Knowledge", taught by indigenous professors from different ethnic groups from Brazil and Latin America, held at the University
of São Paulo in 2022. Indigenous from different nations addressed the centrality of the practice and how it teaches more than
precision and skills. Despite having a variety of meanings according to the contexts, its presence among Traditional Games in
Brazil and around the world inquire about its importance for humanity, more than an utilitarian justification. In dialogue with
Gaston Bachelard's phenomenology of image, we intend to look at the mythical and symbolical aspects of archery. What does
archery tell us about our corporeality and symbolic relationships with the world? From a phenomenological perspective, how
does it update images of a recent past among us all today even in such different cultural backgrounds? It seems that archery
attaches the very human in us by its practice, being important among children and youth as well as in the maintenance of
traditional and sustainable ways of good living.
Keywords: Phenomenology, Traditional Sports and Games (TSG), Ethnosport, Imaginary.
Bibliography:
Bachelard, Gaston. Air and Dreams: An Essay on the Imagination of Movement. Dallas Institute Publications. Dallas, Texas, 1988.
Kopenawa, Davi; Albert, Bruce. The Falling Sky: words of a Yanomami Shaman. Harvard University Press: London, UK. 2013.
Krenak, Ailton. Ideas to Postpone the End of the World. Anasi International. Toronto, CA. 2020

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NENAD DIKIC AND MARIJA ANDJELKOVIC, SINGIDUNUM UNIVERSITY; SANJA ZARKOVIC, SPORTS MEDICINE
ASSOCIATION OF SERBIA
AD VOC ATE A THLETES W HO H AVE BEEN ACCUS ED WI THOUT VALI D EVI DENC E
Many substances on the Prohibited List do not meet the three essential criteria of the Anti- Doping Code: to increase sports
performance, to have adverse health effects, and to be against fair play. According to many, the only one that is like and should
be on the List is THC, the cannabidiol from marijuana. However, it is on the List because he is against sportsmanship and athlete
as a role model. All other substances, such as higenamine, methylhexanamine, etc., are on the List even though they do not
meet any listed criteria. In the paper we published, we proved in a randomized, double-blind study that higenamine does not
affect sports performance, has no adverse effects, and is not incompatible with the spirit of sport. However, as a regulatory
body, WADA does not take this and similar works into account, so from 2017 to 2020, 172 athletes were sanctioned for doping-
positive results for higenamine. Among them, seven athletes from the region of Central Europe. It's upsetting that no one from
anti-doping organizations react, and so many sports careers have been stopped because of a substance that does not affect
sports performance. Our colleagues from Netherland say only 5 of 23 substance classes show evidence of having the ability to
enhance actual sports performance; for 11 classes, no well-designed studies are available, and for the remaining six classes,
there is evidence of an absence of a positive effect. Is it possible that no one sees that the human rights of all the athletes
punished for higenamine and similar substances have been violated and that at least they must be legally rehabilitated!?
Keywords: Prohibited list, human rights, no evidence based, higenamin
Bibliography:
Rasic JS, Ivanovic ND, Andjelkovic MS, Nedeljkovic IP, Nikolic IR, Stojanovic SD, Ristic- Medic DK, Takic MM, Djordjevic BI, Dikic
NV. Influence of Higenamine on Exercise Performance of Recreational Female Athletes: A Randomized Double-Blinded Placebo-
Controlled Trial. Front Psychol. 2021 Sep 7;12:633110. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633110. PMID: 34557123; PMCID: PMC8452865.
Heuberger JAAC, Cohen AF. Review of WADA Prohibited Substances: Limited Evidence for Performance-Enhancing Effects. Sports
Med. 2019 Apr;49(4):525-539. doi: 10.1007/s40279-018-1014-1. PMID: 30411235; PMCID: PMC6422964.
Rangelov Kozhuharov V, Ivanov K, Ivanova S. Higenamine in Plants as a Source of Unintentional Doping. Plants. 2022; 11(3):354.
Zaksaite S. Higenamine, Anti-Doping, and Plant-Based Cuisine: A Legal Analysis of Higenamine in Sport Anti-Doping Systems.
Laws. 2022; 11(6):82.

33 | P a g e
COLLEEN ENGLISH, PENN STATE BERKS, USA
NO T E VERYONE CA N B E A N OL YMPIAN: GEND ER AN D R IGHTS F OR LIMITI NG ATHL ETE S IN SPO RT
COM PETI TIONS
It seems clear that who gets to compete in elite sports must be limited. Not everyone can be a professional athlete or an
Olympian. But the question is: how do we limit sport competitions? And, do we violate human rights through our limitations?
For the most part, sport might rely on what Simon (2007) called the “Skill Thesis,” where competitive sports are designed to test
the skills of those athletes competing. However, certain categories, such as those for age and gender, also exist to uphold
notions of justice based on fairness and meant to ensure that everyone has a right to access elite sport opportunities, even if
their skill in the sport does not allow them to reach elite competitions (Loland, 2002). However, this conception of rights is based
on a theory of fairness as justice, rooted in the philosophy of John Rawls. In this paper, I will argue that justice in sport must go
beyond fairness. When it comes to rights based on gender (and, potentially other marginalized identities), ensuring fairness
within the competition ought not come before solving issues of justice. This argument will, following the work of Young
(1990/2011; 2002), lay out why justice should consider oppression and domination, rather than fairness. Secondly, I will follow
Hines (2013) argument that a “politics of difference,” where differences between social groups are understood and recognized,
is preferable to a “politics of recognition,” which privileges universalist ideas of human rights. Finally, I will conclude that leaving
people out of sport based on their gender identity (or other identities) constitutes as violation of justice, so conceived.
Keywords: human rights; justice; feminism
Bibliography:
Hines, S. (2013). Gender diversity, recognition, and citizenship: Towards a politics of difference. Palgrave Macmillan.
Loland, S. (2002). Fair play in sport: A moral norm system. Routledge.
Simon, R. (2007). Deserving to be lucky: Reflections on the role of luck and desert in sports. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 34,
13-25.
Young, I.M. (1990/2011). Justice and the politics of difference. Princeton University Press.
Young, I.M. (2002). Inclusion and democracy. Oxford University Press.

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ERIN FLYNN, OHIO WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, USA
TH E N ORMATI VE ST ATUS OF SP ORTS PENALT IES
One way the debate about strategic fouls has been framed is in terms of whether at least some sports penalties are best
understood as prices for rule-violations or as ‘sanctions’ for such violations (see Fraleigh 2003, Simon 2005, Simon et al 2015).
Because the debate has concerned the question of whether such fouls are justified, it is natural to infer that if penalties are
sanctions, they imply a prima facie judgment of wrongdoing, or unjustified action. Otherwise, it is not clear why maintaining that
penalties are sanctions could help the case that strategic fouls are unjustified. However, the treatment of penalties as either
prices or sanctions is a false dichotomy and in this paper I will explore an alternate account of the normative status of sports
penalties. Using a legal realist perspective (see Frank 1930), I will first consider whether the status of penalties in sport might not
be more clearly understood by regarding all of them as prices. While such a view may have virtues, I will follow Hart 1961 in
arguing that it misses a necessarily internal dimension of rules, as well as ignoring the fact that sports penalties are imposed for
a failure to meet a standard. Yet inclusion of these dimensions in the concept of the sports penalty does not imply that they are
sanctions. For as Feinberg 1970 argued, a necessary condition of punishment is expressive condemnation, which I take to be
implied by the relevant notion of sanction. Yet for good reason sports penalties do not imply expressive condemnation of the
rule violation. Indeed, one thesis that I aim to support in this investigation is that unless a sporting act violates a standard
external to sport, the in-contest negative consequences for the violation should be understood to express no condemnation or
disapprobation. This is why, for instance, sporting bodies must resort to punitive measures beyond in-game penalties when they
wish to express such condemnation. Sports penalties are, in the main, penalties rather than punishments or sanctions. They
impose a cost on a failure to meet a standard, but without expressing condemnation of the failure. It may also be worth noting
that it is neither severity nor the intentional nature of the offense that distinguishes punishments from penalties. People can be
merely penalized for intentionally failing to meet a standard and penalties for failing to meet a standard can be more severe
than punishments.
Keywords: Penalty; foul; sanction; punishment; price
Bibliography
Feinberg, Joel. 1970. “The Expressive Function of Punishment.” Doing and Deserving. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Fraleigh, Warren P. 2003. “Intentional Rules Violations—One More Time.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 30(2): 166-176.
Frank, Jerome. 1930. “Legal Realism,” in Law and the Modern Mind. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books: 46-52.
Hart, H.L.A. 1961. The Concept of Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Simon, Robert L. 2005. “The Ethics of Strategic Fouling: A Reply to Fraleigh,” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 32(1): 87-95.
Simon, Robert L., Cesar R. Torres, and Peter F. Hager. 2015. Fair Play: The Ethics of Sport. 4th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview.

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LESLIE FRANCIS AND JOHN FRANCIS, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, USA
LO OKING AT BODI ES IN SPOR TS
Frequent reports of scandals are reminders that sexual abuse of elite athletes is all too common; one recent study puts
prevalence at just under 4% of young women athletes outside of gymnastics (Timon et al 2022). Abuse is not limited to young
women, moreover (Marks, Mountjoy, and Marcus 2012), and can come from coaches, team physicians, fans, and others. Yet
many sports celebrate the body, often in highly revealing ways. Goals of sports include demonstrating excellence of physical
form, succeeding at an identified skill, or providing entertainment, any of which may carry sexual overtones. Data indicate that
for men at least attractiveness may be positively related to performance (Fawcett et al. 2019) and that male interest in women’s
sports may be increased when athletes’ appearance coincides with whether the sport is perceived as feminine (Jones and Greer
2011). Sports attire designed for performance may also appear as sexually alluring, such as the changes in tennis wear even to
the black bodysuit of Serena Williams. The entertainment value of some sports is inextricably linked to the look of the body;
consider the difference between women’s and men’s beach volleyball. In this presentation, we attempt to disentangle
problematic sexual objectification in sport (cf. Kadlac 2021) from the appearance of the body as warranted by the goals of sport.
A byproduct of being an athlete in sports such as track and field, swimming, diving, water polo, tennis, beach volleyball,
gymnastics, or soccer among others is that female and male athletic bodies are on display. Athletic prowess thus may come to
be associated with physical appearance. We argue that clothing that displays the body to the disadvantage of athletic
performance is not consistent with goals of sports as standardly presented. Nor should advisors, coaches, or others see athletes
as fair game for sexual seduction because of the nature of athletic presentation of the body. This discussion will (1) present data
about the changes in athletic dress over the past 50 years in selected Olympic sports; (2) present selected examples of overtly
sexualized representations of elite Olympic athletes in reports of individual or team success; and (3) argue that representations
of bodies in sports ethically should be linked to the level and goals of the sport competition in question. That goals of sport may
be inextricably connected to forms of physical appearance should never justify the sexual abuse of athletes. Especially in youth
sports, efforts should be made to fashion sports attire to reflect needs for performance and safety.
Keywords: beauty; body; sexuality; objectification
Bibliography
Fawcett TW et al., Attractiveness is positively related to World Cup performance in male, but not female, biathletes,” Behav Ecol
30(5) (2019): 1436-1442.
Jones A, Greer J, You Don’t Look Like an Athlete: The Effects of Feminine Appearance on Audience Perceptions of Female
Athletes and Women’s Sports, J Sport Behav 34(4) (2011): 358-377.
Kadlac A. The Ethics of Sports Fandom (Oxford, 2021).
Marks S, Mountjoy M, Marcus M, Sexual harassment and abuse in sport: the role of the team doctor, Br J Sports Med 46 (2012):
905-908
Timon CE et al., Child Sexual Abuse of Elite Athletes: Prevalence, Perceptions, and Mental Health, J.Child Sex Abus 31(6) (2022):
672-691.

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KOYO FUKASAWA, UNIVERSITY OF TSUKUBA, JAPAN
FAI RNES S I N SPOR T AS AMATEUR ISM , COMMER CIALI SM, A ND PROFESSI ONALI SM
Wittgenstein said, “what we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence (7)”, and ethics falls under it as “it is clear that
ethics cannot be put into words (6.421)”. What about ethics in sports? We still would have the possibility of talking about it until
we can no longer talk about it than giving up talking. The reason ethics in sports cannot be grasped in a unified manner is
probably that there are multiple principles there, and therefore some different assumptions that are not speakable, but rather
need not be spoken of. For example, Lenk and Pilz argue that when talking about fairness, one should capture it by placing
multiple concepts around the central fairness concept. It is certainly difficult to find fairness that uniformly runs through the
several styles of sports, including high- performance sports, professional sports, student athletics, recreational sports, and
lifelong sports.
Each may have a different concept of central fairness. As Lenk and Pilz classify the concept of fairness into formal fairness and
informal fairness, formal fairness, which emphasizes rule compliance and equality, and informal fairness, which is considerate of
others, appear to be at odds, and in some instances may even contradict each other.
This presentation will be based on the ethics of amateurism, commercialism, and professionalism, and will discuss the
assumptions of fairness in each. Amateurism is alive today in lifelong sports and sports as a hobby. Behind the emphasis on
informal fairness is the idea that process is more important than winning or losing. In contrast, Lenk and Pilz state that
professional sports are founded on economic foundations and follow economic logic, which has led to an emphasis on formal
fairness. Formal fairness is supported by efficiency, transparency, equality, and consequentialism. The introduction of assistive
technologies such as VAR is symbolic of this. If this were to go to the extreme, one could imagine a situation like e-sports, where
everything would be judged without debate by the application of prescribed rules based on technology, and there would be no
room for ethics. This would be the ultimate form of commercialism. In contrast, fairness as professionalism is the attitude and
conduct required of professional sports athletes, which is characterized as autonomous and demanding a higher level. It is not
merely distributive justice but has the potential to move people because it contains an aesthetic element. Thus, spectators will
be able to see the athlete's autonomy and humanity, which cannot be evaluated only by the results.
Keywords: play, ethics, equality, informal fairness, autonomy
Bibliography:
Lenk, H., Pilz, G. (1989). Das Prinzip Fairness. Zürich: Edition Interfrom, (En. The principle of fairness.)
Schlabach, G.A. (2017). Professional Values: Cultivating the Social Contract with the Seeds of Professionalism. International
journal of athletic therapy & training, 22(1): 11-18.
Wittgenstein L. (1961). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

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PAUL GAFFNEY, ST. JOHN’S UNIVERSITY, USA
FO RMALI SM REC ONSID ERED
Formalism is a familiar theory of sport activity and sport governance. Most scholars in the philosophy of sport field seem to
regard its defining structure of constitutive rules as foundational, but they typically worry that it is seriously incomplete.
Formalism as a “model of
rules” (to use a phrase coined by legal philosopher Ronald Dworkin to describe legal positivism) cannot account, the critics
charge, for the complexities of real sport nor for the grace and beauty that athletes often exhibit. These concerns, expressed in
many excellent studies since the very beginning of sport philosophy, are important and are persuasive to many. I will suggest in
my presentation that many—perhaps most—of these criticisms can be addressed, at least to some extent, and therefore that
the dismissal of formalism is premature. My defense will draw support from the so-called “continuity thesis,” the idea that the
values and moral principles that inform sport are best understood as specifications of a larger ontological and normative
context, not as separate, sport-specific phenomena. Sport is situated; the constitutive rules do not create sport out of nothing,
and therefore formalism can account for much of what is taken to be glorious, although outside the rules of sport, such as
sportsmanship.
Bernard Suits is often cited as a representative formalist because of the foundational role he assigns to constitutive rules, but his
position is arguably more complicated than is sometimes presented. In addition, I will address some well-known rival theories,
such as broad internalism (sometimes misleadingly referred to as interpretivism) and conventionalism.
Keywords: Bernard Suits; rules; conventions; broad internalism; sportsmanship
Bibliography
Berman, Mitch. 2011. “Let ‘Em Play: A Study in the Jurisprudence of Sport,” Georgetown Law Journal. 99: 1325-1369
D’Agostino, Fred. 1981. “The Ethos of Games.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 8: 7-18
Morgan, William J. 2020. Sport and Moral Conflict: A Conventionalist View. Temple University Press.
Russell, John. 1999. “Are Rules all an Umpire has to Work With?” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 26: 10-26.
Suits, Bernard. 2014. The Grasshopper: Games Life and Utopia. (3rd ed.) Broadview Press

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JACOB GIESBRECHT, CHARLES UNIVERSITY, CZECHIA
COM MODI FIED AUTHEN TICIT Y: QUESTI ONING THE AT HLETE IDE NTIT Y AS A VEHIC LE FOR POLITI CS I N SPOR T
Cooper et al. (2019) have characterized what has been called the ‘fourth wave of athlete activism’ as the ability of athletes to
utilize technological and economic capital to secure and transfer political power. This has occurred primarily by capitalizing the
athlete ‘brand’ through new communication media such as social media. As a result, the perception and value of the identity of
an athlete has become a vehicle for politics in sport. But athletes are not the only ones benefiting from this new dynamic. This
novel aspect of the sport-media complex has also fostered what has been called ‘commodified authenticity’ by Burnette &
LaStrape (2023), where corporations monetize the perceived authenticity of an athlete’s identity. Where the corporate
commodification of athlete authenticity begins, and political activism ends, has become disconcertingly blurred.
A difficult philosophical question arises regarding the concept of authenticity. What is it and how can one be authentic on social
media? This presentation explores the concept of authenticity and its expression in an effort to clarify its meaning, its possibility,
and its potential as an effective method for promoting politics in sport.
This analysis will examine phenomenological accounts from two philosophers who have written on authenticity. The first is
Martin Heidegger, who expounds a phenomenology of authenticity in his ontology of Dasein in the work Being and Time. The
second is Charles Taylor, who, in several major works, discusses the moral ontology of authenticity and how it has become
ingrained into the modern moral order.
The aim of this examination will be to submit to critical analysis the idea of commodified authenticity and the collaborating role
of social media in the new wave of athlete activism. It will be argued that commodified authenticity may undermine the political
power and political causes espoused by athletes by obscuring what it means to be authentic and by corrupting its very
expression. Although authenticity will not lose its value, its role in politics and sport may need to be renegotiated.
Keywords: Authenticity, Social Media, Politics, Identity, Expression
Bibliography:
Burnette, A. E. & LaStrape, A.V. (2023). Advantage authenticity: Naomi Osaka’s activism for social justice and mental health. In
M. L. Anderson (Ed.), Social justice and the modern athlete: Exploring the role of athlete activism in social change (pp. 203-239).
Lexington Books.
Cooper, J. N., Macaulay, C., & Rodriguez, S. H. (2019). Race and resistance: A typology of African American sport activism.
International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 54(2), 151-181.
Fukuyama, F. (2018). Identity: Contemporary identity politics and the struggle for recognition. Profile Books.
Heidegger, M. (2019). Being and Time. Martino Fine Books.
Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the Self. Harvard University Press.
.

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ERIC GILBERTSON, TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY, USA
TI ME PR EFER ENCE AND THE PA RTISAN DEFE NSE OF RISKING BRAIN I NJURY IN DAN GEROUS SPORT
Dangerous sports such as American football and auto racing involve a high risk of trauma8c brain injury, which can lead to
neurological and psychiatric disorders which impact athletes' ra8onal capaci8es, thereby diminishing their ability to pursue a
good life in their later years. This raises the ques8on whether par8cipa8on in such sports is pruden8ally ra8onal. One approach
to defending the ra8onality of par8cipa8on in dangerous sport (DS) appeals to the nature of the 8me-related nature of the goods
it offers: Because athletes' poten8al for athle8c excellence is condi8oned by their age (among other things), s/he may be jus8fied
in maximizing preferences nearer in 8me, even if this means that certain preferences later in life may fail to be sa8sfied. (Lopez
Frias & McNamee 2017)
However, there is another approach, which appeals to Parfit's (1984) views about personal iden8ty and their implica8ons for
pruden8al concern about future well-being--specifically, the idea that it is ra8onal for you to care less about the well-being of
your distant future self than about your near future self, because 8me diminishes the degree of psychological connectedness
(i.e., the number of direct connec8ons between memories, experiences, and other mental states). I will explore the merits of
this defense of the ra8onality of risking brain injury in DS. I discuss two sets of concerns about it. First, there are a number of
reasons to think the Parfi8an defense of DS cannot deliver the desired jus8fica8on for engaging in DS: (i) The amount by which
it's ra8onal to discount distant future well-being, if Parfit is right about what ma\ers, may be too li\le to jus8fy present risk-
taking in DS, given the seriousness of the risks involved; (ii) We may have special du8es to future individuals who bear Rela8on
R--du8es that are compa8ble with Parfi8an discoun8ng and that preclude taking certain risks in DS; (iii) Risks that threaten
ra8onal capaci8es may be different from other kinds of risk, in a way that makes pursuit of DS imprudent.
Second, there are worries that the Parfi8an defense of DS would prove too much. For instance, it might be argued that if the
Parfi8an defense of DS succeeds, then it also jus8fies the use of dangerous drugs for recrea8onal purposes, as well as generally
foolish risk-taking for fun. There is also a problem of exploitability (Ahmed 2018), viz., that someone who ra8onalizes concern for
future well-being on Parfi8an grounds will voluntarily act in way that reduces her overall well-being at some 8me without
increasing it at another.
I discuss each of these concerns and show how the proponent of the Parfi8an defense of DS can respond.
Keywords: dangerous sport, brain injury, personal iden8ty, ra8onality, prudence, discoun8ng
Bibliography:
Ahmed, A. (2018). Rationality and future discounting. Topoi. h\ps://doi.org/10.1007/s11245- 018-9539-3
Lopez Frias, F. J. & McNamee, M. (2017). Ethics, Brain Injuries, and Sports: Prohibition, Reform, and Prudence. Sport, Ethics, and
Philosophy, 11:3, 264-280. https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2017.1342688
Parfit, D. (1984). Reasons and Persons. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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JOHN GLEAVES, CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, FULLERTON, USA
CAN WE MAKE A CA SE FOR ELI TE SPO RT A S HUM AN RIGH T? EX AMI NING A RIGHT S-BASED ARGU MENT FO R
TR ANS- ATHLET E IN CLUS ION
The claim that “sport is a human right” has been often cited by policy makers such as the IOC Charter (and UNESCO (2015) as
well as scholars including Donnely (2008) and Ivy (2021). However, the right to competitive sport—ranging from grassroots to
elite level—is neither explicitly recognized in international human rights documents (Giulianotti and McArdle, 2014) nor has it
been sufficiently established in philosophical literature, with some papers citing such discussion is beyond its scope (Messing et
al., 2021). As such, scholars and organizations have advocated positions that deny certain athletes the opportunity to compete.
This includes trans athletes and non-binary athletes, youth athletes, and athletes from countries with objectionable politics. This
paper will argue that adult athletes do have a fundamental right to compete in elite sport and that positions or policies denying
participation for reasons of identity (e.g. gender or nationality) violate those rights. This argument will start by outlining
normative principles necessary for competitive sport to be coherent. Next, the argument will show that within these normative
principles exists a right to eligibility. In other words, every person has a right to be eligible for a legitimate pathway leading to
elite levels of sport competition, though not every person has the talent to advance to such levels. Finally, the argument will
conclude that an aspect of a person’s identity cannot be grounds for denying their right to be eligible for competition in a
manner consistent with their identity. Thus, positions and policies that deny eligibility based on identity violate rights inherent in
the normative principles of elite sport.
Keywords: athletes rights; identity, elite sport
Bibliography:
Donnelly, Peter. "Sport and human rights." Sport in society 11.4 (2008): 381-394.
Giulianotti, Richard, and David McArdle, eds. Sport, civil liberties and human rights. Routledge, 2014.
Ivy, Veronica. "If “ifs” and “buts” were candy and nuts: The failure of arguments against trans and intersex women's full and
equal inclusion in women's sport." Feminist Philosophy Quarterly 7.2 (2021).
Messing S, Krennerich M, Abu-Omar K, Ferschl S, Gelius P. Physical Activity as a Human Right? Health Hum Rights. 2021
Dec;23(2):201-211. PMID: 34966236; PMCID: PMC8694291.
UNESCO. International Charter of Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport. 2015.

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MIKE GRIFFITHS, EDGE HILL UNIVERSITY, UK
ES PORT: HUMAN AFTER ALL
Parry (2019) suggests that partially because sport is a human enterprise, and that esports are inadequately human; they are not
sports. He likens esports to other machine-dependent activities (namely the once-popular British television series, Robot Wars)
and argues that esports players are 'indirect' competitors that are 'distant' from the action, whilst coddled in their special
armchairs. Parry’s conclusion is to a large extent driven by his definition of Olympic sport, ‘institutionalised, rule-governed
contest of human physical skill’, which further derives from his six ‘criteria’ of Olympic sport: 1. human (not animals); 2. Physical
(not chess); 3. skill (not jogging); 4. contest (not mountaineering); 5. rule-governed (not ‘field sports’); and 6. institutionalised
(not hula-hooping). These will be considered and critiqued.
This paper will not dispute Parry’s definition of Olympic sport, nor his ambitious claim that “no-one denies that Olympic Sport is
sport” (which is particularly true for laypeople), what will be critiqued, and forms the core of this paper, is the notion that
esports are ‘inadequately human’. I argue that the inevitable implementation of technology in esports (via gaming consoles;
keyboards or handheld controllers; display monitors; and communication headsets) does not make it ‘too mechanical’, and thus
‘inadequately human’. Likewise, I demonstrate that the lack of implementation of technology in some traditional sports (i.e.,
boxing and running) does not make them ‘too animalistic’, and therefore also ‘inadequately human’ either. In coming to this
conclusion, I consider the blurred concept of ‘humanness’ and what ‘being human’ even means in our digital society.
With the first-ever ‘Olympic Esports Week’ scheduled to take place this June (2023) in Singapore, this discussion is particularly
timely and significant to our understanding of sport in an ever-increasing digital society. If esports are to eventually be included
within a mainstream Olympic Games, which seems increasingly likely to many, then it is critical that we understand that
regardless of their technological make-up, all sports - esports included - are indeed, human after all; especially in light of Parry’s
claim that “no-one denies that Olympic Sport is sport”.
Keywords: concepts, criteria, humanness, sport, technology
Bibliography:
Parry, J. 2019. E-sports are Not Sports. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 13(1): 3-18.
Rintala, J. 1995. Sport and Technology: Human Questions in a World of Machines. Journal of Sport and Social Issues 19(1), 62-75.
Wilson, S. and Haslam, N. 2009. Is the Future more or less Human? Differing Views of Humanness in the Posthumanism Debate.
Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 39(2): 247-266.

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MARIA ALTIMIRA HACKEROTT, ANA CRISTINA ZIMMERMANN AND SORAIA CHUNG SAURA, UNIVERSIDADE DE SÃO
PAULO, BRAZIL
SAI LING EXP ERI ENCE: THE E MERGE NCE OF A MULTIPLE WA Y OF BEING
This work proposes to think of sailing as an experience that allows the emergence of another way of being. Based on the
theoretical framework of phenomenology, this investigation is based on: (1) the detailed observation of sailing in the
Guarapiranga’s lake (São Paulo, São Paulo - Brazil), the Redonda’s beach (Icapuí, Ceará - Brazil) and the channel of São Sebastião
(Ilhabela, São Paulo - Brazil); (2) interviews with sailors from different backgrounds such as sportsmen and traditional fishermen
in 2017, 2018, 2019 e 2020 and (3) the experience of the author as sailor of regattas since childhood. Aware of the experience
lived in the body, the data collected in the field is articulated with the thinking of Merleau-Ponty (1962) and Bachelard (1983,
1988). When you have the involvement with the practice of sailing repeatedly and you establish a deep relationship with the
environment and the equipment, the sailor finds himself experiencing a new way of being.
Experience the care required in the relationship with the crew and equipment, the sensitivity and delicacy necessary to deal with
the light wind, as well as the wisdom, the courage and strength required in the high wind. Such attitudes, so distinct, are
essential and inherent in sailing practice. They are based on the bodily relationship that we have with the world, in which we
dialogue with the environment, feeling it and creating projects, as Merleau-Ponty suggests. Furthermore, this relationship has
senses and meanings, which can be investigated in dialogue with Bachelard's idea of 'material imagination', in which the author
argues how humanity relates to the materiality of the world from poetic images that mobilize us. This articulation of Merleau-
Ponty's thought with that of Bachelard enriches the discussion about what happens in the sailing experience that promotes the
unveiling of another way of being.
Keywords: sailing; phenomenology; poetic image; embodiment
Bibliography:
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. (1962). Phenomenology of Perception. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Bachelard, Gaston. (1983). Water and Dreams: an essay on the imagination of matter. Dallas: Pegasus Foundation.
Bachelard, Gaston. (1988). Air and Dreams: an essay on the imagination of movement. Dallas: Dallas Institute Publications.

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DANIEL HAGUE, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON (UCL), UK
TWO CO NCEPTS OF RULES I N S PORT
In “Two Concepts of Rules” (1955), John Rawls explicated a distinction between justifying a practice and justifying a particular
action falling under it. Although his aim was to demonstrate the significance of this distinction for defending utilitarianism, he
nevertheless expected it to apply equally to games of chess and baseball. Hence, it is surprising that the significance of this
distinction has gone relatively unnoticed in extant debates in the philosophy of sport.
My argument has three parts. First, I expand upon Rawls’ application of this distinction to games of chess and baseball. I show
that the tests Rawls uses to highlight his distinction in the case of punishment strongly indicate that there is an analogous
distinction between the justifications for sporting practices and the justifications for sporting actions that fall under them.
Second, I use Rawls’ distinction to hone the debate about the unfairness of using performance-enhancing drugs in sport. Within
this literature, it is common to observe that the justification that it is unfair for an athlete to use performance-enhancing drugs
because they are against the rules would be neutralised if we legalised performance-enhancing drugs (e.g., Gardner 1989;
Douglas 2007; Carr 2008). I will argue that this dialectic ignores the significance of Rawls’ distinction. The justification that it is
unfair for an athlete to use performance-enhancing drugs because they are prohibited by the rules is about individual cases,
whereas the argument that this justification would be neutralised if performance-enhancing drugs were legalised concerns the
practice of prohibiting performance-enhancing drugs. Third, I propose that a two-level account of sport is required. Rawls’
innovation was to offer a two-level account of punishment. I argue that we should have a similar two-level account of sport
because intuitively different norms apply at the respective levels of sports practices and individual cases. To conclude, I
speculate about how Rawls’ distinction might be taken forward and applied elsewhere. I suggest that it might help to resolve
some confusion between those who think that Suits (2014) offers an analysis of playing a game and those who take him to offer
an analysis of games themselves.
Keywords: Fairness, The Unfair Advantage Argument, Rawls, Performance-Enhancing Drugs
Bibliography:
Carr, Craig L. 2008. “Fairness and Performance Enhancement in Sport.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 35: 193-207.
Douglas, Thomas. 2007. “Enhancement in Sport, and Enhancement outside Sport.” Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology 1 (1):
1-15. doi:10.2202/1941-6008.1000.
Gardner, Roger. 1989. “On Performance-Enhancing Substances and the Unfair Advantage Argument.” Journal of the Philosophy
of Sport XVI: 59-73.
Rawls, John. 1955. “Two Concepts of Rules.” The Philosophical Review 64 (1): 3-32.

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SUSAN HALL, STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY, SOUTH AFRICA
FAI R TR EAT MENT? S EX V ERIF ICATIO N AN D THE ELI GIBIL ITY REG ULA TIONS FOR FEMALE CLA SSIFI CATION
On the 1st May 2019, the Court of Arbitration for Sport dismissed an appeal by middle distance athlete Caster Semenya against
the Eligibility Regulations for the Female Classification put into place by the IAAF (now World Athletics). These regulations
required athletes with 46XY differences of sexual development to lower their blood testosterone levels to 5nmol/L or less in
order to qualify to complete in particular events. A recently announced amendment will lower this limit further to 2.5nmol/L
and extend the regulations to cover all athletic events. This reduction of testosterone levels is to be achieved by means of
medical intervention, and part of the defence offered by the IAAF to the case before CAS emphasised that the requirements to
lower testosterone levels could not be considered overly burdensome as the means by which this would be achieved constituted
ordinary, and even beneficial, medical treatment. On the other hand, the World Medical Association has objected to these
regulations on the grounds that they are contrary to the standards of medical ethics, partly because the interventions required
are in most cases not related to any medical need, and therefore do not constitute legitimate medical treatments.
This disagreement raises the question about what medical treatment is. This matters, especially as the IAAF appears to be
exploiting a normatively loaded notion of medical treatment in order to make the case that the Eligibility Regulations are beyond
reproach. This question is related but not reducible to the question as to the fairness of the regulations from a sporting
perspective. I will argue that the notion of medical treatment implicitly employed by the IAAF most closely resembles a model of
of treatment outlined by Normal Daniels in his delineation of the treatment-enhancement distinction. This model ascribes the
moral importance of medical treatment to the role which it plays in promoting fair equality of opportunity, which derives from
its protection of normal, species-typical functioning. However, the way in which the Eligibility Regulations employ this model is
flawed, and these flaws reveal a return to a form of sex verification which the IAAF claims to disavow.
Keywords: treatment-enhancement distinction; biomedical ethics; differences of sexual development
Bibliography:
Gleaves, J. & Lehrbach, T. 2016. Beyond fairness: the ethics of inclusion for transgender and intersex athletes. Journal of the
Philosophy of Sport, 43(2): 311-326.
Loland, S. 2020. Caster Semenya, athlete classification, and fair equality of opportunity in sport. Journal of Medical Ethics. 46(9):
584-590.
Winkler M. & Gilleri G. 2021. Of athletes, bodies, and rules: making sense of Caster Semenya. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics,
49(4): 644-660.

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MARWAN HELLAL, WESTERN UNIVERSITY, CANADA
AR TIFIC IAL I NTEL LIGEN CE (AI) IN SPORT - A CRITIC AL ANALY SIS
Artificial intelligence (AI) has recently emerged as a disruptive technology that is infiltrating numerous aspects of sports, from
player performance analysis and injury prevention to coaching and anti-doping measures(Carrio Sampedro, 2021; Laukyte,
2020). This paper critically examines the intricate relationship between AI and sports integrity, identifying the potential
advantages and ethical challenges of AI's increasing presence in sports. AI can detect patterns in opponents' strategies in real-
time and inform coaching decisions, influencing competition and fairness. Concerns about human agency, oversight,
trustworthiness in AI systems (Laukyte, 2020), and potential risks related to privacy rights and biased decision-making (Carrio
Sampedro, 2021) have emerged.
In this paper, I argue that upholding sports integrity hinges on AI's ethical and responsible use, which can provide biased data,
influence competition, and affect fair play. In light of the growing accessibility of multimodal AI models such as GPT-4, the
impact of these models on the delicate balance of excellence in sports (Devine, 2011) merits further exploration. Establishing a
normative ethical framework for trustworthy AI applications in sports requires adherence to human rights and addressing these
ethical concerns. Adherence to ethical principles, such as respect for human autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, justice
(Beauchamp & Childress, 2013), and the principles of transparency and accountability, can guide the development and use of AI
in sports, serving the best interests of athletes and stakeholders (Carrio Sampedro, 2021). By examining the implications of AI on
competition, coaching, and strategic decision-making, among others, this research acts as a call for action for international and
national sports organizations to develop comprehensive policies that address data protection, privacy, and ethical use of AI,
ensuring that sports maintain their fundamental values and integrity in the era of rapid technological advancement.
Keywords: Artificial Intelligence (AI); Sport Integrity; Sport Ethics; Sport Governance
Bibliography:
Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2019). Principles of biomedical ethics (Eighth edition). Oxford University Press.
Devine, J. W. (2011). Doping is a threat to sporting excellence. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 45(8), 637–639.
Laukyte, M. (2020). Disruptive Technologies and the Sport Ecosystem: A Few Ethical Questions. Philosophies, 5(4), Article 4.
https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies5040024
Sampedro, A. C. (2021). The case of AI in sport: Some ethical concerns at play. Diagoras: International Academic Journal on
Olympic Studies, 5, 18–29.

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SARA KIM HJORTBORG, MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA
EM BODI ED L ISTENIN G: EXPLORI NG EM BODIE D FOR MS OF ‘TH INKING ’ IN TAI CHI OPP OSITIONA L P RACTI CE
Tai Chi (or Tàijíquán) is a unique martial movement art form that cultivates highly subtle forms of kinaesthetic ‘thinking’ in
action. In Tai Chi terminology such ‘thinking’ forms are referred to as embodied listening or tingjin (literally ‘listening energy’), a
term that denotes a mindful method for interrogating and attuning to novelty and conflict through the moving body. Thus,
rather than athletic abstraction through ‘distancing’ from the object matter (Kretchmar, 1982), Tai Chi emphasises a deep
sensory interpenetration of mind and body in exercising skilled action.
In this paper, I invite the listener to consider the unique case of Tai Chi to investigate forms of kinaesthetic action ‘thinking’. As
several authors have shown (Højbjerre Larsen, 2016; McIlwain & Sutton, 2014), the stubborn philosophical debate of skilled
action and the role of the mind in skilled movement, can greatly benefit from partnership with ethnographically-honed work,
especially involving experts of specific sports and movement arts domains. Tai Chi in particular, is an expert movement system
that apart from a few studies (Dell’Olio, 2021; Yu & Ilundáin-Agurruza, 2016) has received little attention within the philosophy
of sports and even less so in the prolific area of the philosophy of mind and action theory. Using Tai Chi as a model, I introduce
three categories of sensory embodied thinking practices, namely aesthetic judgement, diagnostic attitudes, and interactive
attunement, derived from several years of ethnographic study with an expert traditionalist Tai Chi group. In comporting skilled
embodied listening, Tai Chi practitioners demonstrate the kinaesthetic bodily intelligence with which they achieve skilled action
in solo and in partner antagonistic practice. By drawing on cultural knowledge of practitioners with specialised body concepts
and techniques, the paper introduces novel categories of skill that adds to accounts supporting the mindful nature of expertise
and skilled performance (Christensen et al., 2016; Sutton et al., 2011; Toner et al., 2022).
Keywords: skilled action, cognitive ethnography, martial arts, expertise, body awareness
Bibliography:
Christensen, W., Sutton, J., & McIlwain, D. J. F. (2016). Cognition in Skilled Action: Meshed Control and the Varieties of Skill
Experience: Cognition in Skilled Action. Mind & Language, 31(1), 37–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/mila.12094
Dell’Olio, A. J. (2021). Taijiquan as a way of life: The philosophy of Cheng Man-ch’ing. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2021.1981989
Højbjerre Larsen, S. (2016). What can the parkour craftsmen tell us about bodily expertise and skilled movement? Sport, Ethics
and Philosophy, 10(3), 295–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2016.1217919
Kretchmar, S., R. (1982). “Distancing”: An essay on abstract thinking in sport performances. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, IX.
McIlwain, D., & Sutton, J. (2014). Yoga from the mat up: How words alight on bodies. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 46(6),
655–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2013.779216
Sutton, J., McIlwain, D., Christensen, W., & Geeves, A. (2011). Applying Intelligence to the Reflexes: Embodied Skills and Habits
between Dreyfus and Descartes. Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology, 42(1), 78–103.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00071773.2011.11006732
Toner, J., Montero, B. G., & Moran, A. (2022). Continous improvement: Intertwining mind and body in athletic expertise. Oxford
University Press.
Yu, T.-D., & Ilundáin-Agurruza, J. (2016). Taijiquan and the body without organs: A holistic framework for sport philosophy.
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 43(3), 424–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2016.1227263

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DOUGLAS HOCHSTETLER, G. FLETCHER LINDER AND JASON BALL, JAMES MADISON UNIVERSITY, USA
A MAP OF ETH ICA L DISC OURSES I N D OPI NG SC HOLAR SHIP
The sport philosophy literature includes extensive coverage of arguments around doping in sport. From early scholarship from
individuals such as Simon (1984), Brown (1984), and Fraleigh (1984) to more recent works including Tamburinni (2002), Morgan
(2009), Gleaves (2010), Miah (2001), and Culbertson (2011), these writers utilize a wide variety of terms and concepts to bolster
their positions – from harm to coercion to paternalism, to name just a few.
In 2010, scholars at James Madison University (USA) initiated efforts to design a university-wide, empirically-grounded ethical
reasoning education program. This initiative promotes skill development through incorporating “Eight Key Questions” as part of
ethical decision-making. The Eight Key Questions enhances deliberation by asking decision-makers to consider the following
dimensions: fairness, outcomes, rights, character, liberty, empathy, authority, and responsibilities. The intent is to provide a
framework for working through challenging ethical conundrums from a curiosity-based process rather than through narrowly-
focused or rules-based approaches.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the refereed and academic sport philosophy literature published on doping with regards
to the analysis and arguments used. We use the Eight Key Questions framework to categorize these arguments, providing a map
of ethical discourse related to doping. We assert that the Eight Key Questions inform our understanding of the key arguments
related to the doping literature, and also help identify potential gaps. In addition, the literature related to doping also helps
clarify and provide enriched understanding to the efficacy of the Eight Key Questions.
Keywords: doping; ethics; research
Bibliography:
Brown, W. M. (1984). Paternalism, drugs, and the nature of sports. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 11(1), 14-22.
Culbertson, L. (2011). Sartre on human nature: Humanness, transhumanism and performance-enhancement. Sport, Ethics and
Philosophy, 5(3), 231-244.
Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, rationality and the human brain. New York: Putnam, 352.
Fraleigh, W. P. (1984). Performance-enhancing drugs in sport: The ethical issue. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 11(1), 23-28.
Gleaves, J. (2010). No harm, no foul? Justifying bans on safe performance-enhancing drugs. Sport, ethics and philosophy, 4(3),
269-283.
Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological review,
108(4), 814.
Holowchak, M. A. (2002). Ergogenic aids and the limits of human performance in sport: ethical issues, aesthetic considerations.
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 29(1), 75-86.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Macmillan.
Miah, A. (2001). Genetic technologies and sport: The new ethical issue. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 28(1), 32-52.
Morgan, W. J. (2009). Athletic perfection, performance-enhancing drugs, and the treatment-enhancement distinction. Journal of
the Philosophy of Sport, 36(2), 162-181.
Robert L. Simon (1984) Good Competition and Drug-Enhanced Performance, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 11:1, 6-13, DOI:
10.1080/00948705.1984.9714408
Tamburrini, C. M. (2002). What’s wrong with doping? In Values in sport (pp. 210-226). Taylor & Francis.

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ALDO HOUTERMAN, ERASMUS UNIVERSITY ROTTERDAM, NETHERLANDS
MA RX ON MOV EMENT
Karl Marx was an important thinker of movement. Perhaps surprisingly, considering the influence of Hegel, the historical
determinism, and the domination of capital, Karl Marx’ work was heavily inspired by Epicurus’ and Lucretius’ ideas on the
movements of nature. The topic of Marx’ very first philosophical treatise - his doctoral dissertation from 1837 – is not
Feuerbach’s critique on religion or Hegelian dialectics, but the tiniest movements of nature as conceived by the Epicureans
(Marx, 1975). Besides, within his later works, such as The Capital, the influence of the Epicurean philosophy is still present in his
discussions of the flow of capital, the emancipation of the senses, and the mechanics of machines (Nail, 2020).
For Marx, movement concerns patterns and flows rather than individual atoms. Besides, Marx carefully analyzes movement as a
deviation from a straight line, and therefore cannot be understood in deterministic terms. Another important characteristic is
that the movement of human bodies is a rather small subset of moving matter, such as planets, trees, bacteria, goods, capital
and data (Nail, 2020). Such a view implies that human movement and sports are to be conceptualized as moving along with or as
interrupting in already existing patterns of movement.
In my paper, I will sketch the outlines of Marx’ dissertation and propose that Marx’ views on movement a.) radically differ from
Aristotelian and Mechanistic conceptions of movement, and b.) entail a materialist and sensualist ethics of sport that
counteracts capitalism and idealism, arguably movement-disruptive tendencies in modern sport.
Keywords: Movement – Flux – Flow - Materialism – Atomism
Bibliography:
Lucretius (2001), On the Nature of Things, Trans. Martin Ferguson Smith, Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett.
Marx, K. (1975). The Difference Between the Democritean and the Epicurean Philosophy of Nature. In K. Marx, & F. Engels, Marx
& Engels Collected Works (Vols. Volume 1: Karl Marx 1835-43). London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Nail, Thomas (2020), Marx in Motion: A New Materialist Marxism, Oxford: University Press.
Serres, Michel (1977), La Naissance de la Physique dans le texte de Lucrèce: Fleuves et Turbulences, Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit.

49 | P a g e
LESLIE A. HOWE, UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN, CANADA
PR EFERENC ES, GOO DS, A ND A ESTHE TIC-ET HIC AL C ONFLICT I N NA TURE SPOR TS
Ethical questions in conventional (urban) sport arise because its participants are human moral agents and because its practice
community entails the observance of rules and responsibilities that humans generally owe one another in a social practice of
voluntary competition. We give consent to have our rights mutually constrained in some ways under the expectation that other
rights will be respected in order to be able to engage in a competitively coherent practice.
Nature sports have a slightly different ethical footprint. While some inter-human conflicts do occur, their pursuit may affect no
other human than the one doing them. But this does not mean that there are no possible ethical concerns extending beyond
immediate human interest. This paper aims to outline several questions that an ethically-grounded nature sport practice would
need to resolve.
The first question concerns the general relation between aesthetic preference and ethical obligation: under what, if any,
circumstances can the former override the latter? Sport is a largely aesthetic pursuit, normally governed by ethical
considerations due to its inter-agential aspect. Since nature sports are not defined by inter-agential activity, it would appear that
there are no comparable ethical constraints on their pursuit.
This paper questions whether nature sport is either harmless or less morally suspect than conventional urban sport. To this end
it considers conflicts of (aesthetic) preference between humans, the overriding of such preferences by ethical considerations,
and the question whether these are relevant in human-nonhuman conflicts of preference. Instead of a rights framework, a
goods perspective is explored, via a discussion of Korsgaard, to argue that even if humans were more important in some moral
sense than other animals, that could only give a possible reason for deciding a specifically ethical conflict in favour of the human.
It would not give us moral grounds for putting our disposable aesthetic preferences ahead of nonhuman animals’ functional
good, as moral justifications for differential treatment only apply between moral agents. Moreover, a Kantian conception of
aesthetic experience, especially of the sublime suggests that the end point of such experiences is not the aesthetic itself but
ethical action. Thus, if nature sports can give us extraordinary insight into the natural environment, their primary lesson might
be to leave it alone.
Keywords: Nature sport; environment; aesthetic preference; ethics; nonhuman animals; Korsgaard
Bibliography:
C. Korsgaard. Fellow Creatures: Our Obligations to the Other Animals. Oxford, 2018
M. Nussbaum. Justice for Animals: Our Collective Responsibility. 2023.
I. Kant. Critique of Judgement. Oxford, 2007

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OLIVIA HOWE, FTVS CHARLES UNIVERSITY, CZECH REPUBLIC
ETHICAL ISSUES SURROUNDI NG F EMALE A THL ETE RE PROD UCTIV E RI GHTS IN A D IGITA L AGE
This presentation will discuss a current research project which examines the ethical ambiguities of menstrual tracking in
women’s sports today. Since the ruling of Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022) and the consequent
overturning of Roe v. Wade (1973) and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992) in the US, debates surrounding menstrual health
tracking for athletes have arisen, specifically due to the fear that this health data could be subpoenaed by the US Supreme Court
and used against athletes who seek abortions (Blanco 2022). Research suggests that menstrual tracking of female athletes
presents potential risks to ‘women’s autonomy, privacy, and safety in sport’ (Casto 2022, 1725). At present, philosophical and
ethical insights into female athletes’ reproductive rights are particularly under-researched, and this project will seek to combine
novel research in the female-specific sport sciences with present ethical debates in the philosophy of sports. By utilising feminist
philosophies by the likes of Beauvoir (2011) and Young (2014), this presentation will discuss what constitutes reproductive rights
for female athletes in Western societies, discussing feminist ethical issues of autonomy and privacy in a digital era.
Keywords: medical ethics, privacy, healthcare, feminism, reproductive rights
Bibliography:
Blanco, A. 2022. Florida teen athletes are asked to report periods to third party, sparking concerns over privacy, anti-trans
attacks. The Independent [online] 5 October. Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-
politics/florida-high-school-athletes-report-period-b2196351.html [Accessed: 17 October 2022].
Bordo, S. 2003. Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body. Berkeley University of California Press.
Casto, K.V. 2022. Tracking Women’s Reproductive Data in Sport: Practical Limitations, Perils and Pitfalls. Sports Medicine 52(8),
pp. 1723–1727. doi: 10.1007/s40279-022-01671-6.
Young, I.M. 2014. Five Faces of Oppression. In: Seth N. Asumah and Mechthild Nagel eds. Diversity, Social Justice, and Inclusive
Excellence : Transdisciplinary and Global Perspectives. Albany: SUNY Press, pp. 3–32. Available at:
https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=e000xww&AN=78194 6&lang=cs&site=ehost-
live&scope=site [Accessed: 14 February 2023].

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YAN HUANG, XINYANG NORMAL UNIVERSITY, CHINA; JESÚS ILUNDÁIN-AGURRUZA, LINFIELD UNIVERSITY, USA
PH YSI CAL L ITERA CY AN D SOMAES THET ICS: A RE JUVEN ATING CO MBINA TION F OR TH E ELD ERL Y
Although the concept of physical literacy has a long history, dating back to 1938, it was not until the 90s (Roetert et al. 2017)
that the task of defining it was tackled. Margaret Whitehead has been a leading author in this regard, and one whose work is
most philosophical. She first argued (Whitehead 2001) that before we understand its meaning, we need to conceive of the
person holistically not in the usual dualistic fashion. After providing a seminal description (Whitehead 2005), she took on – for
the journal Sport, Ethics and Philosophy – the task of finding the philosophical contours of physical literacy in relation to the
sense of self, universality, and propositional knowledge (Whitehead 2007).
Now, while physical literacy is often considered in relation to education and younger children, the facet of lifelong literacy in
relation to the unique situation the elderly face begs to be considered as well.
Accordingly, for this presentation we examine physical literacy for the elderly. To this end, we supplement Whitehead’s
pioneering ideas with Shusterman’s (2005, 2007) work on somaesthetics. Advancing an appreciation of embodiment from an
aesthetic perspective, somaesthetics shares with physical literacy a focus on lifelong cultivation and a pedagogical ethos. This
framework proves ideal to provide a deeper theoretical validation for the core philosophical and aesthetic commitments of
physical literacy while the latter brings, hand in hand with the elderly, a practical application to validate “real-world” relevance.
The empirical work that Huang has conducted on the physical literacy journey and the ageing population in Hong Kong
complements the theoretical facet.
Keywords: Physical Literacy; Somaesthetics; Elderly populations
Bibliography:
Roetert, E.P., Kriellaars, D., Ellenbecker, T.S., et al. 2017. Preparing students for a physically literate life. Joperd, 88: 57–62.
Shusterman, R. 2008. Body Consciousness: A Philosophy of Mindfulness and Somaesthetics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Whitehead, M. .2001. A concept of physical literacy. European Journal of Physical Education, 6: 127–138.
---. 2005. Developing physical literacy. PE for Today’s Children, Primary Physical Education Conference, Roehampton, July, 2005.
---. 2007. Physical Literacy: Philosophical Considerations in Relation to Developing a Sense of Self, Universality and Propositional
Knowledge, Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 1 (3): 281-298.

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EMANUEL HURYCH, MASARYK UNIVERSITY IN BRNO, CZECH REPUBLIC
GA MIFI CATION SUPPORTED BY AI: CHALLENGES A ND THR EADS F OR THE FIELD OF MOVEMENT ACTI VITI ES
Gamification is a tool that has been developing dynamically over the last decade and is used in many areas of human endeavour,
especially in management ((Noorbehbahani et al., 2019) and education (Khoushaini et al., 2022). With the rapid development of
AI tools (such as Chat GPT and others) from 2022 onwards, the nature of gamification is also starting to change. With the rapid
development of AI tools (such as GPT Chat and others) from 2022 onwards, the nature of gamification is also starting to change.
The connection between machine learning and gamification has been pointed out by some authors both in general (Khakpour &
Colomo-Palacios, 2021) and in some areas of science (Mazarakis, 2021). The use of typical gamification elements (badges,
challenges, leaderboards, etc.) has accompanied the promotion of sports and physical activities for quite a long time.
Expert studies have investigated this development in elite sport (Buser et al., 2021), as well as in hobby sports (Ros-Morente et
al., 2022), or in physical education (Sotos- Martínez et al., 2022). The phenomenon of gamification within the philosophy of
sport has been discussed in the past (Hurych, 2021). This was about taking up the challenge of how to use the possibilities
offered by this tool to promote active and meaningful physical activity. At the same time, we pointed out certain limits posed by
excessive instrumentalization. In this context, the concept of meaningful gamification (Tan & Hew, 2016) and its possible forms
in sport is also very interesting. In our paper, we would like to discuss the possibilities of some cycling virtual applications
(Rouvy, BKOOL, etc.) from the perspective of sport philosophy. We confronted the theoretical analysis with personal experience
of using these applications. On this basis, we have tried to describe certain benefits for the user and at the same time to define
certain risks that the use of these applications may bring in terms of meaningfulness and access to human movement.
Keywords: Gamification, machine learning, indoor cycling software, instrumentalization
Bibliography
Buser, M., Woratschek, H., & Ridpath, B. D. (2021). Gamification through fantasy sports – Empirical findings from professional
sport leagues. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal, 11(5), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-08-
2020-0080
Hurych, E. (2021). Could Gamification Present a Significant Topic for the Philosophy of Sport? Studia sportiva, 15(1), 51–62.
https://doi.org/10.5817/StS2021-1-5
Khakpour, A., & Colomo-Palacios, R. (2021). Convergence of Gamification and Machine Learning: A Systematic Literature Review.
Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 26(3), 597–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-020-09456-4
Khoushaini, N. A.-W. M., Mohd, S. M., Kamarudin, S., Jan, N. M., & Wahab, A. N. A. (2022). Trend on Gamification Approach in
Learning and Teaching. http://localhost:8080/jspui/handle/123456789/15672
Mazarakis, A. (2021). Gamification Reloaded: Current and Future Trends in Gamification Science. I-Com, 20(3), Article 3.
https://doi.org/10.1515/icom-2021- 0025
Noorbehbahani, F., Salehi, F., & Jafar Zadeh, R. (2019). A systematic mapping study on gamification applied to e-marketing.
Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 13(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIM-08-2018-0103
Ros-Morente, A., Farré, M., Quesada-Pallarès, C., & Filella, G. (2022). Evaluation of Happy Sport, an Emotional Education
Program for Assertive Conflict Resolution in Sports. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(5),
Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052596
Sotos-Martínez, V. J., Ferriz-Valero, A., García-Martínez, S., & Tortosa-Martínez, J. (2022). The effects of gamification on the
motivation and basic psychological needs of secondary school physical education students. Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy, 0(0), Article 0. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2022.2039611
Tan, M., & Hew, K. F. (2016). Incorporating meaningful gamification in a blended learning research methods class: Examining
student learning, engagement, and affective outcomes. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology.
https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.2232

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RYUTARO ICHIHARA, CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, FULLERTON, USA
HOW TO BE I N THE BOD Y: DEV ELOPI NG A P HENOM ENO LOGY O F PH YSICA L ACTI VITY WITH CER EBRAL PALSY
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a neurological disorder that affects the motor system, resulting in varying degrees of physical disability.
Despite the importance of physical activity for overall health and well- being, the experiences of people with CP in relation to
physical activity have received little attention in sport philosophy and related fields, resulting in a research gap. This paper
explores the connection between cerebral palsy and physical activity through a phenomenological lens, drawing on the work of
Maurice Merleau-Ponty and other phenomenologists. The paper aims to conceptualize the unique bodily experiences of people
with CP in physical activity settings, with particular attention to the sense of alienation from the body experienced by many
people with CP.
The alienation of the body can manifest in various ways, such as a lack of coordination between body parts or the sense of a lack
of control over bodily movements. This disconnection from one's own body and the physical world around them can exacerbate
feelings of isolation and exclusion. Individuals with CP may experience a sense of "otherness" or being "different" from able-
bodied individuals, which can make them feel like they do not belong in physical activity settings. These experiences can lead to
feelings of frustration, embarrassment, and even shame, which can further discourage participation in physical activity.
By acknowledging these embodied experiences, the paper emphasizes the importance of creating physical activity contexts that
prioritize accessibility and welcome diversity in bodily abilities. By providing accommodations and support, such as adaptive
equipment or accessible facilities, individuals with CP can experience a greater sense of agency and control over their bodies and
their participation in physical activity. The analysis also considers the social and cultural factors that impact the experiences of
people with CP in relation to physical activity, including ableist attitudes and expectations around physical ability. By challenging
these assumptions and promoting greater inclusion for people with disabilities in sport and physical activity contexts, we can
work towards creating a more equitable and empowering environment for all.
Through this paper, I argue that a phenomenological approach to understanding the experiences of people with CP in relation to
physical activity can enrich our understanding of disability and contribute to the development of more inclusive and equitable
physical activity environments. By acknowledging the unique bodily experiences of individuals with CP and creating accessible
physical activity contexts, we can promote greater participation and well-being for all individuals, regardless of their physical
abilities.
Keywords: Merleau-Ponty, phenomenology, cerebral palsy, lived experience, embodiment
Bibliography:
Aggerholm, K., & Moltke Martiny, K. M. (2017). Yes We Can! A Phenomenological Study of a Sports Camp for Young People With
Cerebral Palsy. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 34(4), 362-381. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2015-0135
Baldwin, T. (Ed.). (2003). Maurice Merleau-Ponty: Basic Writings (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203502532
Martiny, K. M., & Aggerholm, K. (2016). Embodying cognition: working with self-control in cerebral palsy. Cognitive Behaviour
Therapist, 9, e33, Article e33. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1754470X16000192

54 | P a g e
MIROSLAV IMBRISEVIC, THE OPEN UNIVERSITY, UK
RE MEDIES FOR INJ USTI CE IN SPOR T
Sometimes an injustice occurs in sport. It could be intentional (wrong-doing) or accidental. I will try to classify some of the
remedies on offer and assess their effectiveness. 1. Solo re-run: a 100m hurdler stumbles and falls in the heats, impeding the
hurdler in the next lane. After a protest, the officials allow the impeded hurdler to re-run the race – by herself. She does so and
falls at the last hurdle. Here, the remedy is only second-best. It is a poor simulation of what a real race would be like. 2. Re-start:
a sprinter jumps the gun. The race is re-started. If the race is re-run too many times (i.e. several false starts), this might affect
the competitors negatively. But there is no better remedy. Once we have a successfully started (and finished) race, we have the
best approximation to justice – but, the first race, if successful, would be ideal. 3. Disqualification: an athlete is found to have
used equipment that is in contravention of the rules. Her disqualification makes all other competitors whole again – everyone
below the violator moves up in the ranking. 4. An opportunity for restoration in response to a Regular Foul (RG), e.g. in football.
This is usually accidental, but could also be a ‘heat-of-the-battle foul. The foul doesn’t normally substantially change the balance
of play (unlike the Strategic Foul). Example: the pitch is wet and one player slides into another player. The referee issues a
yellow card, play is restarted and the victim side is given possession of the ball. 5. An opportunity for restoration in response to a
Strategic Foul (SF). There are two possible remedies for a SF: a) the penalty leaves the fouling side with an opportunity for a
points advantage (basketball, prior to 2015 rule change - freethrow for the victim: 2 points; ball possession and field goal for the
fouler: 3 points); b) the penalty has the potential to fully restore the victim with regard to the score (football: penalty kick). Here
a clear opportunity to score has been denied through the foul. If the penalty is converted, the victim is made whole again
(assuming the foul did not result in injuries, broken leg, etc). But the opportunity to score is often no converted – here lies an
injustice, because restorative skills are being tested. 6. Direct restoration: for a rule-violation which denies one side a point or
victory. Rather than providing the fouled side with a chance of restoration (e.g. a penalty kick for a SF), the remedy here is direct
restoration. The referee awards a goal to the fouled side. We have a precedent for this in football: in the early 1880s the FA
introduced a law which gave umpires the power to award a goal for a handball which, in their opinion, had prevented a goal
being scored. We also had direct restoration in Karate at the last Olympics (Sajad Ganjzadeh’s v. Tareg Hamedi). 6. Make-up
calls: the referee made an error and realises it; she tries to compensate for this when making subsequent calls. This is likely to
compound the error. Furthermore, the referee acts ultra vires. Conclusion: Direct restoration and a re-start of a race are the best
candidates for making the victim whole again. The other remedies usually fall short. But there is one consolation: It all evens out
in the end.
Keywords: foul; injustice; tort law; law of restitution
Bibliography:
Birks, P., (1985). An Introduction to the Law of Restitution, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Fraleigh, W. P. (2003): ‘Intentional Rules Violations – One More Tim’, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 30 (2003) 2, pp. 166–
176. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2003.9714642 .
Mark Hamilton (2011) The Moral Ambiguity of the Makeup Call, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 38:2, 212-228, DOI:
10.1080/00948705.2011.10510423
Hensler, Torts as Fouls: What Sports Taught me about Corrective Justice, Strict Liability, and Civil Recourse in Tort Law,
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2031735#
Virgo, G., (2015). The Principles of the Law of Restitution, 3rd ed., Oxford: OUP.

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KENJI ISHIGAKI, TOKAIGAKUEN UNIVERSITY, JAPAN
AN EDU CATION FOR INTER CORPOR EALI TY ON SC HOOL PHYSI CAL ED UCA TION: TO WARD TO THE CORPOR EAL
“WE ”
As L.Wittgenstein states, the dialogue between the self and the other is the “language-game,” it can be said black box for each
other. If so, the education has a transcendence, which is teaching something that cannot be spoken (ideas and thinking) by
simply showing what can only be shown. At the same time, this also means that children universalize others. In other words, the
child acquires a “transcendental other.” For example, when a child learns the idea of “red,” it means that he has acquired the
“red” of his mother’s one as his own cognitive framework, it is nothing but to acquire a “red” that is appropriate for any other
persons.
Therefore, it is important for child to have “Aha this is red” experience.
The same thing is happening in the practice of school physical education. For example, let us consider my own experience of
learning carving turns on skis a several years ago. I was actually shown a carving turn on a ski by my master, and repeatedly
speak to it as “riding the edge.” Then, when I repeat tried to ski with that intention, suddenly, I felt “Aha, this is it.” In this case,
for me, the master becomes the
“transcendental other.” It means that I understood the feelings that “everybody must have felt like this” who could ski carving
turn was understood. In other words, I acquired the “corporeal feeling” of “riding the edge” of the transcendental other, it can
be said that it is a corporeal “universal other.” This means that as soon as I could skied a carving turn, a corporeal
universalization function in my body, and that a feeling of “riding the edge” was regard as the feeling of skilled skier.
Also, if I acquire a corporeal “universal other” in this way, at the same time, when I look a similar skilled other's carving turn, I
would percept the “our” feeling for riding of edge, rather than the “yours” one. It would be to recognize the “we” who can ski
skilled. In this case, there is a shift in perception from “your” to “our.” In other words, it can be said that by acquiring a certain
physical movement, children acquire a corporeal universal other and at the same time foster a “corporeal us.” This means
recognizing “we” as corporeal feeling, and it can be said that we are recognizing “we” as corporeal solidarity between human
beings. This corporeal “we” is none other than the “intercorporeality” referred to by M.Merleau-Ponty.
If that is the case, then school physical education should be an education that enriches intercorporeality and should be
positioned as education for “intercorporeality.” School physical education should aim at the education to understand the others
as corporeal feeling, not just sports education for the victory. This will serve as a moral foundation that deepens human
corporeal solidarity.
Keywords; corporeal feeling, “universal other,” corporeal “we,” corporeal solidarity
Bibliography:
K.Ishigaki, 2020. Physical Education and Intercorporeality (in Japanese). Fumaido
M.Merleau-Ponty, trans. McCleary,T.C.1964. Signs. Northwestern University Press.
L.Wittgenstein, trans. P.M.S. Hacker. 2009. Philosophical Investigation. Weley-Brackwell

56 | P a g e
JENS-OLE JENSEN AND HENRIK TAARSTED JØRGENSEN, VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, DENMARK
RE SISTA NCE IN PHYSI CAL ED UCATIO N – THE D IREC T OR I NDIREC T PATH TO THE TOP O F TH E MOUNT AIN
Brilliantly illustrated by, for example, Hartmut Rosa (2021), new technologies in modernity are aimed at accelerating and making
society more efficient by eliminating resistance. In civil society, this tendency is expressed by helicopter parents who devote
their lives to relieving their children of their burdens. In the world of education, it is widespread to talk about facilitating or
scaffolding learning processes. The purpose of education is often regarded as helping and supporting (mainly) children learning
and developing life skills and competencies. In this regard teachers' job is scaffolding, facilitating and clearing the road for the
pupils (Biesta 2022). Also, in sport and physical education the idea of facilitating and scaffolding is a well-known metaphor and
practice.
In sports and physical education, we try to facilitate the acquisition of new skills by the athletes or students by, for example,
showing them how to perform a volleyball serve or explaining to them how to lead the arm in a crawl. Sometimes we even ease
the resistance by physically supporting students when, for example, they practice doing a front handspring in gymnastics.
But perhaps there is a risk that we miss an important value in human development if we are too preoccupied with making the
path easy and removing all resistance on the way. Maybe we are too focused on the Life on Easy Streets (Kretchmar 2006). What
if the trouble, the resistance, the challenge and the struggle are what make sport, physical education and maybe even life
meaningful? It would be naïve and properly also very privileged to think of all resistance as meaningful. Sport is part of what we
can call beyond necessity and in that sense resistance we choose ourselves. It is not self-evident that the resistance in a
compulsory subject such as physical education is experienced as meaningful, but if part of the purpose of education is
considered a matter of subjectification as Biesta has suggested, we can perhaps make the artificially created resistance more
attractive to the students.
The Norwegian scholar Herner Saeverot argues that students will find teaching more existentially meaningful if it has a more
indirect character. In direct pedagogy, the teacher designates the goal and aims to help the student arrive at the goal as easily as
possible. In this way the students are deprived from choosing and the sweet tension of overcoming resistance. In contrast, the
teacher in indirect pedagogic will inspire the students to find and choose their own crooked path towards the mountain top
(Saeverot 2022).
The purpose of this presentation is to investigate how resistance can contribute to physical education being experienced as
existentially meaningful. The presentation will elaborate on how teaching PE can avoid being a mountain too high to climb, but a
mountain the students want to climb.
Keywords: Resistance; Physical education; Subjectification; Indirect pedagogic
Bibliography:
Biesta, G. (2022). World-centered education – A view for the present. London Routledge.
Kretchmar, R. S. (2006). Life on Easy Street: The Persistent Need for Embodied Hopes and Down-to-Earth Games. Quest, 58(3),
345–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2006.10491888
Rosa. (2021). Alienation and acceleration: towards a critical theory of late-modern temporality. NSU Press.
Saeverot, H. (2022). Indirect Education. Exploring Indirectness in Teaching and Research. New York: Routledge.

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CARWYN JONES, CARDIFF METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY, UK
DISOR DER IN SPO RT: PAT HOLO GIZING ( SPO RTING) NO RMALC Y
We are told that sport is good for our mental health. Physical movement releases chemicals in the brain that make us feel
better. Engaging in activity with others also has benefits. But we are also learning that many of our sporting heroes and heroines
suffer from poor mental health, including eating disorders, substance use and addictive disorders, PTSD, mood disorders, bi-
polar disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
In this paper I draw on ongoing debates in the philosophy of psychiatry about the nature and scope of mental disorders and
apply these in the context of sport. More specifically I interrogate problems associated with ‘concept creep’ (Haslam, 2016).
Vertical creep is the process whereby more people (athletes) qualify as having a mental health condition or disorder. Their
experiences and state of mind (mood) are treated as symptoms of a disorder e.g., sadness or grief are symptoms of a depressive
disorder, or fear and anxiety are symptoms of an anxiety disorder. Horizontal creep is the process whereby certain experiences,
mental states, moods and/or behaviors are pathologized. For example, excessive training or commitment becomes an addiction
(Heirene et al., 2016) and grief, sadness and disappointment become post-Olympic blues (Bradshaw et al., 2022).
When ‘normal’ variations in mood or regular experiences are pathologized more people are diagnosed with a disorder. Haslam
(2016) argues that the negative consequences of such creep include exaggerating the prevalence of disorder in the population,
deflecting resources away from more severe conditions and, given the predominance of a medical model of mental health,
overuse of a ‘chemical cure’ (Moncrieff, 2008). Furthermore, a ‘looping effect’ is created where people come to understand
themselves and others as patients rather than agents.
In the context of sport, the growing number of elite athletes suffering poor mental health might be indicative of: less resilient
athletes, the pathologizing of ‘normal’ context specific mood fluctuations, the diagnosis of hitherto below threshold problems,
an enlarged and demoralized population of sufferers, or - positive change in sporting culture, a more specialized and informed
support network, and the de-stigmatization of mental health conditions.
Keywords: disorder, concept creep, pathologizing, post-Olympic blues
Bibliography
Bradshaw, H., Howells, K., & Lucassen, M. (2022). Abandoned to manage the post-Olympic blues: Olympians reflect on their
experiences and the need for a change. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 14(5), 706-723.
Haslam, N. (2016). Looping effects and the expanding concept of mental disorder. Journal of Psychopathology, 22, 4-9.
Heirene, R. M., Shearer, D., Roderique-Davies, G., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2016). Addiction in extreme sports: An exploration of
withdrawal states in rock climbers. Journal of behavioral addictions, 5(2), 332-341.
Moncrieff, J. (2008). The myth of the chemical cure (pp. 217-224). Palgrave Macmillan UK.
.

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FILIP KOBIELA, UNIVERSITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN KRAKOW, POLAND
AR E M USIC C OMPETI TIO NS SP ORTS – ACCORDING TO TH E AC KNOWL EDGED DEFINI TIONS OF SPOR T?
The structure of my presentation is threefold. In the first part, I address the question of whether any of the acknowledged
definitions of sport can prima facie exclude activities such as music competitions, which are not considered to be a sport. As a
paradigmatic case of a music competition, I will take the International Chopin Piano Competition. In order to answer this
question, I’ve collected all the required conditions that have appeared in the definitions to see if any of them exclude the Chopin
Competition. The set of examined conditions consists of: having extraordinary character, being a competition, testing physical
skills, being rule- regulated and goal-oriented, among others.
The conclusion of the analysis is that the Chopin Competition meets all the collected conditions and, a fortiori, all selected
definitions of sport. Furthermore, it might be said that music competitions seem to belong to the category of traditional sports
called – in B. Suits’ terminology – performances or judged events, and in D. Best’s terminology – aesthetic sports.
In the second part, I present a dilemma constructed on the basis of the results achieved in the first part. Its conclusion, if correct,
might be seen as a challenge to the philosophy of sport.
Premise 1: Either music competitions are a sport or they are not a sport.
Premise 2: If music competitions are a sport, this fact is overlooked by the philosophy of sport in its analyses. Premise 3: If music
competitions are not a sport, the definitions of sport are flawed (too broad).
Conclusion: The philosophy of sport has either overlooked this particular kind of sport or hasn’t produced an accurate definition
of sport.
In the third part, I’m trying to explain how it is possible that the definitions—probably contrary to the beliefs of their creators—
include music competitions. This thread leads to the idea of adding new conditions to the analysed definitions of sport that
would restrict these definitions and exclude musical competitions. The success of such a restriction will provide a definition of
sport which would be able to undermine the third premise of the dilemma and therefore resolve it. On the other hand, its failure
would provide support for the second premise and thus lead to the strengthening of the dilemma’s conclusion.
Keywords: sport, definition, music competition, aesthetics
Bibliography:
Klein, S. E. (ed.). (2017). Defining Sport: Conceptions and Borderlines, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Kobiela, F. (2016). The Nature of Sport and its Relation to the Aesthetic Dimension of Sport. Acta Universitatis Carolinae.
Kinantropologica. 52:2, 75-84.
Papineau, D. (2017). Knowing the Score: How Sport Teaches Us about Philosophy (and Philosophy about Sport). London:
Constable.
Parry, J. (2018). E-Sports Are Not Sports. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. 13:1, 3–18.
Simon, R.L., Torres, C.R., Hager, P.F. (2015). Fair Play. The Ethics of Sport, Boulder, Co: Westview Press.
Suits, B. (2007). The Elements of Sport. In: Ethics in Sport, edited by W. J. Morgan, 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 9–19.

59 | P a g e
LEV KREFT, UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA, SLOVENIA
SPO RT A ND POLI TICS?
When sport authorities claim that sport and politics must be separated, they have in mind two kinds of politics. The first one is
politics of autonomy of sport and the second one is to prevent athletes to promote political views of their own in the context of
sport without approval by sport authorities. In recent years politization of sport has become so obvious that simple statement
that sport and politics must walk apart cannot satisfy any more. The cases of Qatar championship and response of the sport
authorities to Russian attack on Ukraine caused a conflicting discussion. What must be done prior to any confrontation is to
acknowledge that both sides represent a negation of “sport and politics” approach. Sport and politics are not two separate fields
or domains: there is and always was politics in sport. The problem arises when there is not just one kind of politics but two or
more, one of them coming from governing bodies of sport and the other from sport’s “civil society”. The latter is denied its right
to find expression in sport because sport’s way of concluding about conflicting politics eliminates its own “civil society”, using its
strategy of “sport and politics” to reach repressive consensus without opening the stage of deliberation for all. To analyse this
situation of two or more politics involved I will first introduce Rancière’s difference between police and politics. This is a move to
expose authoritarianism of sport’s governing bodies but to demonstrate that “sport and politics” division and the demand to
keep politics out of sport serve the distribution of the sensible and make the void of such division invisible. What is needed in
the next step is to make a difference between politics oriented towards consensual acceptance and politics oriented towards
confrontation which comes to result respecting certain common rules but does not eliminate one or the other side of conflict
from the open stage (agonism vs. antagonism; Chantal Mouffe) because dissent is a healthy state of politics. (Félix Guattari)
Finally, the difference between strategy and tactics following Michel de Certeau’s philosophy of the everyday will come handy to
introduce the situation on the ground which exist in sport’s political conflict.
Keywords: autonomy of sport; governmentality of sport; distribution of the sensible; agonism and antagonism; strategy and
tactics
Bibliography:

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KEVIN KREIN, UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA SOUTHEAST, USA
FI RST- PERS ON AES THETIC EX PERIE NCES I N SP ORT
Most of the work in traditional aesthetics has been devoted to explaining the experience of art or beauty from the perspective
of the passive observer. This is also true of much of the work on aesthetics in sport philosophy. My interest, instead, is in the
aesthetic experiences of athletes while they are engaged in sport. In previous work I have tried to explain the aesthetic
experiences of athletes in nature sports and, more specifically, to provide an account of graceful movement from the first-
person perspective of nature sports athletes.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a more general account of embodied first-person aesthetic experiences in sport. I will
attempt to explain how we should understand first-person aesthetic experiences and describe the characteristic features of such
experiences.
I begin with a Kantian-style account of disinterested and distanced aesthetic experiences. As it stands, the active and engaged
experiences of athletes will not fit into such an account. I will argue, however, that elements of this traditional account remain
central and can be adapted to help explain first-person aesthetic experiences in sport. These adaptations result in an account
that incorporates complex combinations of sensory experience, including kinesthesia and proprioception. Further, my account
of first-person aesthetics in sport describes such experiences in an interactive context. This is because, I argue, the aesthetic
object we are concerned with here arises only in the interaction between the athlete and who or what the athlete is interacting
with. In a sport such as skiing, for example, it is the interaction between the skier and the terrain and snow that athlete
experiences aesthetically.
I conclude by arguing that through attending to aesthetic features, athletes can enhance their experience of their sport.
Keywords: Embodied Aesthetics, Engaged Aesthetics, Phenomenology, Gliding, Nature Sports, Skiing.
Bibliography
Kant, I. (1987) Critique of Judgment, Werner Pluhar (trans.) Indianapolis: Hackett.
Montero (2016). Thought in Action: Expertise and the Conscious Mind. Oxford University Press. Berleant, A. (2012). Aesthetics
Beyond the Arts. Routledge.
Krein, K. (2018). Philosophy and Nature Sport. Routledge.

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SCOTT KRETCHMAR, PENN STATE UNIVERSITY, USA
SE ARC HING F OR BO RDERLAND S B ETWEEN SPOR T PHIL OSO PHY AND SPORT SCIENCE: RECO MMENDATI ONS
FRO M H USSER L AND MERLE AU-PONT Y
In this presentation I will build on a recent paper I wrote with one of our esteemed scientists at Penn State in which we searched
for “borderlands” between physics and sport philosophy— that is, “domains” in which our interdependence is demonstrable
(Kretchmar and Latash, 2022). Our essay was prompted by a challenge issued by the famous biologist, E. O Wilson (1998).
There has never been a better time for collaboration between scientists and philosophers, especially where they meet in the
borderlands between biology, the social sciences, and the humanities. We are approaching a new age of synthesis when the
testing of consilience is the greatest of all intellectual challenges. (11-12)
I will extend the analysis initiated by Professor Latash and myself by arguing that both Husserl and Merleau-Ponty, albeit for
different reasons, provide sport philosophers with strong reasons for endorsing collaborative projects with empirical scientists
and why scientists have equally strong reasons for joining hands with us. In short, I will attempt to pinpoint why it is we need
one another and how it is we will be able to understand one another. I will conclude by acknowledging that such partnerships
have been far more the exception than the rule and speculating on reasons for what Wilson would regard as a very unhappy
state of affairs.
Keywords: Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, consilience, sport philosophy, sport science
Bibliography:
Husserl, E. (1931/1962). Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology. (Trans. by W. R. B. Gibson). New York: Collier
Books.
Husserl, E. 1954/1970. The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology.: An Introduction to
Phenomenological Philosophy. (Trans. by D. Carr). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
Kretchmar, S. & Latash, M. (2022). Human movement: In search of borderlands between philosophy and physics. Kinesiology
Review, 11, 2, 179-190.
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1942/1963). The Structure of Behavior. (Trans. by A. Fisher.). Boston: Beacon Press.
Wilson, E. O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

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PAVEL GREGORY B. KRIPPA, KU LEUVEN, BELGIUM
TO WH AT EXTEN T IS A H ARM-RE DUC TION DOP ING PRO POSAL E THIC ALL Y JUST IFIAB LE?
WADA’s (2021) anti-doping policy has drawn much criticism over the years: the role of privacy in the whereabouts system
(Waddington, 2010); justice in the sanctioning of innocent athletes (Moston & Engelberg, 2019); health in the world of
professional sport (Kayser et al., 2007). In light of such concerns, there have been proposals for alternatives to the status quo.
However, the advent of these proposals bring new issues to the anti-doping debate that are worth analysing. This article hopes
to illuminate some of these concerns by examining the ethical harms associated with the harm-reduction anti-doping proposal.
It specifically looks at the ethical implications of a medically supervised harm-reduction model for athletes who abstain from
doping on moral grounds. This article argues that though harm-reduction mitigates many of the ills of anti-doping, it creates new
ethical issues for these athletes. As harm-reduction is overwhelmingly focused on athlete welfare, it is useful to identify whether
this is indeed the case when applying a medically supervised doping model. The effects of these moral harms must be
considered and weighed against the benefits of the current WADA system. Doing so will provide a perspective on the plausibility
and practicality of harm-reduction as a doping alternative moving forward.
Keywords: doping, harm-reduction, ethics, anti-doping, athlete’s rights
Bibliography:
Kayser, B., Mauron, A., & Miah, A. (2007). Current anti-doping policy: a critical appraisal. BMC Medical Ethics, 8(1), 2.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6939-8-2
Moston, S., & Engelberg, T. (2019). And justice for all? How anti-doping responds to ‘Innocent Mistakes’. International Journal of
Sport Policy and Politics, 11(2), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2018.1550799
Waddington, I. (2010). Surveillance and control in sport: a sociologist looks at the WADA whereabouts system. International
Journal of Sport Policy, 2(3), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2010.507210

63 | P a g e
VID KUČKO, UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB, CROATIA
TH E I MPLEMEN TATIO N OF THE C HAL LENGE SYSTEM IN FOOT BALL
The Video Assistant Referee, more often called VAR, has changed the game of football forever. Since its implementation in 2018,
VAR has sparked numerous debates with many deeming it an unwelcome addition that damages the game of football. On the
other hand, many deem VAR to be a great step forward in modernizing football and keeping the integrity of the game, as well as
upkeeping the fair-play aspect in today's world of sports. This paper does not deal with all the past arguments on the topic of
VAR, but rather presents the idea of the next step in the evolution of football. The goal of this paper is to present „The Challenge
System“. The idea of „The Challenge System“ is to give the head coaches of each team an option to request an obligatory VAR
check by the referee once per halftime. Unlike in other sports, where if a challenge has successfully overruled the official's
decision and the player or the team may keep challenging their decisions, the team would only get one challenge per halftime,
regardless of whether the previous challenge was successful or not. The reason for this is to avoid adding an overwhelming
amounts of overtime, as well as the fact that wrong decisions of the referee are amongst the strongest aspects of the game that
keep the audiences engaged and invested into the game of football. The Challenge System would also promote fair-play and
sportsmanship, while giving head coaches more impact on the game during football matches.
Keywords: VAR, challenge system, football
Bibliography
Butcher, Robert, and Angela Schneider. “Fair Play as Respect for the Game.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 25, no. 1 (1998):
1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.1998.9714565.
Cleret, Lea, Mike McNamee, and Stuart Page. “‘Sports Integrity’ Needs Sports Ethics (and Sports Philosophers and Sports
Ethicists Too).” Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 9, no. 1 (2015): 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2015.1049015.
Collins, Harry. “Applying Philosophy to Refereeing and Umpiring Technology.” Philosophies 4, no. 2 (2019): 21.
https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020021.
Collins, Harry. “The Philosophy of Umpiring and the Introduction of Decision-Aid Technology.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport
37, no. 2 (2010): 135–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2010.9714772.
Gardiner, Simon, Jim Parry, and Simon Robinson. “Integrity and the Corruption Debate in Sport: Where Is the Integrity?”
European Sport Management Quarterly 17, no. 1 (2016): 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2016.1259246..
Motoarca, Ioan-Radu. “Kinds of Fair Play and Regulation Enforcement: Toward a Better Sports Ethic.” Journal of the Philosophy
of Sport 42, no. 1 (2014): 121–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2014.911100.
Harvey, Andy, and Mike J. McNamee. Sport Integrity: Ethics, Policy and Practice. London etc.: Routledge, 2020.
Ryall, Emily. “Are There Any Good Arguments against Goal-Line Technology?” Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 6, no. 4 (2012): 439–
50. https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2012.737010.
Spitz, Jochim, Johan Wagemans, Daniel Memmert, A. Mark Williams, and Werner F. Helsen. “Video Assistant Referees (VAR):
The Impact of Technology on Decision Making in Association Football Referees.” Journal of Sports Sciences 39, no. 2 (2020): 147–
53. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1809163.
Tamir, Ilan, and Michael Bar-eli. “The Moral Gatekeeper: Soccer and Technology, the Case of Video Assistant Referee (VAR).”
Frontiers in Psychology 11 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.613469.
Zglinski, Jan. “Rules, Standards, and the Video Assistant Referee in Football.” Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 16, no. 1 (2020): 3–19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2020.1857823.

64 | P a g e
TERESA O. LACERDA AND LUÍSA ÁVILA DA COSTA, UNIVERSITY OF PORTO, PORTUGAL
AE STHETIC READING OF V ELOCI TY IN CONT EMPO RARY SPORTS
Overpassed the period of concerns on legitimating the aesthetics of sport by arguing about the possible artistic features of sport
and the convergences between sport and art, the past decades have been a fruitful time for the development of the aesthetics
of sport grounded on internal (or matrix) qualities of sport itself, i.e., sport considered as an aesthetic activity. Nevertheless,
studying the aesthetics of sport still calls for the world of art, since the sensitive look of artists constitutes a non---negligible
contribution to the knowledge in this domain. The trigger for this work was the study of Cunha e Silva (1991) about velocity in
modern art.
Velocity has always been of main importance in sport, from ‘stadium race’ in ancient Olympic games to contemporary sports
such as skating, cycling or skiing. It is certain that there is a range of sports where velocity is not necessarily the dominant
element, however it can be observed that in many sports, such as tennis, team sports or sailing (e.g.) it has become increasingly
important. Such importance is related in first place to matters of effectiveness and efficiency, but it also contributes to (re)
outline the aesthetic value of those sports.
Considering the constructs of ‘aesthetic value’ and ‘aesthetic categories’, the latter being a means of better understanding and
communicating the former, the purpose of this study is to argue about velocity in contemporary sport as an aesthetic category.
The path of previous works will be followed, moving between the knowledge about motor skills and aesthetic categories. The
main frame work will be Paul Virillio and his ‘dromology’ (1997) so as Caillois’ categories of games, specially ‘illinx’ and
‘agon’(1990), along with Paul Souriau aesthetics of movement.
Keywords: velocity, sports, aesthetic value, aesthetic categories.
Bibliography:
Caillois, R. (1958/1990). Os jogos e os homens. Lisboa: Edições Cotovia.
Cunha e Silva, P. (1991). O conceito de velocidade na história da arte moderna. Jorge Bento & António Marques (Eds): As
ciências do desporto e a prática desportiva. Actas do II Congresso de Educação Física dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (2º vol.),
409---418. Porto: Faculdade de Ciências do Desporto e de Educação Física, Universidade do Porto.
Virilio, P. (1977/1997). Velocidade e política. São Paulo: Estação da Liberdade.

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KASPER LASTHEIN MADSEN, VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, DENMARK; ANNEMARI MUNK SVENDSEN AND ANNE WOLLF
JACOBSEN, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN DENMARK; TORBEN HANSEN, DANSK SKOLEIDRÆT
ME ANING FUL P HYSIC AL EDUC ATION - PH ILOSOP HY IN PRACTIC E: EXPERIENCES FROM AN ACTION- RESEAR CH
PR OJECT
Physical education is an arena for bodily actions which can pave the way for meaningful experiences of existential value.
According to Merleau-Ponty (2012), the lived body is the opening towards the world. He argues that understanding one's
surroundings depends on the bodily experience of interacting with those surroundings. From this perspective, movement is a
reciprocal and meaningful relationship with the world that forms the basis for insight, knowledge, and understanding of new
experiences. Thus, the body furnishes the meaningful configuration of the senses. Accordingly, the body is a perceptual point of
reference, and humans are body-subjects that encounter and perceive the world through embodied experiences. Therefore,
physical education has the potential to qualify the pupils' lives if it is organized around meaningfulness (Fletcher et al., 2021;
Kretchmar, 2000).
This perspective is significant in primary schools, as pupils at an early age may develop insights into how and when bodily
experiences become meaningful. However, knowledge concerned with the pedagogy of meaningful physical education in
primary schools is limited. Against this background, we examine how teachers can promote meaningful experiences in physical
education in primary schools. In the action research project More Meaningful Physical Education, researchers, vocational
pedagogues and teachers develop different didactics in a joint effort (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005). The project is based on
phenomenology and informed by international research into meaningful physical education, including pedagogical principles
and themes. However, applying existential philosophy in a practical teaching context has proven challenging. The action
research project seeks to enhance interaction between theoretical concepts and pedagogical practice to facilitate changes in
perspective and pedagogical practices. In this presentation, we will outline how the concept of 'meaningfulness' manifest
differently in practice and support new didactic considerations. This includes the teachers' perception of meaningfulness, first-
person perspective and didactics such as narratives, play, and the experimental use of equipment. Furthermore, we will address
the possibilities and challenges in processing philosophy-informed practice research.
Keywords: physical education, meaningfulness, didactics, action research, philosophy in practice
Bibliography:
Fletcher, T., Ní Chróinín, D., Gleddie, D., & Beni, S. (2021). Meaningful Physical Education - An Approach for Teaching and
Learning. Routledge.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (2005). Participatory Action Research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of
qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 559–603). Sage Publications.
Kretchmar, R. S. (2000). Movement Subcultures: Sites for Meaning. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 71(5).
Merleau-Ponty, M. (2012). Phenomenology of perception. Routledge.

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YANEÍ LEZAM, KU LEUVEN, BELGIUM
*** W INN ER OF THE K R E T CH MAR STUDENT ESSAY AW ARD***
WH EN ‘HIGHER , FAS TER, STRO NGER’ I MPL IES HARM
There is a concerning number of cases revealing that sport careers involve demands exceeding athletic discipline at its highest
level of competition: the endurance of violence. The International Olympic Committee Consensus Statement on Harassment and
Abuse (non-accidental violence) in Sport (onwards the consensus statement), authored by Mountjoy et al in 2016, presents
robust evidence supporting this empirical claim. I will critically analyze its use of the qualifier non-accidental to characterize
unacceptable violence, arguing inaccuracy and inadequacy because a) sport, especially elite sport, has instances of non-
accidental violence outside the scope of the consensus statement. b) These instances can be—contentiously—ethically accepted
by virtue of the intrinsic value that the internal goods of sport offer to athletes (Russell, 2005). In these cases, athletes exercising
autonomous choice, decide to engage in sport practices, entertaining significant harm risks and even harm in itself, in pursuance
of meaningful life plans and goals (Lopez-Frias and McNamee, 2017). Therefore c) if we are to morally accept and ethically
defend the existence of (rule-bounded) non-accidental violence on the grounds of sport’s intrinsic value and athlete’s autonomy
of choice, a more accurate and morally compelling characterization of reprehensible violence in elite sport is needed. I will
suggest that to tackle unacceptable violence we could focus instead on behaviors which overstep the limits of athletes’
autonomy of choice.
Keywords: Violence in Sport, Non-accidental violence, Athletes' autonomy of choice
Bibliography:
Brackenridge, C. H. (2010). Violence and abuse prevention in sport (401-413). In Walsh K, Zwi K, ed. The prevention of sexual
violence: a practitioners’ sourcebook. Holyoke, MA. Neari Press
Dixon, N. (2001). Boxing, Paternalism, and Legal Moralism. Social Theory and Practice, 27(2), 323–344.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23562068
Dixon, N. (2015). A moral critique of Mixed Martial Arts. Public Affairs Quarterly, 29(4), 365–384.
Dixon, N. (2016) Internalism and external moral evaluation of violent sport, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 43:1, 101-113,
DOI: 10.1080/00948705.2015.1115360
Lopez Frias, F., & McNamee, M. (2017). Ethics, Brain Injuries, and Sports: Prohibition, Reform, and Prudence. Sport, Ethics and
Philosophy, 11(3), 264–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2017.1342688
Mountjoy, M., Brackenridge, C., Arrington, et al (2016). International Olympic Committee consensus statement: Harassment and
abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine 50:bjsports-2016. 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096121.
Russell, J.S. (2005). The Value of Dangerous Sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 32(1), 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2005.9714667
Sailors, P. (2015) Personal Foul: an evaluation of the moral status of football, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 42:2, 269-286,
DOI: 10.1080/00948705.2014.1000338
Simon, R. L. (1991). Fair Play: Sport, Values, and Society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press

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SIGMUND LOLAND, NORWEGIAN SCHOOL OF SPORT SCIENCES; ØYVIND SANDBAKK AND GERTJAN ETTEMA, NTNU,
NORWAY
OV ERC OMING DUALIS M IN MOVEMENT SKI LLS R ESEA RCH: AN INT EGRATI VE APPRO ACH
Human movement skills, understood as functional and efficient solutions to movement tasks, can be studied in several ways.
One prominent approach is based on natural science in which the body and its movements are described in objective,
quantitative terms and explained mechanistically with the help of scientific disciplines such as biomechanics and
neurophysiology. For example, a motor control approach departs from insights into the neuromuscular interplay between a
hierarchy of central nervous system (CNS) structures and sensory inputs from the involved structures (e.g., muscles). Skill
development is explained by the plasticity and adaptability of the bodily structures involved.
A second approach emphasizes ‘the view from the inside’ and the analysis of experiential qualities in movement. With the help
of qualitative methodology, primarily from phenomenology, descriptions of movement skill execution are developed with
concepts such as rhythm and flow as found in the ‘tribal’ language used by practitioners, for example, athletes and coaches. The
approach can connect to constructivist approaches in the social sciences, where learned movement patterns are understood as
outcomes of socialization within the context of cultural norms and values.
There are significant differences between these approaches. They are based on different epistemological and methodological
premises and ideas of relevance to practice. The mechanistic approach offers explanations and predictions within well-defined
and precise theoretical frameworks. The phenomenological approach builds on the quest to describe and understand practice as
'lived' and experienced by practitioners.
The question to be addressed in this paper is whether the mechanistic and phenomenological approaches are mutually exclusive
or whether the apparent gaps can be narrowed in scientifically sound ways. Firstly, and with the help of Kuhn’s idea of scientific
paradigms, I will discuss the challenge of paradigmatic incommensurability. Secondly, with examples from existing movement
skills research in sports, I will examine alternative ways of dealing with this challenge. Finally, I will outline the main steps of an
integrative approach where insights into movement skills are connected in complementary ways.
Keywords: movement skills; epistemology; paradigms; integrative approach
Bibliography
Kuhn, T. (1962/1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Third edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Loland, S. (2008). Alpine skiing technique - practical knowledge and scientific analysis. In: Müller E, Lindinger S, Stöggl T (eds.)
Science and Skiing IV. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer Sport, pp. 43-58.
Montero, B. G. (2016). Thought in Action: Expertise and the Conscious Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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OLE LUND & KASPER LASTHEIN MADSEN, VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, DENMARK
PL AY A ND TH E GO OD LI FE IN SPORT : A QUESTI ON OF SWINGI NG I N A ND OUT OF C ONTROL ?
This paper considers sport and its relation to the good life. It is well known that adopting a physical lifestyle can improve
people's health and thus contribute to a longer and better(?) life. But the actual doing of sport may also contain the opportunity
to experience what makes life worth living. This is said to happen when sport activity is experienced as self-sufficient and valued
for its own sake. For this to happen participants need to act and adopt a playful or lusory attitude (Mareš & Ryall, 2021; Frías,
2020).
In this paper we focus on the power that sports activities in themselves must have in order to become playful. According to
Gadamer (2013), understandings of play often overemphasize the subjectivity of the participants, i.e. their inner intentions,
feelings and experiences, which can give the impression that play is primarily an individual accomplishment, or an attitude that
you take off the shelf and adopt at will. Gadamer suggests an understanding of play that starts in its continuous back and forth
movements out of which it gains a life on its own and its powers to captivate the participants and hold them in its spell
(Gadamer, 2013,111). In this sense, the playfulness of sport activities lies beyond the power of the individual.
If playful participation in sports is a source of the good life and “the primordial sense of playing is the medial one” (Gadamer,
2013, 108), we find it relevant to examine in more detail the kind of interpersonal processes and world-relationships that can
contribute to sport activities becoming playful.
Inspired by Hartmut Rosa's concepts of resonance and uncontrollability (Rosa, 2020), we analyze how the interpersonal
processes and world-relationships of sports can create fluctuations between control and non-control that support the
emergence of play. Rosa’s concepts are descriptive in the sense as they offer a corporeally and existentially founded way to
understand the mutability and variability of human-world relationship. But these concepts are also normative in the sense that
they suggest what a good life is like. It involves open and resonant relationships to segments of the world (for instance sport
activities) and that it requires a form of uncontrollability that “speaks to us” or makes us vibrate. We suggest that sport activities
may come playful when they are characterized by an inherent sense of “semicontrollability” (Rosa, 2020). We suggest that this
may further our understanding of how sporting activities may spellbind the participants in a playful state. Finally, we tentatively
discuss the implications that this may have on the way coaches and PE-teachers plan/structure and carry out training and sport
activities in order for them to become playful. We highlight the importance of developing relations of patiency (Brinkmann,
2021) and apprenticeship (Kretchmar, 2013) when trying to point others in direction of the good life in sport.
Keywords: play in sport, well-being, intersubjectivity, resonance
Bibliography:
Brinkmann, S. (2021). Resources and resonance: Notes on patiency as world relation. Culture & Psychology, 27(4), 562-576.
Frías, F. J. L. (2020) Does play constitute the good life? Suits and Aristotle on autotelicity and living well, Journal of the Philosophy
of Sport, 47:2, 168-182, DOI: 10.1080/00948705.2020.1745076
Kretchmar, S. (2013). Mind-body holism, paradigm shifts, and education. FairPlay, Revista de Filosofia, Ética y Derecho del
Deporte, (1), 28-43.
Mareš, L. & Ryall, E. (2021) ‘Playing sport playfully’: on the playful attitude in sport, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 48:2, 293-
306, DOI: 10.1080/00948705.2021.1934689
Rosa, H. (2020). The uncontrollability of the world. John Wiley & Sons.

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CAM MALLETT, PENN STATE UNIVERSITY, USA
GA MIFY ING H EALTH : THE BIO ETHIC S OF WEARABL E DE VIC ES AND FIT BIT’S TR ANSFO RMATION OF FITNES S AND
MO VEMENT I NTO A GA ME
Play, games, and sport can be rife with mismatches between what fans and athletes want and the experiences they have. Sports
philosophers such as Pam Sailors and Heather Reid have shown how an over-reliance on technology and quantification have
negatively impacted sport, creating a mismatch between what fans want to see and the product they receive. Gamification can
often be the cause of this, as C. Thi Nguyen has shown with Twitter, which introduces game-like elements to incentivize
engagement rather than meaningful, persuasive communication. These concerns regarding quantification, technologization, and
gamification all converge with wearable activity trackers, such as Fitbit and Apple Watch.
These devices which have similar effects on how users think about and relate to their own health, fitness, and physical activity.
By quantifying health and activity markers such as step count, standing time, or sleep quality, these devices transform the
movement and maintenance of the human body into a game, where the goal is to increase physical activity. However, a 2022
meta-analysis of scientific studies on wearable devices finds that while these devices did increase users’ physical activity, they
had moderate to nonsignificant impacts on actual physiological metrics of health, such as weight or cholesterol. Even more
concerning, the subjects in these trial did not find that the devices improved their overall quality of life. Because of this
mismatch between what these devices measure and what customers hope they provide, users of wearable devices find
themselves in a game where the goals may not align with their own desire to live a happier and more fulfilling life.
Fortunately, sports philosophy provides avenues for understanding and rectifying this mismatch. Sailors and Reid have studied
how overuse of technology and quantification can have negative effects on sport, while also proposing solutions to this problem.
Additionally, Emannuel Hurych has noted a distinction between when individuals add game-like elements to their daily lives to
make it more enjoyable, and when organizers and administrators add game-like elements to optimize labor performance. This
distinction between “gamification from above” and “gamification from below” provides an avenue for extending Hurych’s
argument into wearable devices.
Currently, these devices raise questions about bodily autonomy and the medicalization of health and human movement, with
the risk of turning the play and joy of physical activity into another box to be checked. By avoiding unnecessary quantification
and implementing the aspects of “gamification from below,” wearable devices can be reconsidered so that they not only
increase user physical activity, but also quality of life, fulfillment, and happiness.
Keywords: Wearable Activity Trackers, Technology, Gamification, Fitbit, Wearable Devices
Bibliography:
Bateman, Chris. "Playing work, or gamification as stultification." Information, Communication & Society 21.9 (2018): 1193-1203.
Ferguson, Ty, Timothy Olds, Rachel Curtis, Henry Blake, Alyson J Crozier, Kylie Dankiw, Dorothea Dumuid, et al. “Effectiveness of
Wearable Activity Trackers to Increase Physical Activity and Improve Health: A Systematic Review of Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses.” The Lancet Digital Health 4, no. 8 (August 1, 2022): e615–26.
Hurych, Emanuel. "Could Gamification Present a Significant Topic for the Philosophy of Sport?." Studia sportiva 15.1 (2021): 51-
62.
Lucivero, Federica, and Karin R. Jongsma. "A mobile revolution for healthcare? Setting the agenda for bioethics." Journal of
Medical Ethics 44.10 (2018): 685-689.
Nguyen, C. Thi (2021). How Twitter gamifies communication. In Jennifer Lackey (ed.),Applied Epistemology. Oxford University
Press. pp. 410-436.
Owens, John, and Alan Cribb. "‘My Fitbit Thinks I Can Do Better!’do health promoting wearable technologies support personal
autonomy?." Philosophy & Technology 32 (2019): 23-38.
Reid, Heather L. (2017). Why Olympia matters for modern sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 44 (2):159-173.
Sailors, P.R. Chips and Showmanship: Running and Technology. Philosophies 2019, 4, 30.

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LUKÁŠ MAREŠ, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH BOHEMIA, CZECH REPUBLIC
‘PH ILO SOPHI SING WITH ATH LETES AND TH EIR COACHE S’: O N U SING PHIL OSOPHIC AL THI NKI NG AND DIA LOGUE
IN SPORT
Philosophy may be accused of being an exclusive theoretical enterprise. Although it is concerned with the important issues of
life it may appear to be a purely academic matter pursued by few educated scholars and therefore somehow detached from
everyday way of being of people uneducated in philosophy. In the field of the philosophy of sport, the essential ambition is to
provide relevant insights into a vast area of sport that will promote our philosophical understanding and knowledge of the
relevant topics. This paper offers another perspective on the role of philosophy in sport. I argue that philosophy is not just about
reflecting from an academic distance, but the process of philosophizing could be situated within the sporting practices. This type
of relationship between philosophy and sport is already apparent in ancient Greece where philosophers (such as Pythagoras or
Socrates) liked to be engaged in physical exercises and to combine them with philosophical discussions with athletes. The paper
explores a practical role of philosophy in sport, namely the process of philosophical thinking and dialogue with athletes and their
coaches. It offers insights into methodology, goals, benefits, and limits of using philosophy in practice. I reflect on my personal
experience of being a mental coach and philosophical consultant in sport in the Czech Republic. The aim of this paper is to
demonstrate the relevance of using philosophy (philosophical practice) in the sporting environment. In doing so, I reflect on the
nature and purpose of philosophical thinking and its possible relation to sport psychology and mental coaching. This research
builds on my previous treatment of this topic and attempts to provide some new insights into a rather unexplored area of
philosophical practice as applied in sport.
Keywords: Philosophical practice, Socratic dialogue, philosophising, questioning, know thyself
Bibliography:
Breivik, G. (2019). From ‘Philosophy of Sport’ to ‘Philosophies of Sports’? History, Identity and Diversification of Sport
Philosophy. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 46:3, 301-320.
Corlett, J. (1996). Sophistry, Socrates, and Sport Psychology. The Sport Psychologist 10:1, 84-94.
Gréve, S. S. (2015). The Importance of Understanding Each Other in Philosophy. Philosophy 90:2, 213–39.
Mareš, L. (2019). Practical Role of Philosophy in Sport: Case of Philosophical Consultation. Physical Culture and Sport. Studies
and Research 83:1, 16-25.
Mareš, L. (2023). ‘Philosophising with Athletes and Their Coaches’: On Using Philosophical Thinking and Dialogue in Sport. Sport,
Ethics and Philosophy 17:2, 185-203.

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IRENA MARTÍNKOVÁ, CHARLES UNIVERSITY, CZECH REPUBLIC
UL TRA S PORTS AS NATUR E SPO RTS PROPER
Kevin Krein defines nature sports as “sports in which a particular natural feature, or combination of natural features, plays at
least one of the primary roles that human competitors or partners play in traditional or standard sports … In nature sports
natural features play primary roles akin to partners or competitors in traditional sports” (2019, 2). He distinguishes nature sports
from traditional sports that are primarily focussed on competition.
This paper challenges Krein’s definition of nature sports with the example of ultra races, such as ultra swimming, ultra running
and ultra cycling. These ultra sports are competitive endurance sports set in non-manicured nature. Whilst they are not usually
understood as nature sports, since they are evaluated as ultra disciplines of the sports of cycling, running and swimming, they
are set in the genuine natural environment whilst also being competitive.
Firstly, I shall describe these three sports and their relationship to nature. Then, I shall discuss these sports as sports that enable
records and human competition, with respect to Parry’s (2023) definition of sport, while at the same time fitting into Krein’s
(2019) definition of nature sports. I shall call these sports ‘nature sport proper’. Finally, I shall present impact of these
considerations on Krein’s definition of nature sport.
Keywords: definition of sport, nature sport, competition, ultra sports, record
Bibliography
Knechtle, B., Rosemann, T., Lepers, R., Rüst, C.A. (2014). Women outperform men in ultradistance swimming: The Manhattan
Island Marathon Swim from 1983 to 2013. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 9, 913–924.
Krein, K. (2019). Philosophy and Nature Sports. London: Routledge.
Krein, K., Parry, J., Martínková, I., Breivik, G. & Humphreys, R. (2022). Book Symposium: Kevin Krein’s Philosophy and Nature
Sports. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2117842
Martínková, I. & J. Parry. (2017). Safe Danger – On the Experience of Challenge, Adventure and Risk in Education. Sport, Ethics
and Philosophy, 11 (1), 75-91.
Nikolaidis P.T., Di Gangi, S., de Sousa, C.V., Valeri, F., Rosemann, T., Knechtle, B. (2018). Sex difference in open-water
swimming—The Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming 1875-2017. PLoS ONE 13(8): e0202003. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0202003
Parry, J. (2006). The Idea of the Record. Sport in History, 26 (2), 197-214.
Parry, J. (2023). On the Definition of Sport. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 17 (1), 49-57. 10.1080/17511321.2022.2077814

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LOU MATZ, UNIVERSITY OF THE PACIFIC, USA
TH E R EAL ET HICA L P ROBLEM S WITH STRA TEGI C FOUL ING I N BAS KETBAL L
Commentators on strategic (intentional) fouling in basketball, where it happens frequently and most often at the end of games,
have not focused on what is most ethically relevant. Opponents of strategic fouling have argued that it is a form of cheating
since it violates the rules of the game or that it is wrong since it negates a skillfully earned advantage of one’s opponent or that
it is wrong since it makes the secondary ‘restorative’ skill of free throw shooting a deciding factor in the outcome rather than the
primary ‘constitutive’ skills of the game. Defenders of strategic fouling have argued that it is not wrong since the rules allow it
and no team is unfairly disadvantaged or that it is justified since the strategy can create more drama for the sport, especially at
the end of games.
I contend that strategic fouling in basketball is unethical in all of its forms. I explain, and defend, the following claims to support
my position. Strategic fouling
1. violates the ethos of the sport, which is to display the highest level of skill.
2. is a competitive vice and lacks integrity since it is an essential skill to be able to refrain from intentionally fouling.
3. displays a lack of sportspersonship by not respecting opponents’ skillfully earned advantages.
4. can be unethical in harming others when there is significant physical contact.
I give an account of the essential basketball skills, how they are determined, and how historical rule changes about fouling in
basketball have been principally directed toward rewarding skill and increasing freedom of player movement. U.S. basketball
culture has too often emphasized the winning orientation at the expense of a mutualistic theory of competition, which obscured
the ethical relevance of strategic fouling. It need not be this way. I conclude by addressing the real- world question whether I
would live up to my ideal position if I were coaching competitive basketball, which I have done, since it would disadvantage my
players in winning games.
Keywords: strategic fouling, ethos, virtue, sportspersonship, basketball
Bibliography:
D’Agostino, F. 1981. “The Ethos of Games.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, VIII: 7-18. Fraleigh, William. 2003. “Intentional
Rules Violations—One More Time.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 30: 166-176.
Simon, Robert. 2005. “The Ethics of Strategic Fouling: A Reply to Fraleigh.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 32: 87-9

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BREANA MCCOY, CHARLES UNIVERSITY, PRAGUE, CZECH REPUBLIC
DE MOCR ACY AN D GOOD GOVER NANC E
Sport is a practice widely considered to be a public good and human right. In many nations it is also organized by government
entities and paid for with public tax dollars. However, the governance of sport is closed off with a small number of people who
working on behalf of the governing bodies (as institutions) making decisions for all other stakeholders. Due to the sedimented
nature of the sports ecosystem, there is no real incentive for sports organizations to evolve and they are slow to respond to
changes over time which may be suggested by the public or athletes. In recent years sports organizations have come under fire
for devaluing the role of stakeholders and excluding them from the decision making process. These same organizations are
facing issues regarding legitimacy as a growing number of stakeholders have begun to question the long-standing belief that
sport should be autonomous. Sports organizations have responded with athlete’s committees, additional opportunities for
competitions, and a commitment to improving governance, demonstrated largely through the use of good governance tools.
The tenets of good governance are often considered to include transparency, accountability, democracy, equity and integrity
with many implemented measures emphasizing transparency and accountability.
However, this has been a difficult task as transparency is dependent on the openness of the global sport system, which is mostly
recognized as sports institutions and corporate partners, and a willingness for these organizations to check and balance abuses
of power (Henne, 2015, p19). Similarly, accountability measures may not produce the desired effects as “accountability
mechanisms employed under the umbrella of pursuing transparency can instrumentalize solutions, amounting to symbolic
gestures rather than meaningful reforms” (Henne, 2015, p17). While I would not suggest that transparency and accountability
are not useful tools, focusing on these dimensions alone is limiting due to their lack of emphasis on changing the approach of
sports leaders or opening the system so that more stakeholders are able to participate. If we are to accept that principles of
democratic governance include participation, deliberation, and fair, open and competitive elections (Geeraert, 2021; van
Botttenburg, 2021), then utilizing more democratic practices and a more democratic approach overall may benefit the reform
process.
Researchers have put forth various ideas to improve good governance policy such as expanding the scope to cover the
relationships and dynamics between relevant stakeholder groups and focusing on the processes relating to the governing
bodies’ ability to “steer” the sports system in order to achieve the desired outcomes (van Bottenburg, 2021, p.37) or developing
an enhanced understanding of the cultural significance of sporting values in order to slowly change organizational cultures over
time (Elcombe, 2010). Implementing a values based approach and moving beyond the internal characteristics of sports
organizations to include other relevant organizations and stakeholders will arguably be necessary for us to enjoy more authentic
sporting experiences. Throughout this presentation, I will argue for an expanded role of democracy in sport as a way to guide
the implementation of both principles.
Keywords: democracy, good governance, institutions, legitimacy, rationality
Bibliography:
Hahn, R., & Weidtmann, C. (2016). Transnational governance, deliberative democracy, and the legitimacy of ISO 26000:
Analyzing the case of a global multistakeholder process. Business & Society, 55(1), 90-129.
Henne, K. (2015). Reforming global sport: Hybridity and the challenges of pursuing transparency. Law & Policy, 37(4), 324-349.
van Bottenburg, M. (2021). A relational and processual perspective on good governance in sport: Tackling the deeper problem.
In Good Governance in Sport (pp. 30-41). Routledge.

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DOUGLAS MCLAUGLIN, CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE, USA
TH E I MPORTA NCE O F PIC K-UP
Excellence in sport requires a participant to commit to and engage in a time-intensive effort toward improving skills and
developing strategies in order to perform more competently relative to other participants.
The structures in place for achieving excellence are often very regimented. Coaches and managers develop, implement, and
organize the activities, even including rest, for athletes. The athletes must be subservient to the coaches, meeting every demand
and expectation in order to stay in the good graces of the gatekeepers. Every action the athlete performs can be judged in terms
of its efficacy, which in turn can lead to increased stress about performance and actually stifle a player's development.
While this is a radically over-simplistic account of sport, it does provide a rough sketch of how overly-prescribed methods both
overdetermined and undermine sporting excellence.
Regimented practices and excessive drills are essential for developing the necessarily skills to achieve excellence. But athletes
also benefit greatly from exploring the play-space in new and innovative ways. Pick-up games and other non-structured forms of
sport can provide opportunities for athletes to find new problems within the play-space, develop creative responses to game
problems, and build an improvisational repertoire that allow the athlete to be more versatile in competition.
By looking at how pick-up opportunities have been utilized in a variety of sporting contexts, including American football,
Ultimate, and wrestling, we can glean important lessons on how sport development should be structured, or in certain
instances, unstructured.
Keywords: Creativity; Excellence; Improvisation; Innovation; Sport
Bibliography:
Edgar, Andrew (2015). Football and the Poetics of Space, Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 9:2, 153-165.
Hopsicker, Peter (2011). In Search of the ‘Sporting Genius’: Exploring the Benchmarks to Creative Behavior in Sporting Activity,
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 38:1, 113-127.
Howe, Leslie A. (2007). Play, performance, and the docile athlete, Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 1:1, 47-57.
Ilundáin-Agurruza, Jesús (2017). Muscular Imaginings—A Phenomenological and Enactive Model for Imagination, Sport, Ethics
and Philosophy, 11:1, 92-108.
Mareš, Lukáš & Ryall, Emily (2021). ‘Playing sport playfully’: on the playful attitude in sport, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport,
48:2, 293-306.

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MIKE MCNAMEE, KU LEUVEN, BELGIUM / SWANSEA UNIVERSITY, UK AND MARCELO MORICONI, INSTITUTO
UNIVERSITÁRIO DE LISBOA, PORTUGAL
MA PPI NG THE L AND SCAPE OF SPORT COMPETI TIO N I NTEGRI TY
The end of the 2022 National Basketball Association (NBA) regular season left a scene that demonstrates the complexity of
thinking about the complexity of sport integrity. The protagonist was Jrue Holiday, a player for the Milwaukee Bucks, who at that
time was an NBA player and an Olympic champion. As is the norm today, Holiday's contract had several clauses for bonus
payments through performance objectives. In this case the player's contract stipulated that, in addition to the $30 million per
season that was guaranteed as salary, the player would have a bonus of $306,000 if he participated in at least 67 games during
the season. Holiday had already made more money than the majority of the world's population will make in their lifetime. It
seems that Holiday wanted what he felt was due to him. So, with the complicity of his coach, the player was included into the
starting team. Shortly after the umpire blew the whistle for the game to begin, indeed on the first play of the game, Holiday
made a premeditated foul on an opposing player. The foul was not warranted on any sport-related motive or strategy. In any
normal game his actions would have been not so much detrimental to the team, as absurd. The game was stopped, and the
coach retired Holiday to keep him safe for the play-offs. The 8 seconds he was on the field guaranteed him his bonus. The
player’s action was met with laughter and applause by his teammates. His reward for that particular ‘day at the office’ was
$38.25k per second - in addition to his regular salary. He received no sanction. Taking our cue from Holliday, in this paper we
discuss the complex interrelations between modern elite sport, gamblification, and the complex, fragile and sometimes
contradictory relations between external goods, sport integrity and sport betting integrity.
Keywords: Manipulation of sport competitions; Sport competition integrity; Sport integrity; Typology of sport integrity; Sport
Betting Integrity
Bibliography
Gardiner, S., Parry, J., & Robinson, S. (2017). Integrity and the corruption debate in sport: where is the integrity?. European sport
management quarterly, 17(1), 6-23.
McNamee, M., & Rubicsek, N. (2022). The Macolin Convention and the Complexity of Sport Competition Manipulation.
Understanding Match-Fixing in Sport: Theory and Practice.
Moriconi, M. (2020). Deconstructing match-fixing: A holistic framework for sport integrity policies. Crime, Law and Social
Change, 74(1), 1-12.
Park, Jae, Choi, Chang-Hwan; Yoon, Jiwun (2019), “How should sports match fixing be classified?”, Cogent Social Sciences, 5.

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SANDRA MEEUWSEN, ERASMUS UNIVERSITY ROTTERDAM, NETHERLANDS
HOW TO RECHA RGE SPORT ’S ET HIC AL CORE; PL EA FOR A MATERI ALIST SPO RT ET HIC S
‘And if we are going to be successful in plying that moral scalpel, we will need to be able to see sport both for what it really is
and what it is capable of at its best.’ (Morgan 2001).
This view, the primacy of a normative, superior kind of morality to fight distortions in modern sports, defined the still prevailing
sport ethical tradition. A few years later, McNamee (2008) stated that the central purpose of sport ethics is to protect sport’s
absolute, inherent ethical core and improve ethical development in and through sport.
In this contribution, I will show that and how this transcendental concept of sport’s presupposed ethical core needs to be
overcome, to revitalize sport’s cathartic moral capacities from within. Especially in modern sports, we should acknowledge the
immanence of human movement to any kind of knowing, more in particular to the field of sport ethics (Nail, 2020). This notion
of immanence resonates Spinoza’s affirmation of the univocity of Being (Spinoza, 1677), avoiding logical dichotomies that
separate ‘appropriate’, qualified morality (sport’s ethical core) from ‘inappropriate’, disqualified activities (nowadays called:
distortions).
As such, I will plea that we let go of external, transcendental values, unwillingly creating an unmoving, static kind of ethics,
unable to change integrity issues effectively. A materialistic sport ethics will reactivate the repressed
bodily ‘archè’ of morality and affirm its moving condition, founded in desire and expenditure (Bataille, 1949). In the very heart of
sport, both on the pitch and in its governing bodies, we desperately need a profane, immanent and materialistic kind of ethics,
to guide coaches and executives in the delicate art of handling desire in practice. One might even say that through the many
distortions sport faces, the body of modern sports actually expresses its desire to be accepted in its impotentiality (Agamben,
1999), striving to overcome the currently dominating transcendental sport ethical position.
Keywords: sport - ethical core – immanence – materialism – impotentiality
Bibliography
Agamben, G. 1999. Potentialities. Stanford California: Stanford University Press
Bataille, G. 1949 (2014). La Part Maudite. Paris: Éditions de Minuit.
McNamee M. 2008. Sports, virtues and vices. Morality plays. London: Routledge. Morgan, W. Ed. 2001. Ethics in Sport.
Champaign: Human Kinetics.
Nail, T. 2020. Lucretius II. An Ethics of Motion. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
Spinoza, B. de. 1677 (2016). Ethica. Amsterdam: Wereldbibliotheek.

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RAFAEL MENDOZA GONZÁLEZ, UNIVERSITY OF ROME “FORO ITALICO”, ITALY
FO OTBA LL FO R GOO D? ANA LYZ ING TH E I NITIATI VES THA T AIM TO FOSTER THE "GOOD GA ME"
Over the last decades, there has seen a significant expansion of initiatives that use sports as a tool for initiating and facilitating
social development. Football - the world’s most popular sport – has been no exception, and non-governmental associations, as
well as national football federations, have come up with initiatives to change the game for “good.” These have opted to modify
some rules, elements, and formats of the game aiming at fostering social and developmental goals such as gender equality,
social inclusion, and fair play. The initiatives these organizations have implemented are various, yet the paper will examine two:
rule modification, and symbolic rewards for ethical behaviors. First, the paper will briefly present how these organizations have
come to understand football. Later, it will argue that the way these organizations modify the rules of the game does not
enhance the “spirit of sport,” and works against its democratic basis, it will also state that actions that reflect “good conduct”
and the spirit of fair play should be fostered, but not necessarily rewarded externally. The analysis will conclude that although
the pedagogical ideas behind these initiatives are noble and innovative, they must be put under further scrutiny since by
modifying the rules or adding elements to the game, the sport risks losing its constitutive structure and the fundamentals that
give football power for social development.
Keywords: sport-for-development, football3, gender equality, fair play
Bibliography
Frías, F. J. L., & Isidori, E. 2018. A origem esportiva da democracia: uma abordagem filosófica. Movimento (Porto Alegre), 24(2),
495-508.
Reid, H. L. (2010). Boxing with tyrants. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 4(2).
Reid, H. L. 2022. A gentleman or a philosopher? Philodorema, 121–134.
Torres, C. R., & Hager, P. F. 2007. De-emphasizing competition in organized youth sport: Misdirected reforms and misled
children. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 34(2), 194-210.

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ERIC MOORE, LONGWOOD UNIVERSITY, USA
DO ES THE “ POLIC EMAN A ND TH E FOO TRAC E” EXA MPLE SHOW TH E NEC ESSIT Y O F TH E LUSOR Y ATTI TUDE OR
JUS T T HE OPPOSI TE?
According to Suits, the lusory attitude ties together the other elements of the analysis of game- playing. You have the lusory
attitude when you accept the restrictions of the game rules in order to engage in the activity they make possible. Consider
Smith, who happens to be at the start of a foot race when he learns of a criminal who has hidden a bomb at the finish line. It
turns out that the fastest way to get to it to defuse it is to run the racecourse. However, according to Suits, Smith was not
playing the footrace game because he lacked the requisite attitude even though he followed all the rules. A. J. Kreider explicitly
rejects both the necessity of the lusory attitude and the plausibility of this example. Kreider presents a slightly modified case:
Carlos, a policeman, registered and lined up to run the race before he got the bomb message. Thereafter, the example proceeds
as before. This slight modification to the example should not affect Suits’ verdict that the policeman did not win the race
because he wasn’t participating. However, Kreider thinks it is clear that Carlos did win the race because he had previously
committed to the rules of the game and his performance did not indicate otherwise despite his radical change in motive. Playing
games is a social activity, and so a conclusion generally agreed upon in philosophy of language, that meaning “ain’t in the head,”
applies here as well: game-playing isn’t in the head either. I have always wondered how Kreider used basically the same thought
experiment to argue for the opposite conclusion that Suits did. However, Kreider may be in good company. Hurka’s “slightly
revised” disjunctive lusory account also appeals to social facts, and appears to give the same verdict as Kreider on this example.
Hurka’s account is disjunctive because it requires either the participant, or most others in the community, to have the lusory
attitude. So, while Carlos himself lacked the lusory attitude, most of the other people in his
community would have had it. Hurka admits that his “social fact” disjunct raises further issues of interpretation of ‘most’ and
‘community’. I show that this example reveals other issues that Hurka did not consider. I attempt to link these other issues and
possible resolutions of them to one’s view of whether the example shows Suits or Kreider to be correct.
Keywords: games, lusory attitude, Suits
Bibliography:
Hurka, Thomas. 2019. “Suits on Games: Slightly Revised, Slightly Restricted,” in Games, Sports, and Play: Philosophical Essays,
ed. by Thomas Hurka. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kreider, A. J. 2011. “Game-Playing Without Rule-Following.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 38 (1): 55-73.
Suits, Bernard. 2014. The Grasshopper: Games, Life, and Utopia. 3rd ed. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.

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NELSON MORALES AND ANGELA SCHNEIDER, WESTERN ONTARIO UNIVERSITY, CANADA
TH E C OACH-Y OUNG ATHLET E R ELATIO NSH IP AND DOPING : INS TITUTIO NAL PATER NALIS M AND EXPLO ITATI ON
The autonomous nature of children and adolescents has been debated when designing policies to protect vulnerable
populations. Elite sport, by allowing the participation of athletes from a very early age and by promoting a highly competitive
context that can be harmful, is not exempt from this discussion.
The notion that young athletes are not sufficiently autonomous has served to justify the implementation of soft paternalistic
approaches by sport organizations. While it is true that soft paternalistic approaches seem to be supported by philosophical
arguments, in complex contexts such as sports, paternalism can promote situations of exploitation of those who are supposed to
be protected. As coaches are called upon to make decisions about training programs, nutrition, and, in many cases, medication,
they can be the enablers of a highly competitive, exploitative system conducive to a higher incidence of doping. This paper will
focus on the issue of doping in young athletes, examining concepts such as autonomy and soft paternalism through the lens of
Kamila Valieva's case.
Athletes stripped of their autonomy by protectionist policies from sports organizations are vulnerable to coercion at the
individual level. They may be unable to resist the use of performance-enhancing substances or other abusive practices. The
relationship between athletes and coaches should prioritize the well-being and safety of the athlete without compromising his
or her autonomy. Finding this balance is a major challenge for sport organizations and communities, but a central undertaking to
ensure safe environments in sport. This will require identifying which dimensions of protectionist policies may be encouraging
abusive practices and coercion by coaches.
Keywords: sport, paternalism, autonomy, doping, vulnerability
Bibliography
Abutaleb, Yasmeen, Gus Garcia-Roberts and Emily Giambalvo. “Her figure skaters can fly. But do a Russian coach’s tactics go too
far?". Washington Post, February 14, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2022/02/14/eteri-tutberidze-
russian-figure-skating-doping/
Bok, Sissela. "Lying and Lies to the Sick and Dying." (1988).
Boxill, Jan. "The coach as moral exemplar." In The Ethics of Coaching Sports, ed. Simon, Robert pp. 9-254. Routledge, 2018.
Brown, W. Miller. "Paternalism, drugs, and the nature of sports." Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 11, no. 1 (1984): 14-22.
Campos, Marcus, Jim Parry, and Irena Martínková. "WADA’s Concept of the’Protected Person’–and Why it is No Protection for
Minors." Sport, Ethics and Philosophy (2022): 1-12.
Christman, John. "Autonomy in moral and political philosophy." Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy (2008).
Dworkin, Gerald. The theory and practice of autonomy. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Dworkin, Gerald, "Paternalism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2002)
Feinberg, Joel. The moral limits of the criminal law: volume 3: harm to self. Oxford University Press on Demand, 1989.
Han, Julie S., Ellen T. Geminiani, and Lyle J. Micheli. "Epidemiology of figure skating injuries: a review of the literature." Sports
Health 10, no. 6 (2018): 532-537.
McNamee, Mike. "Beyond consent? Paternalism and pediatric doping." Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 36, no. 2 (2009): 111-
126.
Mill, John Stuart. "On Liberty, ed. David Spitz." New York: Norton 54 (1975): 82.
Teetzel, Sarah. "Philosophical Perspectives on Doping Sanctions and Young Athletes." Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 4
(2022).

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BILL MORGAN, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, USA
TH E A ESTHETICS OF ‘PURPOS IVE’ SPORTS : A CR ITI CAL R E-APP RAISAL
In an essay published in the British Journal of Aesthetics, entitled “The Aesthetic in Sport,” David Best argued that the aesthetic
was central only to a small slice of the sports widely practiced and followed today. Those sports, which he called “aesthetic”
sports, included gymnastics, diving, figure skating, and the like. The great majority of other sports, which he called “purposive”
sports, included individual sports like footraces, dual sports like tennis, and team sports like football. In these latter sports, he
argued, the aesthetic only figures incidentally in our evaluation and appreciation of them. His argument for this claim is that
sports like football are governed by and independent aim or purpose, winning, which not only can be separated from the means
and manner in which it is accomplished, but is considered far more important than how it is accomplished. Because Best’s
aesthetic takedown of purposive sports has become something of the “received” view, these sports have seldom been given a
second, aesthetic look. I want, however, to give them a second, aesthetic look because I think Best has misconstrued the goal of
purposive sports and the distinctive way they are structured. In particular, I argue that the goal of purposive sports, winning, like
that of their aesthetic counterparts, cannot be separated from the means and manner in which it is achieved. I argue further
that by virtue of the way these sports are designed, the actions players take to win call not just for skilled gameplay, but
aesthetically rich and nuanced game play. Contra Best then, I argue that aesthetic gameplay in purposive sports, just as it is in
aesthetic sports, is directly conducive to winning.
Keywords: Aesthetic, Winning, conjunctive goals, disjunctive goals
Bibliography:
Best, D.. (1974). The aesthetic in sport. British Journal of Aesthetics. 14. 197-213
Carroll, N. (2001) Beyond Aesthetics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kupfer, J. H. (1995). Sport – The body electric, In W. J. Morgan and K. V. Meier (eds.) Philosophic Inquiry in Sport. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 390-406.

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HIRAKU MORITA, OSAKA UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH AND SPORT SCIENCES; KOJI TAKAHASHI, NAGASAKI UNIVERSITY;
TAKAYUKI HATA, TAKAI GAKUEN UNIVERSITY, JAPAN
EX AMINA TIO N OF “B EING A ND O UGH TNESS” AND “T HE GO OD AND THE RIG HT” IN SP ORTS
The topics of “being and oughtness” and “the good and the right” are difficult questions discussed in philosophy, and this study
explores these topics in sports. In Japan, there was a problem involving the selection of athletes for a national team, which is an
example of the problem of “the good and the right” in competitive sports. Up until 2000, Japan had few sports organizations
that publicly announced their criteria for selecting athletes for national teams to compete in world games. The role of the
athletic organizations in the selection of athletes for the national team is to select those who can achieve better results in the
competition. This is “the good" in this case. The one-shot selection process is procedurally clear and in accordance with justice.
However, even if athletes are selected in accordance with justice, it does not necessarily mean that they will produce good
results. Results are always unknown and can only be predicted.
Regarding “being and oughtness” in the everyday world, We supports the theory of Hans Jonas in this study. We have already
past the time when sports activities themselves were intrinsically regarded as “good.” Sports activities are now expected to be
environmentally friendly as well. Also, the everyday world must be there continuously for the world of sports to exist. What
about "the good and the right" in the everyday world then? In the debate between the liberalist and the communitarian, the
author would favor the latter given the current situation. In other words, we believes that the everyday world needs to aim to
have a common good. Butler discusses that sports practices are an effective way to learn democracy, but its effectiveness is
currently limited. The Russian military invasion of Ukraine in 2022 has demonstrated once again that peace is a prerequisite
under which sports can be played. A peaceful and relaxed everyday life is the foundation for the world of sports to exist.
Keywords: justice; peace; everyday life
Bibliography:
Joy I.Butler(2016) Playing Fair. Human Kinetics.
Jonas, Hans(1979)､ Das Prinzip Verantwortung､ Frankfurt am Main. Dritte Auflage､1993.)
John Sugden, Alan Tomlinson(2017) Sport and Peace-Building in Divided Societies, Routledge.

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S.P. MORRIS, MIAMI UNIVERSITY, USA
TH E C APABIL ITI ES APP ROACH AND H UNTING : A REVI EW, CRITIQUE , A ND DEVE LOPM ENT
The Capabilities Approach (CA) has been most-thoroughly developed by Martha Nussbaum in her 2006 book Frontiers of Justice
and more recently her Justice for Animals in 2022. In both works, Nussbaum makes repeated reference to hunting as a test-case
for the CA. Depending on the context and governing ethics, hunting can be rightly-considered a game or perhaps even a sport
and may thus be of interest to philosophers of sport (Morris, 2014). Nussbaum agrees and is equally unambiguous in both her
analytic sorting of hunting (as a sport) and her moral and legal condemnation of it, saying most-directly in Frontiers of Justice,
“sentient animals… have a secure entitlement against gratuitous killing for sport” and that this entitlement should lead to “a ban
on hunting and fishing for sport” (393 and 396, respectively). In this work I summarize and integrate Nussbaum’s views on the
CA and hunting, most prominently from the two aforementioned books but also from several popular media sources where she
has spoken or written on the subject. My thesis is a critique and (hopefully) a refinement of her incredible contributions to
animal ethics: I argue that Nussbaum has hastily reached a rather extreme conclusion – “a ban on hunting and fishing for sport”
– and that further reflection, deep in the well of this subject, forces a sort of philosophical humility that cannot abide such a
confident conclusion as a proscription. I am assuming, given her expertise in law, that Nussbaum is in fact arguing for a legal ban,
not merely a moral proscription. Nussbaum’s hasty conclusion betrays her usual meticulous style, which has rightly earned her a
wonderful reputation and it is my hope that this paper is received far more as a refinement of the CA and Nussbaum’s views
rather than an attempted wholesale refutation. The CA, and Nussbaum’s articulation and defense of it, have a lot in their favor
but a ban on hunting (and fishing) for sport is a conclusion too far from the centerline of her reasoning to be sustained without
much more thorough, nuanced, and developed argumentation. It is not that her conclusion is too extreme but, rather, that her
extreme conclusion is simply not supported.
Keywords: capabilities approach, hunting, ethics, Nussbaum
Bibliography:
Kagan, S. (2019). How to Count Animals: More or Less. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nussbaum, M. (2006). Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership. Cambridge: The Belknap Press.
Nussbaum, M. (2022). Justice for Animals: Our Collective Responsibility. New York: Simon & Schuster.

83 | P a g e
ARNO MÜLLER, ERFURT UNIVERSITY, GERMANY
ON NIETZSCHE AND MODER N SPOR TS
Nowadays – even in regard to the general field of sport science – Friedrich Nietzsche is (at least by some) regarded as a classic
philosopher and trailblazer (cf. Sowa 2006; with the focus on the concept of agon see also Tuncel 2009). After years of being
misunderstood, maybe misinterpreted or being corrupted, he made his way into the works of sport philosophers (e.g. Caysa
2003; Tuncel 2016; and others).
Nietzsche’s works – may they be regarded as noble or evil – are still a fruitful source for analysing developments in the field of
modern sports and its institutions. I would like to draw attention to Nietzsche’s short text “How the 'true world' ultimately
became a fable – the history of an error”. These few lines are published in The twilight of the idols : or how to philosophise with
a hammer (Nietzsche 1899). At first glance those words might be seen as somehow disturbing and be seen as written from a
increasingly mentally ill person. However, these lines contain the essence of Nietzsche’s philosophy and I will use them as a
magnifier, while examining current developments in sports – may they be regarded as noble or evil.
Keywords: Nietzsche, philosophy of sport, true sports, sport institutions
Bibliography:
Caysa, V. (2003). Körperutopien : eine philosophische Anthropologie des Sports. Frankfurt a.M.: Universität Leipzig.
Daudi, A. (2022). Social Media Hedonism and the Case of ’Fitspiration’: A Nietzschean Critique, Sport, Ethics and Philosophy
Monahan, M. (2007). The Practice of Self-Overcoming: Nietzschean Reflections on the Martial Arts, Journal of the Philosophy of
Sport, 34:1, 39-51.
Nietzsche, F. W. (1899). The twilight of the idols: or how to philosophise with a hammer. London, England Alexandria, VA: T.
Fisher Unwin Alexander Street Press.
Rosenberg, M. (2008). Nietzsche, Competition and athletic ability. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 2 (3):274–84.
Sowa, H. (2006). Friedrich Nietzsche: Homer’s Wettkampf (1871/1872). Klassiker und Wegbereiter der Sportwissenschaft, pp. S.
17-25.
Tuncel, Y. (2009). Agon Symbolism in Nietzsche. Nikephoros, 22, pp. S. 145-185.
Tuncel, Y. (2016). Nietzsche, Sport, and Contemporary Culture, Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 10:4, 349-363.

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RYAN MURTHA, THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN, USA
A PHIL OSO PHICAL ARGUME NT FOR TH E ADOP TIO N OF TH E ELAM ENDI NG IN BASK ETBA LL
Last February, the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers played each other in an inter-city grudge match. With two star-
studded rosters, and playoff seeding on the line, it should have been a must-watch event for NBA fans. Much of the game lived
up to expectations, as fans were treated to comebacks, lead changes aplenty, and big performances from stars on both teams.
But as the clock approached zero, the event lost much of its momentum. Because the game was so close, the last minute
devolved into what was effectively a free throw shooting contest between teams, as athletes race across the court to foul their
opponents before more than a few tenths of a second tick off the clock. As a result, the final 25 seconds of the game took about
20 minutes of real time to play--no one's idea of a good time.
This phenomenon is not limited to a single game, and the above example is not even a particularly egregious one as these things
go. Such endings have become routine fixtures of basketball at both the college and professional levels. The problem is that
they're not fun to watch, and they don't seem fun to participate in either. Unfortunately, it is the correct strategy in most
situations. Thus, I argue for a change in the rules to cause a change in strategy. This change involves the adoption of the so-
called Elam Ending, a alternative ending to a basketball game developed by sport scholar Nick Elam. I will argue that Elam's rules
create more opportunities for aesthetic beauty to manifest in sport. Building on the recent work of J.S. Russell, I show how the
Elam ending privileges use of constitutive skills in basketball, and argue that sport should be constructed in such a way that such
skills are given primacy over others. Drawing on the existing literature on aesthetics in sport, I connect this argument to the
works published by philosophers Stephen Mumford, Teresa Lacerda, and Emily Ryall.
Keywords: basketball, aesthetics, constitutive skills, Nietzsche
Bibliography:
Teresa Lacerda & Stephen Mumford, (2010) “The Genius in Art and in Sport: A Contribution to the Investigation of Aesthetics of
Sport,” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 2, 182-193.
J.S. Russell, (2017) “Strategic fouling and sport as play,” Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 11:1, 26-39.
Emily Ryall, “Good games as athletic beauty: Why association football is rightly called ‘the beautiful game’,” in The Aesthetics,
Poetics, and Rhetoric of Soccer, ed. Aline Bieri et al. (Taylor & Francis, 2018).

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ARTO MUTANEN, FINNISH NAVAL ACADEMY & FINNISH NATIONAL DEFENCE UNIVERSITY, FINLAND
BO DILY K NOWL EDGE IN SP ORT
Sport is skilful activity in which certain kind of knowledge is supposed. However, the knowledge needed for sports performance
differs from the knowledge required for learning, and coaching, the skills required by the sport. In epistemology so called
propositional knowledge has been emphasized. Propositional knowledge is knowledge which – in principle - can be expressed
linguistically. Truth is a key notion in characterizing propositional knowledge. In skilful performance propositional knowledge
does not play central role as already Ryle’s (1949) distinction between propositional knowledge (knowledge that) and practical
knowledge (knowledge how) demonstrates. Skilful performance might be characterized as prudent or imprudent which shows
the difference between propositional knowledge and practical knowledge. However, instrumental, or technical reason build a
bridge between them as engineering science shows. (McNamee & Morgan 2015; Ryall 2016; Piacente 2018).)
In exercising sport the essential factor is neither propositional knowledge nor practical knowledge, but performance itself. An
athlete is not applying his or her propositional knowledge even if propositional knowledge plays a role in coaching and training.
Moreover, performance of sport is not only a manifestation of the underlying skill, but an expression of the athlete's own
virtuosity. (Piacente 2018.) The virtuosity is not objective skill, but part and parcel of the bodily identity of the athlete. An
athlete's bodily identity is not only limited to the body, but is connected to the sports equipment used in the sport. Thus identity
can change with training, but also with the development of sports equipment (Miller & Farnè 2022). Following Ryall (2016) this
could be characterized as phenomenal knowledge. This kind of phenomenal self-knowledge is often assumed to be direct or
transparent (Harcourt 2008) which is very problematic assumption as sport training shows.
Sport training and coaching show that the relationship between different types of knowledge – propositional, practical, and
phenomenal knowledge – is extremely complex. Propositional knowledge gives theoretical foundation to coaching. It is
important to know what kinds of effects coaching has. Moreover, this kind of knowledge is useful also for an athlete who need
to transform this knowledge into form of practical knowledge – part of his or her performance. Systematic training transforms
this practical knowledge part of his or her bodily identity and hence makes his or her sport performances as self-expression of
himself or herself. (McNamee & Morgan 2015; Ryall 2016; Miller & Farnè 2022.)
An athlete is a person whose identity is not merely blind bodily identity but is, or should be, also self-conscious which supposes
that an athlete becomes more and more aware about theoretico-practical foundations of his or her physical identity. That is,
relevant propositional, practical, and phenomenal knowledge should be combined into holistic unity which is proper bodily
knowledge.
Keywords: Knowledge; phenomenal knowledge; bodily identity; bodily knowledge
Bibliography:
Harcourt, E. (2008). Wittgenstein and Bodily Self-Knowledge. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research Vol. LXXVII No. 2,
September 2008, International Phenomenological Society
McNamee, M. & Morgan, W. J. (eds.). (2015). Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport. Abingdon: Routledge.
Miller, L. E. & Farnè, A. (2022). Tool use. In Adrian J.T. Alsmith, Matthew R. Longo (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Bodily
Awareness, Routledge, DOI: 10.4324/9780429321542-28.
Piacente, A. (2018). Skill acquisition without representation. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 45:3, 241-258, DOI:
10.1080/00948705.2018.1510332
Ryall, E. (2016). Philosophy of sport: key questions. London: Bloomsbury.
Ryle, G. (2002/1949). The concept of mind. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

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ADAM NORTH, THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER, UK
TH E I NCREA SING PO LITI CAL POWER OF THE SP ORTIN G GEST URE: ATHLET ES AND ALTER NATIV E FORM S OF
COM MUNI CATI ON
In this paper I will analyse the increasing prevalence of athletes utilising gestures as forms of communicating political messages.
Since Colin Kaepernick took the knee in 2016, athlete activism has increased exponentially, with athletes seemingly becoming
more aware of the power they can collectively wield and the immense platforms available to them through which to transmit
their messaging, as demonstrated by the 2022 football World Cup in Qatar. I will begin by firstly discussing why communicating
through gestures has become such a successful means of sharing messages, rather than verbal communication, and how those
in positions of political power are responding to this phenomenon. For example, during the 2022 World Cup, FIFA responded to
the “One Love” armbands that captains from certain teams were intending to wear prior to games by threatening sporting
penalties against those players. Sporting penalties for political actions indicates a blurring of boundaries that is a phenomenon I
examine in this paper. Nevertheless, the German team chose to respond to FIFA by posing with their hands covering their
mouths for their team photo to communicate to the world that FIFA had silenced them, which generated a vast amount of
traction across public discourse.
Secondly, I consider the increasing politicisation of sports commentators who, with athletes growing more political, have found
themselves involved in developing political discussions. Although some sports pundits attempt to remain outside of these
evolving debates surrounding politics in sport, many are becoming drawn into commenting on socio-political matters and having
to either defend or oppose the athletes they analyse for a living. The very recent case of Match of the Day (UK football show)
host Gary Lineker being suspended, and then reinstated, by the BBC for making political comments on Twitter about one of the
UK government’s recent anti-migrant legislation is demonstrative of this. Not only does this represent a case of politics infringing
on the freedoms of sports commentators, but also the solidarity within the sporting community, as many of the BBC’s sports
presenters boycotted the organisation until the situation with Lineker was resolved.
Finally, I analyse the athletes who are making statements which risk not just their careers, but their lives. During the 2022 World
Cup, Iranian players chose not to sing their national anthem prior to their fixture with England to demonstrate solidarity with the
Iranians protesting the death of Mahsa Amini, despite the risk of retaliation from the Iranian government. Additionally, in 2021,
Chinese tennis player Peng Shaui disappeared, and later retired from the sport, after accused former Chinese Vice Premier
Zhang Gaoli of sexual assault three years earlier. With the risks these athletes take, they find their roles developing from
sporting celebrities into truth-tellers and political dissidents. As such, in the paper I suggest that the sporting arena has become
a site of contention regarding socio-political issues, and I will demonstrate the intersectionality between sports and politics
which are crucial to investigate owing to the influence sports have for many people across the globe.
Keywords: Athlete Activism, Sports and Politics, Gestures, Communication, World Cup 2022
Bibliography:
Al Thani, Mohammed. (2022). “Channelling Soft Power: The Qatar 2022 World Cup, Migrant Workers, and International Image”
The International Journal of the History of Sport, 38:17, 1729- 1752
Brannagan, P.M. and Rookwood, J. (2016). ‘Sports mega-events, soft power and soft disempowerment: international supporters’
perspectives on Qatar’s acquisition of the 2022 FIFA World Cup finals’. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Vol. 8
No. 2 173-188.
Brannagan, P.M. and Reiche, D. (2022). Qatar and the 2022 FIFA World Cup: politics, controversy, change. Cham, Switzerland:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Millward, Peter. (2017). World Cup 2022 and Qatar’s construction projects: Relational power in networks and relational
responsibilities to migrant workers. Current sociology, 65(5) 756–776.

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YOSHIKO ODA, HOSEI UNIVERSITY, JAPAN; YOSHITAKA KONDO, NAGOYA-GAKUIN UNIVERSITY; SOICHIRO TODA,
TOHOKU UNIVERSITY
TH E I SSUE OF GEN E DO PING TH ROUG H THE APPL ICATIO N OF CRISP R-C AS9 TECH NOLOG Y
Genetic modification (treatment), which began in the 1970s, progressed slowly and quietly for about 30 years. However, it was
also hit by off-targets (e.g. stagnation by deaths from Leukemia) and did not evolve rapidly. After 2000, however, qualitative
changes occurred at once with the development of IPS and ES cells and the advent of CRISPR-Cas9 technology (2012), which has
been described as the 3rd generation of gene editing, a qualitative change has taken place. It seems that technology has
expanded the what ‘human’ consists in, and opened Pandora's box into a post-human era. At present, human attitudes and
moral values are not keeping pace with technological reforms, including genetic engineering.
In this context, the purpose of this research is to bring together the views and wisdom of sports philosophers on how to discuss
the issue of gene doping in sport. Among them, while maintaining a balance with the bioethical aspect of what kind of society
and human viewpoints are desirable.
The following three questions are set out in this research; 1) What is the possibility that the application of gene editing
technology will have a decisive impact on the sporting world since the ban on "methods of applying gene medical treatment"
(2003)? 2) What is the possibility that the existing framework will be re-organized in regard to categories such as elite sports,
world championships, Olympic competitions, etc.? 3) What are the pros and cons of applying gene editing technology to the
sporting world as an 'enhancement' rather than medical treatment?
Keywords: Gene doping, Gene editing Crispr-Cas9, Gene treatment (medicine), Enhancement, Post-human
Bibliography:
Masahiro Morioka / Tetsuya Ishii / Mizuho Takemura, eds. (2022) Sports and Genetic Doping in Question, Koyo-Shobo
Schneider, A and Friedmann, T. (2006) Gene doping in sport: The Science and ethics of genetically modified athletes. Elesevier.
Jesús Ilundáin-Agurruza (2021) Emergent Technologies - Promethean Promises or Frankensteinian Fears? An Enactivist and
Japanese Cultural Analysis, in SE Cognition (Embodied, Enactive, Extended, Embedded, and Ecological) In the Age of Virtual
Environments and Artificial Intelligence, M. Sato, (ed.) Humanities Center Booklet Vol.9,pp.101-146
Jesús Ilundáin-Agurruza (2022) A Dove in Flight – Sportive Somaesthetics, Metaphysical Shackles and Transformative Soaring, In
Sport and Somaeethetics, Andrew Edgar and William Morgan (eds.), (Routledge), pp.17-45.
Sigmund Loland / Michael J. McNamee (2016) ‘Anti-doping, performance enhancement and ‘the spirit of sport’ A philosophical
and ethical critique, “Doping and Public Health” Routledge, pp.11-123
Robert L. Simon, Cesar R. Torres, Peter F. Hager (2015) Fair Play: the Ethics of Sport, Fourth Edition, Westview Press, pp.111-123

88 | P a g e
ALAN OLDHAM, UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO, CANADA
SC ALES OF IGNOR ANCE: AN ETH ICAL FRAMEWORK TO J USTIFY ACCEP TABL E RI SK IN SPORT CLAS SIF ICATIO N
RE GIMES
Classification in sport is often conceived of in terms of the benefits that athletes might gain by competing in a particular
category. The consideration of risk of harm associated with particular classification regimes is often a mere afterthought. This
can lead to a patchwork of solutions each with their own benefits and risks, making it difficult to assess risk on its own terms. In
this paper I seek to insert the important concept of risk into the classification discourse by exploring how we assess and provide
ethical justification for acceptable risk within and amongst classification regimes. After all, the main questions of categorization
(e.g. how and why to categorize? who is in or out? What is fair? etc.) are fundamentally ethical. Sigmund Loland’s (2020, 2021)
sport-specific “fair equality of opportunity principle” (FEOP) provides an elegant ethical normative framework for addressing
these particular questions. What FEOP does not address, however, are equally important question related to risk of harm (e.g.
does a given category increase or decrease risk to athlete health and wellbeing? Are some risks more acceptable than others?
Are we ever ethically justified in introducing risk in order to mitigate inequalities or increase fairness? etc.). As a first attempt to
address these questions, I propose and develop the “scales of ignorance,” a variation on legal philosopher John Rawls’ “veil of
ignorance” thought experiment. In developing this ethical decision-making framework, I outline three criteria by which we might
as objectively as possible assess the risks associated with classification regimes relative to the pre-existing risks of any given
sport. To aid in communication of these ideas and make the familiar strange, I introduce readers to the counterfactual sport of
competitive teeter-totter, a high stakes elite sport with a massive problem: only the heaviest athletes are winning! Since this
particular inequality meets all three criteria in Loland’s FEOP framework, we seem to have ethical justification to introduce a
classification regime designed to mitigate this inequality. Yet, since FEOP does not account for risk, we are left in an ethically
dubious situation where the risks associated with our newly introduced classification regime might in fact prove to be greater
than those that were present within the sport before its introduction. By applying the scales of ignorance framework, we gain a
better understanding of how the relative risks associated with various classification regimes reduce or increase risk within a
given sport. In this way the scales of ignorance framework can work in conjunction with FEOP to make ethically justifiable
decisions regarding the introduction of classification regimes. It can also evaluate existing sport categories to objectively
determine whether many taken-for-granted classification regimes are ethically justified, prompting the exploration of viable
alternatives. The scales of ignorance concept offers a much-needed ethical framework for assessing the relative acceptability of
risk for new or existing categories in sport with the potential for broader applications. Its significance is as an exploration of
sport philosophical theory with the potential for real-world impact to improve the health and well-being of athletes.
Keywords: sport categorization, risk of harm, sport ethics
Bibliography:

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JIM PARRY AND JACOB GIESBRECHT, CHARLES UNIVERITY, CZECH REPUBLIC
ES PORTS , REA L SP ORTS AND THE O LYMPIC VIRTUAL SER IES
Despite reservations over the status of esports as sports, the International Olympic Committee has, for policy reasons,
encouraged International Federations to pursue links with providers of ‘virtual and simulated’ sports, in part by the introduction
of an event, the Olympic Virtual Series, first held in 2021.
In providing an account of ‘virtuality’ and ‘simulation’, we query the theoretical basis of the Olympic Virtual Series. In particular,
we query the IOC’s use of the term ‘virtual’ in the description of two very different activities: what they call ‘physical virtual
sports’ (which we argue are simply Olympic-type sports - real sports! - and should just be called ‘sports’) and ‘non-physical
virtual sports’ (which we argue are not sports at all, and should be recognized for what they are - computer games).
Finally, we reflect on the IOC’s failure to follow up on the ‘inaugural’ Olympic Virtual Series in 2022, and its announcement of the
‘inaugural’ Olympic Esports Week in June 2023.
Keywords: Esports, Virtual sports, Simulation, Olympic Virtual Series, Olympic Esports Week
Bibliography
Chalmers, D. J. (2017). The Virtual and the Real. Disputatio (Lisbon, Portugal), 9(46), 309- 352.
Parry, J. (2019). E-sports are Not Sports. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 13(1), 3-18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2018.1489419
Parry, J. (2021). Esports Will Not Be at the Olympics. Journal of Olympic Studies, 2(2), 1-13.
McDonnell, N., & Wildman, N. (2019). Virtual Reality: Digital or Fictional?. Disputatio (Lisbon, Portugal), 11(55), 371-397.
Soraker, J. (2012). Virtual Worlds and Their Challenge to Philosophy: Understanding the "Intravirtual" and the "Extravirtual."
Metaphilosophy, 43(4), 499-512.

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CONSTANTINO PEREIRA MARTINS, NOVA UNIVERSITY OF LISBON / IEF- COIMBRA UNIVERSITY / CECH – COIMBRA
UNIVERSITY, PORTUGAL
BR OKEN BOD Y: ANTH ROPO- PHIL OSOPH ICAL OBSERVA TIONS ON M UAY THAI
All fights are forms of dance. This proposition is particularly unsettling when you think of Muay Thai, where everything is heart
and bone, blood and guts. There are no soft parts in the fight. All fights are forms of dance. The rhythm of each fight, of each
dance, of each movement, is a dialog and expression, a final presentation and result of long processes, an immediate-depth. This
flux, this dance, beyond its superficial access, is composed of an alphabet, singularities, but also of complex series and
combinations, sets, present serious difficulties when we try to think of differentiated forms of access to the sports phenomenon
in general, and to combat sports in particular. How to apprehend something that eludes our concepts? How to explain
something when words abandon us, or when we abandon ourselves without words? The relationship between body-movement
and sports is not an easy one. Transposing these horizons of questioning directly to combat sports, and specifically to Muay Thai,
what is a body that fights? A broken-body. Perhaps all bodies that are involved in sports are in this category, which surpasses the
natural understanding and connection of sports and health due to the amount of injuries involved, but the specificity of the
body that fights embodies this notion in its full potency. So, the follow-up question could be: how do you heal a broken-body
and keep on pushing forward? We will try to address and analyze this core and radical inquiry in two main sets of questions and
paradoxes:
a) Heart and fire (paradox 1): how do you heal a broken body? Beyond the natural care that involves the athlete that trains
and fights Muay Thai, and the subsequent amount of pain and injuries involved, we propose a different solution that is
based on thinking about the concept of Heart (Jai Su), and structuring a taxonomy of different types of heart, building a
causality relation also to the notion of fire, in anthropo-philosophical terms, but also addressing the essential relation
between them;
b) Training and process (paradox 2): how do you construct a broken body? A response to Esben Volshøj, or how can you
access a sport discipline beyond or before words and concepts? We will try to map the main concepts involved and chart
two different types of approaches:
• b1) a first access through art, or how can you access a sport discipline beyond words. We will be focusing on the
painting "The Boxer", by Albert Gold, following the aesthetical and philosophical crumbs of Deleuze's percept-
affect-concept;
• b2) a second attempt regarding a new idea of sports (aesthetics) micro-phenomenology, or how can you access a
sport discipline before words. In this stage, we will present different forms of understanding of what´s at stake
when you talk about Muay Thai, trying to enter the realm of multi- sensorial access, that could enlighten the
metamorphosis and transformations of the broken-body.
Without definitions or concepts, can we introduce someone to understanding a sports discipline with a different source and
method?
Keywords: Fight; Body; Micro-Phenomenology; Multi-sensorial; Muay Thai
Bibliography:
Gil, J. (2005) A imagem-nua e as pequenas percepções. Lisboa: Relógio D'Água. Deleuze, G., Guattari, F. (1992) O que é a
Filosofia?. Lisboa: Editorial Presença.
Brymer, E., Schweitzer, R. (2017) Phenomenology and the Extreme Sport Experience. NY: Routledge

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JOSÉ LUIS PÉREZ TRIVIÑO, POMPEU FABRA UNIVERSITY, SPAIN
IS SPO RT PO SSIBLE IN TH E METAV ERSE? CONC EPTUA L AND TECHN ICAL IS SUES
The stellar appearance of the Metaverse in Mark Zuckerberg's spectacular presenta8on has triggered specula8ons about what
its impact on our lives could be. Ar8cles and books have already been wri?en about the possible effects of the Metaverse on
educa8on, law, business management, etc.
One of the areas where li?le by li?le you also begin to reflect on the possible transforma8ons that could operate is sport.
In the present work I intend to address whether a future scenario will be possible where sport, the prac8ce of sports as it is
currently conceived, will be possible in the Metaverse. To do this, it requires addressing with a point of humility which sport, or
more technically, which sports modality we are talking about. And, at the same 8me, what Metaverse are we referring to.
Indeed, focussing the rela8onships between the two elements with a previous conceptual delimita8on seems essen8al to know
what terrain we are moving in and thus avoid specula8ons closer to science fic8on and that, in addi8on, can lead us to unrealis8c
or unfeasible conclusions.
In this sense, first of all, I will try to offer a characterisa8on of what the Metaverse is currently, what is the state of the art of that
technology that promises a virtual world where we can carry out through avatars many of the ac8vi8es we already do in the real
world ... and others, that will be within reach in those virtual coordinates.
Once that playing field is delimited, it will be examined whether the sport has a place in the Metaverse. To do this, I will make
several dis8nc8ons about what sport is that seem appropriate to me: a) between sport and physical ac8vity; b) between sports
modali8es. On the other hand, something similar will be necessary to carry out in terms of the Metaverse and, in par8cular, if
the sports manifesta8ons that take place there can be assimilated to two scenarios with which it is some8mes confused: e-
Sports and the "sport" prac8sed by robots. On the other hand, I will address two technologies that could bring the experience in
the Metaverse closer to that of sport: exergames and hap8c applica8ons. In any case, those analyses will be useful to advance in
the delimita8on of the characteris8cs that iden8fy the sport and that may occur (or not) in the Metaverse.
Keywords: Metaverse, sport, realism, immersion
Bibliography:
Duge, C. (2022. Why the Metaverse Will Change Sports and Your Life Forever. Recuperado 17 de enero de 2023, de
h?ps://www.ispo.com/en/trends/metaverse-revolu8on-sports-world
Duran, H. B. (2021). Is the Future of Esports in the Metaverse? - Esports Bar Blog. https://blog.the- esports-
bar.com/innova8on/is-the-future-of-esports-in-the-metaverse/
Neff, M. de (2022, febrero 24). Cycling in the metaverse: How will bike riding change as the internet evolves? - CyclingTips.
h?ps://cycling8ps.com/2022/02/cycling-in-the-metaverse-how-will-bike-riding- change-as-the-internet-evolves/
Neef, M. de. (2022, sep8embre 14). Meta seems to have some ideas about the future of cycling. CyclingTips.
h?ps://cycling8ps.com/2022/09/meta-seems-to-have-some-ideas-about-the-future-of- cycling/
Parry, J. (2018). E-sports are Not Sports. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 13(1). h?ps://doi.org/ 10.1080/17511321.2018.1489419
Parry, J. (2022). On the Defini8on of Sport. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 1-9. h?ps://doi.org/ 10.1080/17511321.2022.2077814

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KEEGAN T. PETERSON, PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY, USA
EX AMINA TIO N OF SP ORT PA RTI CIPATIO N AMO NG QUEER I NDIVI DUAL S
In 2005, David Kopay, a former National Football League (NFL) player, shared his difficulties with being a gay man in American
football, “you kind of lose your identity in the team” (Pruitt-Young, 2021). In 2017, Ryan O’Callaghan, also a former NFL player,
shared he was terrified of revealing his sexual orientation, claiming that being involved in football allowed him to hide his
identity (Zeigler, 2017). These examples highlight how marginalization of queer individuals in recreational sports is
commonplace. Jane English (1978) drew inspiration from the works Simone de Beauvoir (1952) and argued that sport
participation can offer essential benefits in developing one's full humanity, such as improved health, self-respect, learned
cooperation, and the character of being a decent competitor. Given the importance of these benefits, English advocated for
providing all human beings with equal opportunities to access sport so they can enjoy its basic benefits. In particular, English
concentrated on women’s inclusion in sport, both recreational and competitive, advocating, among other strategies, for creating
sex-segregated sport activities. Inspired by English, Iris Marion Young (1979) further expanded on this argument. Following in
these feminist philosophers’ footsteps, in this article, I scrutinize foundational sport philosophical arguments for gender
inclusion/exclusion through the lens of queer theory to see how those arguments apply to queer individuals. Specifically, I
critically evaluate two widely discussed strategies, namely segregation and desegregation. To further this critical analysis, I
compare inclusion/exclusion efforts in sport to those in parallel social practices, such as higher education and the workplace. My
goal is to contribute to efforts to modify existing sports activities by examining extant philosophical arguments by incorporating
the experiences of sport-interested queer individuals and theoretical insights from queer theory.
Keywords: Inclusion, Sport Participation, Queer Theory, Heteronormative, LGBTQ
Bibliography:
Beauvoir S. de (1952). The Second Sex. New York: Knopf.
Davis, P., & Weaving, C. (Eds.). (2009). Philosophical Perspectives on Gender in Sport and Physical Activity (1st ed.). New York:
Routledge.
English, J. (1978). Sex equality in sports. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 269-277.
Patel S. (2015). Inclusion and exclusion in competitive sport: socio-legal and regulatory perspectives. New York: Routledge
Pruitt-Young, S. (2021). Carl Nassib's Experience Coming Out Is Very Different From NFL Players Before Him. CapRadio. Accessed
on 3/25/23. https://www.capradio.org/news/npr/story?storyid=1009180945
Young, Iris Marion (1979). The Exclusion of Women from Sport Conceptual and Existential Dimensions. Philosophy in Context 9:
44-53.
Zeigler, C. (2017). Former Patriots and Chiefs tackle Ryan O’Callaghan comes out as gay. Outsports. Accessed on 3/25/23.
https://www.outsports.com/2017/6/20/15835374/ryan-ocallaghan-gay-nfl-new- england-patriots-kansas-city-chiefs

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ALEXANDER PHO, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON, USA
A PREL IMINA RY CONF UCIA N ASS ESSMENT OF THE ETHI CS OF SPOR T C ATEGORY ELI GIBIL ITY C RITER IA V IS-À-
VIS TRANSWOMEN ATH LETES
This essay offers a preliminary exploration of how Confucian moral philosophy might inform assessment of issues regarding
transwomen eligibility for competing in female categories in competitive sports. Specifically, it explores, from a Confucian virtue
ethical perspective, the ethical relevance of purported athletic advantages most transwomen have over ciswomen due to
undergoing puberty with male-typical levels of endogenous testosterone—for shorthand, I refer to such advantages as
‘endogenous T advantage’. The central question to be addressed is whether, for some given sport, Confucian virtue ethics
endorses that it is at least sometimes morally permissible to implement female category eligibility criteria that mitigate or
eliminate endogenous T advantage. Under such criteria, transwomen are eligible only if they have their sport-specific
endogenous T advantage mitigated or eliminated.
I argue that Confucians can be convinced by the right sort of empirical evidence that such eligibility criteria are sometimes
morally permissible. However, I also argue that for Confucians, if we lack such evidence, our default position should be to not
implement such criteria or—when safety concerns are especially salient—to implement less restrictive variants of them. To
defend my thesis, I provide a Confucian account of what morally justifies having a female category for a given sport. I then utilize
that account to explore whether, for some given sport, the Confucian justification for that sport's female category would make it
at least morally permissible to implement eligibility criteria for that category that require mitigating or eliminating endogenous T
advantage.
As part of my argument, I sketch what the core tenets of a Confucian virtue ethical sport ethic might look like. For Confucians,
the paramount ethical virtue is ren (仁). Ren has various English translations, including “humanness,” “human-heartedness,” and
“benevolence.” As passages from the Analects collectively illustrate, possession of ren entails having a disposition to love and
care for others (12.22) that manifests in attitudes (12.2) and caring actions (6.30) that facilitate flourishing. The sort of love ren
involves is the sort that humans naturally are disposed to feel toward their parents and other nearest kin (Analects 1.2).
Manifesting ren requires extending such love in a graduated manner to non-kin, and for some Confucians (e.g., Mencius), non-
human animals and the inanimate world as well. Ren also is a comprehensive virtue“ (quan de (全德)), in the sense that it is
achievable only if one achieves all its cognate virtues (Wang et al. 2020, 126), e.g., respectfulness, tolerance, trustworthiness,
diligence, and generosity (Analects 17.6).
Since Confucians maintain that adherence to ren is what should be morally prioritized in all circumstances (Analects 4.5, 15.9), I
contend that the core idea behind a Confucian, ren-centric sport ethic is that what we morally ought to primarily pursue in our
sporting practices is the cultivation of ren. So, regarding a potential female category for any given sport, Confucians would
maintain that what would justify having it is that its existence on its own or its co-existence alongside others helps maximize ren-
conducive participation in that sport.
Keywords: Confucianism, Transwomen, Sport Categorization, Eligibility
Bibliography
Huang, Y. 2018. “Justice as a Virtue, Justice According to Virtues, and / or Justice of Virtues: An Confucian Amendment to
Michael Sandel's Idea of Justice." In Sandel, M. J. and P. J. D'Ambrosio (eds.), Encountering China: Michael Sandel and Chinese
Philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Mou, B. 2004. “A Re-examination of the Structure and Content of Confucius’s Version of the Golden Rule.” Philosophy East and
West 54 (2): 218-248.
Parry, J. and I. Martínková. 2021. “The logic of categorisation in sport.” European Journal of Sport Science 21(11): 1485-1491.
Pike, J. 2023. “Why ‘Meaningful Competition’ is not fair competition.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 50(1): 1-17.

94 | P a g e
JON PIKE, THE OPEN UNIVERSITY, UK
AN ESSENTIALIST THEOR Y OF SPORT ( SYNO PSI S)
In this presentation I will offer a synoptic account of my forthcoming monograph: An Essentialist Theory of Sport. I will argue for
a moderate form of essentialism as an answer to the question of the definition of sport, and indicate some ways in which
thinking about how sport is defined gives rise to thinking about how it should be regulated. In doing so, I hope to draw an
argument from my work on action theory and local essentialism with my work on issues in the ethics of sport.
There is, as yet, no essentialist theory of sport. There is a candidate essentialist theory of games: Suits’ theory, (Suits 2005)
which specifies necessary and sufficient conditions for something to be a game. Most commentators (Mumford 2021) (McFee
2015) assume that an essentialist theory of sport must supply necessary and sufficient conditions in the same way. But this is not
so.
An essentialist theory is one which specifies necessary (or essential) conditions that a practice must have in order to qualify as a
sport. But it need not supply sufficient conditions. It can allow that there are also accidental properties of each sport. It can
allow that there are social, historical and contingent properties of something’s being a sport.
A moderate essentialist account like this shows how both institutionalism, formalism and conventionalism must go awry,
because they are all, mistakenly, quietist on what the substance of a sport must be.
But if there are certain ways a sport must be, then there are conclusions to be drawn about the rules of fairness – how these can
be uncovered and discovered, rather than constructed out of thin air. I hold then, that certain forms of wide conventionalism
are not discussions of sport but of something else. They can, therefore, tell us nothing at all about the fair regulation of sport.
Keywords: Sport, Action, Theory, Fairness, Essentialism
Bibliography:
McFee, Graham. 2015. On Sport and the Philosophy of Sport A Wittgensteinian approach. Routledge.
Mumford, Stephen. 2021. A Philosopher Looks at Sport: Cambridge University Press.
Parry, Jim. 2018. "E-sports are Not Sports." Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 13 (1):3-18. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2018.1489419.
Pike, Jon. 2019. "Action Theory and the Value of Sport." Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. doi:
10.1080/00948705.2019.1574585.
Pike, Jon. 2021. "Sport, games, and the fluidity of agency." Journal of the Philosophy of Sport:1-11. doi:
10.1080/00948705.2021.1997348.
Suits, B. 2005. The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia: Broadview Press.
Suits, Bernard. 1967. "What Is a Game?" Philosophy of Science 34 (2):148-56.

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JERNEJ PISK, ST. STANISLAV INSTITUTION, SLOVENIA
HID DEN REA LITY: FETI SHISM I N SP ORT
The scope of the fetish is really broad. In theory, it ranges from a different symbolic substitutes to a symbol of social
transgression, but in everyday usage it is mainly a dark object of desire and a blinded adoration of anything. Fetishism is a
concept whose development can be traced back centuries, but becomes particularly important with Freud and Marx. In the
context of sport, fetishism is most often mentioned in relation to sports fans and society as a whole, which recognises sport as a
fetish. Indeed, many people devote an unreasonable amount of their time, energy and money to watching sport. But, can this be
linked to commodity fetishism as Marx understood it? Is it the way in which the world of sport creates reality and instructions on
how to understand it, how to enjoy it, how to behave, how to act? The world of sport is seductive and we, as desiring beings, are
ready to respond accordingly.
What is less talked about are the fetish of athletes. Could (Olympic) medals, cups and trophies be seen as a fetish? In his essay
on Fetishism Freud recognized that the fetishist is able at one and the same time to believe in his phantasy and to recognize that
it is nothing but a phantasy. And yet, the fact of recognizing the phantasy as phantasy in no way reduces its power over the
individual. On the one hand, fans adore the best athletes as God, but for the athletes themselves, the desired titles, victories,
medals become fetishes, to which they direct all their desires. A medal, a piece of gilded metal (or maybe not even that), is in
itself something ordinary, worthless. But what must happen for medals to stop being 'common commodities' (Marx) and
become something more, so they acquire a special value - they become a fetish?
Keywords: fetishism; sport; medals; spectators
Bibliography
Almeida, B. M. A. (2013). Fetishism and the idealization of the athlete. EFDeportes.com, Revista Digital. Buenos Aires - Año 18 -
Nº 181.
Felluga, D. F. (2015). Critical theory : the key concepts. Routledge.
Free, M., & Hughson, J. (2006). Common culture, commodity fetishism and the cultural contradictions of sport. International
Journal of Cultural Studies, 9(1), 83–104.
Freud, S. (1927) Fetishism (J. Strachey, Trans.). In The complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. XXI, pp. 147-157).
London: Hogarth and the Institute of Psychoanalysis.
Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1. Trans. Ben Fowkes. New York: Penguin, 1990.

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SANDRA RADENOVIĆ, MILOŠ MARKOVIĆ, BRANKA SAVOVIĆ, UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE, SERBIA
BI OETH ICS O F S PORT AS A S UBJEC T AT THE UNIVERS ITY OF BELGRADE – F ACULT Y OF SPOR T AND PHYS ICAL
ED UCA TION
In the new accreditation of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, in the curriculum of the basic
academic studies for the academic year 2022/23, the new subject found its place within the second year of study as an elective
subject under the title Bioethics of sport. The aim of the course is to gain knowledge on the complex, current and very important
field of sports bioethics through theoretical conceptions of bioethics as an interdisciplinary intellectual and academic field. The
crucial aim of this course is to raise awareness of bioethical issues and to think critically about the many bioethical and sport’s
topics of global society in the contemporary world. Through the analysis of bioethical concepts and problems in the field of
bioethics of sport, future physical education teachers and coaches are enabled to acquire relevant knowledge, as well as
orientations in critical thinking and its application in contemporary society. Students, future physical education teachers and
coaches will be able to identify those aspects of bioethics that interact with the individual, society as a whole, and sports.
Students will be able to understand and creatively apply knowledge within the bioethics of sports, both during their studies and
in practical work in a future vocation. The thematic units of the subjects foreseen within the program are: 1. Introduction to the
bioethics of sport, basic understanding of bioethics as an ethic of life; 2. Sport bioethics and sport ethics: history, similarities and
differences, basic ethical concepts, humanism and transhumanism; 3. Basic ethical principles in sport (fair play, win or lose, win
at all costs, use of doping, gender issues/gender discrimination); 4. Pedagogical bioethics: bioethical education and stages of the
moral development of the individual (Kohlberg's theory from the standpoint of bioethics, application and criticism); 5. Sociology
of morality and sociology of bioethics: sociological understanding of morality and moral consciousness; 6. Examples of bioethical
problems in real and hypothetical situations in sport (relationship between sports medical doctor and injured athlete,
androgynous athletes, e-sports issues, transgender athletes, cyborg athletes, aggressive behavior and violence in sports, etc.); 7.
The importance of bioethics for contemporary society and the importance of ethical committees in sport.
We may conclude that the study of Bioethics of sport at the University of Belgrade – Faculty of Sports and Physical Education
improves the entire curriculum of basic academic studies following European and world trends. It also gives to future coaches
and physical education teachers a solid cornerstone in the study of bioethics of sport through indispensable orientation
knowledge (Čović, 2006; Škerbić, Radenović, 2018). Bioethics of sport as a subject contributes to the development of bioethical
education at the University of Belgrade (Radenović et al. 2012), but more broadly, may encourage the further development of
bioethical education in higher education institutions in the Republic of Serbia.
Keywords: bioethics, education, faculty, university
Bibliography
Čović, A. 2006. Pluralizam i pluriperspektivizam. Filozofska istraživanja. 26(1): 7-12.
Radenović S., Turza K., Todorović Z., Jeremić V. 2012. Institucionalizacija bioetike u Srbiji. Socijalna ekologija. 21(3): 311-
328.Škerbić, M.M., Radenović, S. 2018. Bioetika sporta: prisutnost bioetičkih tema na području filozofije i etike sporta u
Hrvatskoj i Srbiji. JAHR - European Journal of Bioethics. 9(2): 159-184.

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HEATHER REID, MORNINGSIDE COLLEGE / FONTE ARETUSA, ITALY
“SW EAT BEFOR E VI RTUE” - O N TH E ED UCATIO NAL VAL UE OF EF FORT IN S PORT
In the jargon of sport, athletic virtue is often described in terms of effort. “Give it all you got!” is a common exhortation, while
having “left it all out on the field” is a way of signalling virtue regardless (and often despite) of the contest outcome. In the
philosophy of sport, effort plays a role in ethical debates about agency, meritocracy, and performance-enhancement; it even
appears in Bernard Suits’ famous definition of sport as the “voluntary effort to overcome unnecessary obstacles.” The
educational value of effort, moreover, is used to defend sport in schools. The value of effort in sport is hardly a recent discovery,
however. Hesiod famously stated that “the gods put sweat between us and virtue.” The ancient Greek concept of ponos links
voluntary effort, often symbolized by sweat, with Heracles’ labors, athletic praise, and most importantly gymnastic education.
Ponos was promoted and rewarded in the ancient Greek gymnasium expressly for the cultivation of civic virtue (aretē).
Hellenistic gymnasia even held contests in philoponia (love of effort) and routinely praised citizens for their ponos in honorific
inscriptions. Recruiting the ideas of Plato, Aristotle, and Xenophon, this essay explains how ponos functioned in the use of sport
as moral education in ancient Greece. It will map that philosophy on to modern sport to show not only why effort matters for
ethical concepts like fairness, but also how its encouragement and praise is essential to sport’s value as moral education even
today.
Keywords: Effort, Virtue, Moral Education, Ancient Greek Athletics
Bibliography
Nicholas Dixon, “Sport, meritocracy, and praise,” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 48:2(2021), 275-292, DOI:
10.1080/00948705.2021.1932517
Heather L. Reid, “Plato's Gymnasium',” Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 4.2 (2010), 170-182.
J.S. Russell, “Striving, entropy, and meaning,” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 47:3 (2020), 419-437. DOI:
10.1080/00948705.2020.1789987
Bernard Suits, The Grasshopper: Games, Life, and Utopia, 2nd ed. (Peterborough: Broadview, [1978] 2005).
Tena Thau, “Rethinking the unfair advantage argument,” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 48.1(2021): 63-81, DOI:
10.1080/00948705.2020.1816834

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LISE RÉOL, VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TEACHER EDUCATION AT AARHUS, DENMARK
GR OUNDI NG – SHOUL D TEA CHERS WORK WITH THEI R STUD ENT S´ AND THEIR O WN ABILI TY TO STA ND STILL IN
CON TEX TS O F MOVEM ENT?
Grounding is a polysemantic concept used in a wide variety of settings. In psycho-, physio-, and dance- therapeutic contexts, the
concept is common and accepted as the term for an experience of physical and psychological presence, connected to the feeling
of being supported by the ground (Shuper Engelhard et al., 2021). The concept underscores the existential need for solidity and
the importance of an experience of being in contact with both the inner and the outer reality (Lowen, 1975). Several studies
have indicated that grounding exercises have beneficial effects on body awareness, affect regulation, self-esteem, and mental
health (Gyllensten et al., 2003; Hedlund & Gyllensten, 2010), though results are mixed (Vancampfort et al., 2022). Studies have
primarily focused on the effects on adults and patient groups, and to our knowledge no previous international educational study
has focused on the phenomenon. Though the concept has been used in a wide variety of therapeutic contexts and has been a
helpful metaphor for practitioners for many years, there seems to be an extended interest in this phenomenon within the last
years. This interest is perhaps due to people’s experience of acceleration, flux, and shakiness (Rosa, 2021). Many people can
existentially relate to the feeling of losing their footing in a time of ecological, democratic, and psychological crisis (Rosa, 2121).
But is the concept of grounding suitable in a sport-educational context where the main focus is on movement, and not on
standing still? What are the pros and cons of introducing this concept and work with grounding in physical education?
The aim of this study was to grasp and discuss the meaning of grounding as a concept related to body- awareness (Mehling et
al., 2011), con-tact (Van Manen, 2015), poise (Standal, 2015), and resonance (Rosa, 2021) and, based on a philosophical
argumentation as well as empirical findings, to discuss the potential of the concept in a sport-educational context.
Keywords: Grounding, Body-awareness, Contact, Resonance
Bibliography:
Gyllensten, A., et al (2003). Outcome of Basic Awareness Therapy – A randomized controlled study of patients in psychiatric
outpatient care. Advances in Physiotherapy, 5.
Hedlund, L. & Gyllensten, A. (2010). Experiences of basic body awareness therapy in patients with schizophrenia. Journal of
Bodywork & Movement Therapies (2010) 14, 245-254.
Lowen, A. (1975). Bioenergetics. Coward, McCann & Geoghegan.
Mehling, W.E. et al. (2011). Body Awareness: a phenomenological inquiry into the common ground of mind-body therapies.
Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 6, 6, 1-12.
Rosa, H. (2019). Resonance -a sociology of our relationship to the world. Polity Press. Standal, Ø. (2015). Phenomenology and
Pedagogy in Physical Education. Routledge.
Shuper Engelhard, E., Pitluk, M., & Elboim-Gabyzon, M. (2021). Grounding the Connection Between Psyche and Soma: Creating a
Reliable Observation Tool for Grounding Assessment in an Adult Population. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.
https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621958
Van Manen, M. (2015). Pedagogical Tact. Routledge.
Vancampfort et al. (2023). Efficacy of basic body awareness therapy on functional outcomes: A systematic review and meta-
analysis of randomized controlled trials. Physiotherapy Research International, 28, 1.

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ODILON JOSÉ ROBLE, UNIVERSITY OF CAMPINAS, BRAZIL
TH E T RAGIC DIMENS ION OF S PORT AS A N AFFI RMATI ON OF LIF E AND POWER OF DESTI NY
The use of the word “tragedy” is not rare in the sports field, especially when we remember the narratives that are built from the
impressions of fierce disputes. However, it is a central concept in a certain philosophical and psychoanalytic tradition, widely
used by Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. Analyzing the philosophical and psychoanalytic uses of this concept in these
references can help us to better articulate sport and tragedy. For this, I revisited Nietzsche's inaugural work, "The Birth of
Tragedy" and also central points of Freudian work such as the one that deals with the Oedipus Complex, a theoretical structure
that, after all, is explicitly based on a tragedy. I also use a brief but enlightening digression by a sports philosopher, César Torres,
where he analyzes the relationship between football (soccer) and tragedy. Finally, I extend this analysis to the concept of
psychoanalytical sports fact, a topic that I am currently researching. By carrying out a triangular analysis of the references above,
I propose an understanding that the concept of tragedy in sport presents the possibility of dealing with the terrible and death,
which in the case of sports is presented in a symbolic way, but which does not fail to mobilize the drives and thanatological
signifiers, leading us to realize that the power of sport is also dark. This dark face, even if frightening, seems to be necessary for
the human psychic balance, as we see expressed in the destiny of the drives. I extend this understanding to the scope of the
narrative, that is, to the ways of understanding and communicating the sporting fact. Due to the rationalist heritage that
philosophy carries, there is a strong tendency to dismantle the tragic power, which we can notice, for example, in the narratives
about the futility of sport or even its power of alienation. By the path adopted here, we concluded the opposite: assuming the
tragic dimension of sport is one of the most effective ways to participate in the truth of life and the power of destiny.
Keywords: tragedy, philosophy, psychoanalysis, Nietzsche, Freud
Bibliography:
Freud, S., & Strachey, J. E. (1964). The Interpretation of Dreams (1900). In: The standard edition of the complete psychological
works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. IV.
Freud, S., & Strachey, J. E. (1964). On dreams (1901). In: The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund
Freud. Vol. V
Nietzsche, F. (2013). The birth of tragedy: from the spirit of music. Now Publications, Inc.
Torres, C. (2021) El regreso a la tragedia futbolística. In: El Furgón, available at: http://www.elfurgon.ar/2021/11/05/el-regreso-
a-la-tragedia-futbolistica/

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MICHAEL ROHLF, CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA, USA
ST RIVIN G, EMBO DIMENT, A ND SOCIALI TY I N SPOR T
J. S. Russell (2020) has recently argued, drawing on work by K. Aggerholm, C. T. Nguyen, and others, that striving is a
fundamental human character trait that is central to the nature and value of sport. In this paper, I engage with and extend
Russell’s account in the following three ways. Taking as my point of departure Russell’s account of striving in general as
sustained activity aimed at overcoming obstacles in the pursuit of some goal(s) one values, I specify the type of striving that is
relevant to sport by first distinguishing embodied from intellectual striving. Intellectual acts may also involve striving, but the
type of striving involved in sport is essentially embodied, in the sense that one’s body is among the obstacles one strives to
control as an instrument for achieving the goal. Second, I argue that overcoming obstacles in the form of human competitors
who are also striving to win is essential to the type of striving involved in sport as well, though not in the instrumental way that
one strives to develop and control one’s body, but in a way that is constitutive of the goal of (competitive) sport. The resulting,
partial account of the nature of sport as embodied striving to win against competitors, I maintain, is compatible with the
fundamental value of sport lying in striving itself – doing one’s best, as Russell maintains – rather than in achievement or
winning. Third, while Aggerholm’s account draws on Kierkegaard and other existentialist philosophers, and Russell appeals to
Aristotle, Mill, and others, I argue that Fichte’s theory of subjectivity and ethical theory, in which the concept of striving plays a
key role, is also an important resource for developing an account of the nature and value of striving in general and in sport.
Embodiment and sociality are both central aspects of Fichte’s account of striving, which anticipates aspects of both Russell’s
view of striving as a fundamental human character trait and my proposed extensions of Russell’s account.
Keywords: striving, body, competition, Fichte
Bibliography:
Aggerholm, K. 2015. “Existential Philosophy and Sport.” In Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport. Ed. M. McNamee and W. J.
Morgan. London and New York: Routledge, 142-160.
Fichte, J. G. 2000 [originally 1796]. Foundations of Natural Right. Ed. F. Neuhouser. Trans. M. Bauer. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Fichte, J. G. 2005 [originally 1798]. The System of Ethics. Ed. D. Breazeale and G. Zöller. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fichte, J. G. 2021 [originally 1794]. Foundation of the Entire Wissenschaftslehre. Ed. D. Breazeale. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Heath, P. 1971. “Trying and Attempting.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 45: 193-208.
Jones, T. 2015. “Our Conception of Competitiveness: Unified But Useless?” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 42 (3): 365-378.
Nguyen, C. T. 2019. “Games and the Art of Agency.” The Philosophical Review 128(4): 423-462.
Russell, J. S. 2020. “Striving, Entropy, and Meaning.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 47 (3): 419-437.

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J.S. RUSSELL, LANGARA COLLEGE, CANADA
BO RED OM, GA MES, AND SPO RT
A principal assumption in the philosophical literature on games and sport is that they are important sources of relief from
boredom. Call this assumption “the boredom refuge thesis.” It is perhaps most notable in Bernard Suits’ seminal The
Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia (1978), but it is also an aspect of other important philosophical contributions to
understanding games and sport in the work of R. Scott Kretchmar (2006, 2007), C. Thi Nguyen (2020), and others besides. Any
basic assumption about the value of games and sport arguably deserves to be investigated, and the boredom refuge thesis is no
exception. I argue that the relationship between playing games and sport and boredom is richer, more instructive, and
sometimes more problematic in ways that have been overlooked. These implications are evident with conceptual clarity about
the phenomenon of boredom, helpfully aided by recent work by psychologists and philosophers. Their work points, perhaps
paradoxically, to the ways in which boredom can have important value even in games and sport despite being typically an
aversive experience that games and sport are intended to alleviate. I argue that boredom should also be acknowledged for the
way it motivates play in all areas of our lives and, thus, how boredom becomes a driver of human culture in ways that support
the boredom refuge thesis. But a better understanding of the phenomenon and value of boredom also points to problems in
games and sport that need to be addressed, including trends in sport that can be difficult to overcome. Even in a Suitsian Utopia
– maybe especially in such a Utopia – games and sport may not be reliable refuges from boredom, as compared to other play
pursuits. The lesson is that humans may not always be able to rely on games and sport as refuges from boredom. This is arguably
particularly true in an age where empirical investigations into understanding games and sport, including data analytics and
artificial intelligence, can optimize development of relevant skills and strategies for seeking successful outcomes. There may be
ineluctable tendencies to boredom in games and sport; and it is possible that “golden ages" in games and, especially, sport have
passed.
Keywords: Boredom, Games, Play, Sport
Bibliography:
Danckert, James, and Eastwood, John D. 2020. Out of My Skull: The Psychology of Boredom. Harvard University Press.
Elpidorou, Andreas. 2018. “The Good of Boredom.” Philosophical Psychology. 31(3): 323-351.
Kretchmar, R. Scott. 2007. “The Normative Heights and Depths of Play.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 34 (1) 1-12.
Kretchmar, R. Scott. 2006. “The Intelligibility of Suits’ Utopia: The View from Anthropological Philosophy.” Journal of the
Philosophy of Sport. 33 (1) 67-77.
Nguyen, C. Thi. 2020. Games: Agency as Art. Oxford University Press.
Suits, Bernard. 2020. The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia. University of Toronto Press.

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EMILY RYALL, UNIVERSITY OF GLOUCESTERSHIRE, UK
TH E O NTOLOG Y OF BEING IN GAMES
This paper will address the question of being in games. Thi Nguyen’s (2020) seminal work, Games: The Art of Agency, argued
that games us to play with agency; that is, to choose, and switch between, motivational structures. As both Suits (1978) and
Huizinga (1970) noted, stepping into the game world is a voluntary endeavor where we enter a ‘magic circle’ whereby the
normal rules that direct our agency no longer apply. The necessity of ‘being in the game’ is what makes games fundamentally
different from other art forms where we passively observe or interact with another’s creation but have play no direct part in its
construction. Instead, games require us to be actively involved in their formation. If we refuse to engage, the game falls apart.
This provides games with a special quality not afforded to other art forms, and other ways of being more generally. Whilst the
uniqueness of games (as opposed to ‘real life’) has been noted in many different ways in the literature, this paper will provide an
explicit analysis of how games allow us to experience different forms of being and the philosophical implications that result. It
will consider issues such as mortality, morality, identity, perception, reality, free will and determinism, and the nature of time
and space, in order to provide a deeper account of the nature of games and its ontological significance.
Keywords: Games, ontology, being, agency, existence
Bibliography:
Huizinga, J. (1970). Homo ludens: a study of the play element in culture. Paladin.
Nguyen, C.T. (2020). Games: Agency as Art. OUP.
Ryall, E. (2021). Agential layering, the absurd and the grind in game-playing. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 48(3), 425–435.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2021.1948339
Suits, B. (1978). The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia. Broadview Press.

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PAM R. SAILORS, MISSOURI STATE UNIVERSITY, USA
COM PETI NG V IEWS O F CO MPETI TION
Much attention has been paid recently to issues of inclusion and exclusion in sport. One of the elements of discussion
surrounding these questions concerns how we ought to regard competition. Judgments about obligations and rights to inclusion
are impacted, if not determined, by whether competition is essential to the nature of sporting activity. In this paper, I begin with
consideration of competition in general, an activity that “requires some people to fail in order that others can succeed” (Kohn
1986). Then I examine early feminist challenges derived from tension between the values of feminism and competition. I
consider the echoes of these challenges in more recent work in the philosophy of sport literature challenging the adversarial
nature of competition. I then look at discussions advocating increased participation of minorities and non-elites in sport,
discussions that cast inclusion and competition as mutually exclusive values. Does restricting participation to those who have
met some arbitrary competitive standard mask “an ideology of exclusion and marginalization” (Désir 2022)? Rather than a zero-
sum game, can competition “be helpful in the reaching of a healthy balance between a sense of oneself and a feeling of
connection with others” (Davion 1987)? In the end, I hope to suggest an alternative way to view competition, one that values
inclusion and cooperation without sacrificing recognition of individual athletic accomplishment.
Keywords:competition, cooperation, feminism
Bibliography:
Davion, Victoria. 1987. “Do Good Feminists Compete?” Hypatia, vol. 2, no. 2 (Summer 1987): 55-63.
Désir, Alison Mariella. 2022. Running While Black: Finding Freedom in a Sport That Wasn’t Built for Us. New York:
Portfolio/Penguin.
English, Colleen. 2017. “Toward sport reform: hegemonic masculinity and reconceptualizing competition.” Journal of the
Philosophy of Sport. Vol. 44, no. 2: 183-198.
Kohn, Alfie. 1986. No Contest: The Case Against Competition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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JENNY SCHIFF, THE GRADUATE CENTER, CUNY, USA; ICAHN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AT MOUNT SINAI
DISABLED, BUT NO T IN THE RI GHT WAY: EXCLU SION IN PA RALYM PIC S PORT
Paralympic sport generally expands opportunities for participation in competitive sport. Providing opportunities for disabled
athletes to compete at an elite level is certainly something to be applauded. However, not all athletes with disabilities are
eligible for competition according to the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). More specifically, not all health conditions
lead to one or more of the ten “eligible impairments”: impaired muscle power, impaired passive range of movement, limb
deficiency, leg length difference, short stature, hypertonia, ataxia, athetosis, vision impairment, and intellectual impairment
(IPC, 2016). The IPC has acknowledged that their eligibility and classification system is not perfect (IPC, 2009). In this paper, I will
explore cases of disability that pose a challenge for the current paralympic eligibility framework. In particular, I will examine the
case of a type of autonomic dysfunction known as postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), which is characterized by
orthostatic intolerance.
Individuals with POTS experience an onset of symptoms upon standing such as headache, nausea, pain, and dizziness. They also
experience an abnormally large increase in heart rate upon transitioning from the supine to upright position. Despite their
disability, many individuals with POTS do not actually have any of the ten listed eligible impairments. Cases such as POTS raise
interesting questions about how best to evaluate whether a disabled athlete ought to be eligible for competition in paralympic
sport. This paper, then, touches on a much larger question of whether athletes with any disability ought to be eligible for
participation in paralympic sport. Is there something particular about certain impairments that would make for an unfair
competitive environment in paralympic sport? I think there are ways to address these questions, both from the perspective of
modifying the current framework of eligible impairments and making sure sports sanctioned by the International Paralympic
Committee have the appropriate adaptations and/or rule modifications that allow for optimal participation by athletes with
orthostatic intolerance.
Keywords: Paralympic sport, disability, eligible impairment, fairness, autonomic dysfunction
Bibliography
Edwards, S. and McNamee, M. (2015). Disability and Paralympic Sport Philosophy” in M. McNamee and W. Morgan, (eds.)
Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport, London: Routledge, 300–314.
International Paralympic Committee (2009). Position Statement on background and scientific rationale for classification in
Paralympic sport.
International Paralympic Committee (2016). International Standard for Eligible Impairments.
Jones, C. and Howe, P.D. (2005). The Conceptual Boundaries of Sport for the Disabled: Classification and Athletic Performance.
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 32:2, 133- 146.
Mills, P. and Krassioukov, A. (2011). Autonomic function as a missing piece of the classification of Paralympic athletes with spinal
cord injury. Spinal Cord. 49, 768-776.
Reid, H. (2012). Introduction to the Philosophy of Sport. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.

105 | P a g e
ANGELA SCHNEIDER AND ALAN OLDHAM, WESTERN UNIVERSITY, CANADA
FAI RCH ILD’S AB JECTIO N: RE HABIL ITATI NG A USEFU L CONC EPT FOR SP ORT
In this paper we will review David Fairchild’s use of the concept of Abjection from the 1990’s and doping in sport after the Ben
Johnson 1988 Olympic Games scandal. The concept was basically dropped from use in the IAPS related literature and we will
argue that Abjection can still be rehabilitated for a useful application in sport (and other areas).
We will review and critique some of the reasons for, and problems with, Fairchild’s work that led to the virtual abjection of
‘abjection’ as a concept by the sport philosophy field for two and a half decades. It seems to have only been applied twice since
then by Burke & Roberts and by Kutte Jonasson for the area of Para-sport. A review of both of these applications will be
included.
We will argue it is a great question to ask and propose some answers to is, “why?” this happened. But additionally we will ask
and attempt to prospose some answers to, “where do we go from here?”
The “moral” of our presentation (explicit or implicit) will be that “abjection leads to a lack of critical discussion on the merits of
involving ideas (or people), so we need to be aware of the circumstances that can make abjection more likely (e.g. polarized
politics, “social war” mentality, etc.).”
Keywords: Fairchild, Abjection, Rehabilitation
Bibliography
Burke MD, Roberts TJ. Drugs in sport: an issue of morality or sentimentality? Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 1997 May
1;24(1):99-113.
Fairchild DL. Sport abjection: steroids and the uglification of the athlete. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 1989 May 1;16(1):74-
88.
Jönsson K. Paralympics and the fabrication of ‘freak shows’: On aesthetics and abjection in sport. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy.
2017 Apr 3;11(2):224-37.

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JOEL SEICKELL, KU LEUVEN, BELGIUM
GU ILTY OF PROHIB ITED ASSO CIATI ON: EXPLO RING S TRI CT LI ABILI TY A ND THE MOR AL RES PONSI BIL ITY OF
ANT I-DO PING ORGA NISATIO NS
The prohibited association regulation was introduced by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as part of the updated 2015
World anti-doping code to issue those athletes or support personnel who associate with a banned individual with an Anti-Doping
Rule Violation (ADRV). The previous code has already encountered difficulty in the way that anti-doping organisations
implement this (ADRV) as highlighted through the first prohibited association violations that resulted in appeals at the court of
arbitration for sport. However, instead of rectifying the issue WADA introduced a new code in 2021 that effectively made the
role of the organisations easier within this specific regulation, due to clear failures in following the previous code. This regulation
has received very little scholarly focus and has been adapted under the pretense of protecting stakeholders who have failed to
follow procedure in the previous incarnation of the regulation.
Throughout the WADA code, strict liability is placed on athletes and support personnel for a wide variety of potential ADRVs.
The problem with the current regulation is the accountability it places on athletes to understand what constitutes prohibited
association, when in some cases there is a lack of effective education and prior notice as to what violating the rule entails.
Furthermore, banned individuals have no duty in the current code to make anyone aware of their ban and to disclose any
information about whether they are involved in sport in any manner whether it be official or unofficial. Consequently, the
current regulation lacks the level of protection for athletes within clean sport, by forcing them out of cheaper training
opportunities, with knowledgeable personnel within their field on hand, during what can be very busy and unpredictable times
in their life due to global competition schedules. Moreover, strict liability produces a stigma and increases the level of anxiety
for individuals labelled as cheaters, whether it be for taking a prohibited substance or for associating with a coach they were not
aware was banned. Producing equal levels of societal prejudice, through the same anti-doping sanctions for these offences, is
not a reasonable response.
Therefore, the current code is fallible both morally and operationally as it places strict liability on athletes and support personnel
to act on any awareness they have of a banned individual. Operationally, the regulation is open to appeals due to the vagueness
of what constitutes prior knowledge of a banned individual. Morally, the actions of WADA are failing, as they are using their
power to enforce strict liability upon the group of individuals with lower influence on anti-doping policy. Whereas more should
be done to tackle non-compliance by sport federations, National anti-doping Organisations, and sports clubs to share the burden
of liability equally. Therefore, the current work supports a move back towards the 2015 code where the responsibility is on
everyone in equal measure.
Keywords: Prohibited Association; Responsibility; Strict Liability; WADA
Bibliography
Gleaves, J., & Christiansen, A. V. (2019). Athletes’ perspectives on WADA and the code: a review and analysis. International
journal of sport policy and politics, 11(2), 341-353. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2019.1577901.
Houlihan, B. (2004). Civil Rights, Doping Control and the World Anti-doping Code. Sport in Society, 7(3), 420–437.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1743042000291712
Kayser, B. (2018). Ethical aspects of doping and anti-doping: in search of an alternative policy.
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30064.56327
World Anti-Doping Agency Code, Article 2.10 (2015). Retrieved from: wada-2015-world-anti-doping-code.pdf (wada-ama.org)
World Anti-Doping Agency Code, Article 2.10 (2021). Retrieved from: 2021_wada_code.pdf (wada-ama.org)

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MATIJA MATO ŠKERBIĆ, UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB, CROATIA; MILOŠ MARKOVIĆ, UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE, SERBIA
IN TENTI ONAL RUL E–BREAK ING I N EUR OLEA GUE BA SKETB ALL – PRO FESSIO NAL PLA YERS TALKING
Intentional rule-breaking (IRB) was debated extensively in the philosophy of sport putting the accent on different instances of
this complex issue: cheating (Fraleigh, Pearson, Loland), fair play (Butcher and Schneider, Simon), ethos (D'Agostino, Leaman,
Tamburrini), internal values (Morgan, Russell, Simon), and practical consequential reasoning (Flynn, Imbrišević).
In this paper, we intend to confront the philosophical and ethical theoretical discussion to the empirical data or the 'inner'
perspective of professional basketball players in (Turkish Airlines) EuroLeague Basketball, which is the highest level of
competition outside the NBA.
For that purpose, we created a questionnaire with 15 questions that are seeking answers not only to whether they were (and in
what amount) breaking the rules intentionally, but also when (in which situations), precisely how (in which way), and why (with
which rationales). And more so, is it even possible to win the game or/and competition without intentionally breaking the rules,
or to play the whole game only and strictly by following the rules and not breaking them with intention? On the other hand,
some questions intend to put more emphasis on problematizing the moral character, conscience, reasoning, justifications, guilt
and duties of the players. Questionarre took 60 professional basketball players from five clubs: Crvena Zvezda Belgrade and
Partizan Belgrade from Serbia, Bayern Munich from Germany, Monaco from France and Efes Pilsen from Turkey.
In our presentation, we will reveal the empirical results of the study, and provide a discussion on whether they confirm the
theoretical consideration developed within sports ethics and philosophy literature.
Keywords: basketball, intentional rule breaking, EuroLeague players,
Bibliography
Fraleigh, W. P. (2003), Intentional Rules Violations – One More Time, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 30:2, 166–176. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2003.9714642
Simon, Robert L. (2005), The Ethics of Strategic Fouling: A Reply to Fraleigh, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 32:1, 87–95. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2005.97146
Simon, Robert L. et al., 2015, Fair play. The Ethics of Sport, Boulder: Westview Press.
Imbrišević, Miroslav (2019), Robert Simon and the Morality of Strategic Fouling, Synthesis Philosophica, 34:2, 359-377. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21464/sp34208
Flynn, E. (2018), “Strategic fouls: a new defense”, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 44:3, 342–358. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2017.1361330

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MAJA SMRDU, UNIVERSITY OF PRIMORSKA, SLOVENIA; JESÚS ILUNDÁIN-AGURRUZA, LINFIELD UNIVERSITY, USA
WH EN THE C HIPS ARE D OWN … JUST BE TH ERE: ATHLET IC PERFO RMANC E AND M INDFUL NES S
The ability to focus and be “fully there” is a key factor in athletic performance. In fact, mindfulness training has seen a meteoric
rise in both practice and theory. Coaches and athletes swear by its effectiveness while academics have expounded on it in both
popular books seeking to “hack” the mind for peak performance (Kaufman et al. 2018) and scholarly analyses (Pineau et al.
2014). But just as mindfulness and meditation in the West has been co-opted and divested from much of its Hindu and Buddhist
roots, such adaptations of mindfulness to sport also ignore much of the traditional roots for the more eye-catching canopy.
To skirt polemics, however, we propose to explore athletic performance in light of the Buddhist roots of sati (mindfulness), its
connection with upāya (often translated as skillful means, we reinterpret this below), and its close counterpart kusala (skillful;
wholesome). To this end, we reconceptualize mindfulness as ‘engaged presence’ rather than presence of mind or similar
renditions, among other reasons, to avoid knotty dualistic connotations. Congruently, and relying on contemporary
interpretations by Buddhist scholars, we explore upāya as a relational ‘improvisational virtuosity’ (Hershock 1996). This operates
as a metapraxis that eschews metaphysical explanation for practical results in tune with the needs of the situation and the
persons involved (Schroeder 2004). With this framework then, we reassess performance in terms of kusala and akusala—
karmically skilled and unskilled action. Accordingly, if the former concerns superior performance in relation to an engaged
presence, the latter involves unskillful actions that arise from a lower presence due to moha (delusion), that is erroneous
interpretations of the situation caused, for example, by doba (anger). In our view, ultimately anatta, no self, plays a key role in
bringing about the proper psychosomatic state to perform excellently when the chips are down. In connection with this, there
are fascinating parallels to be explored between sati and kusala, and flow and mushin states in sports and martial arts
respectively. These ideas are contrasted with and validated by empirical and phenomenological research with elite athletes
(Smrdu 2016).
Keywords: Mindfulness; Athletic Performance; Buddhism; upāya (improvisational virtuosity); kusala(skillful, wholesome).
Bibliography
Hershock, P. 1996, Liberating Intimacy. Albany: SUNY Press.
Pineau, T. R., Glass, C. R., & Kaufman, K. A. 2014. Mindfulness in sport performance. In A. le, C. T. Ngnoumen, & E. J. Langer
(Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of mindfulness (Vol. II, pp. 1004- 1033). Chichester, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons.
Kaufman, K. A., Glass, C. R., & Pineau, T. R. 2018. Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: Mental Training for Athletes and
Coaches. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Schroeder, J. 2004. Skillful Means: The Heart of Buddhist Compassion. Honolulu : University of Hawaiʻi Press.
Smrdu, M. 2016. Fenomenologija fair playa v vrhunskem ekipnem športu [Phenomenology of Fair Play in Elite Team Sports].
Doctoral thesis. University of Ljubljana. Ljubljana, Slovenia.

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DJORDJE STEFANOVIC, UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE, SERBIA
SPO RT I N A NEW C OGNI TIVE CONT EXT
The aim of this paper is to comprehend the essence and offer new views on understanding definition of sport through
philosophical questions. There is a need for conceptual analyses and explanations as well as for more detailed theoretical
conditional definitions in the domain of sport analyses.
Multilateral character of sport does not allow it to be generalized solely as a human activity arising from a man’s need to move,
entertain, dance and exercise physically which differentiates its essential characteristic – competition. Sport should be viewed
from a holistic point of view, as a complex system, which does not represent a simple sum of the elements which constitute it.
As it is already known from the system theory, each system is made from smaller subsystems, however at the same time it is
also a subsystem of a bigger system. It means that it is difficult to establish borders of a system, so they are established only by
the person who is studying them, which applies to sport as well.
Determining a definition of sport, at the same time means limiting it with a certain frame, which in reality is an illusion. The first
step is defining its environment which represents everything that sport is not. Sport as a subsystem belongs to a much bigger
system of game, and it further belongs to sports culture etc. All kinds of physical exercise (movement) are not considered as
sport for the reason that they do not have the elements of competition. Examples are tai-chi, yoga or pilates. However, if it is
considered that all kinds of exercising are competing with oneself (overcoming oneself that is, the present condition and a wish
to achieve a new condition, outcome – teleological principle) than there is one aspect of sport in them. Does it mean that these
are sport disciplines too? Considering the above, sport is to be viewed as a fuzzy set, meaning that whether it possesses some
elements is not marked with ‘yes or no,’ or by ‘all or nothing’ law (binary logic), but it is a question of degree.
Attention should also be paid to the overlapping of terms sport, game and play, which means that each contains the other, but
also, that these subsystems are inseparable and cannot exist as independent entities. Further it means that sport cannot be
defined separately from game and play, or be singled out from the patronage of sports culture.
We should not exclude a possibility that sport “goes beyond” sport culture, to its surroundings and becomes a part of another
system – such as economical, marketing, political or the like. Different overlappings and “short excursions” definitely are
possible (in due course) so that sport stands for a dynamic, non-linear and complex system.
Based on more information about analyses of sport definitions, an outcome has been reached – instead of establishing
definitions, it would be better to talk about characteristics of sport.
Keywords: gnoseology, sport, definition.
Bibliography:
Копривица, Ч. Д. (2018). Homo maximus - елементи философије спорта. [Homo maximus - elements of sport philosophy].
Београд: Центар за изучавање традиција "Укронија".
Morgan, W.J. & Meier, K.V. (1995). Philosophic Inquiry in Sport. Second edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Стефановић, Ђ. (2011). Философија, наука, теорија и пракса спорта. [Philosophy, science, theory and practice of sport].
Београд: Факултет спорта и физичког васпитања и аутор.

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JINFENG SUN, KU LEUVEN, BELGIUM
FRO M C OMPETI TION TO INCLUS ION: COMPET ITI VE SPORTS IN SP ECI AL OLYM PIC S
This study provides a philosophical analysis of competitive sports within the Special Olympics and its contribution to fostering
social inclusion for people with intellectual disabilities. Firstly, it explores the definition of sports, theories of competitive sports,
and the similarities and differences between the Special Olympics, Olympic Games, and Paralympic Games to establish a
foundation for understanding competitive sports within the Special Olympics context. Subsequently, it examines social inclusion,
the challenges faced by individuals with disabilities, and the inclusive contractualism view of disability. The distinct features of
the Special Olympics competitions are outlined, namely eligibility, divisioning, awards, and Unified Sports. By adopting a
mutualism perspective to interpret competitive sports, in this study, the analysis focuses on how the Special Olympics
competitions promote inclusion through two dimensions, namely participation and recognition. Specifically, the dimension of
participation encompasses equal opportunities, tailored challenges, and interpersonal interaction. The dimension of recognition,
including attitudinal change, interpersonal personhood and valuing the process, is also explored. The study concludes by
emphasizing the transformative potential of competitive sports in the Special Olympics in creating a more inclusive society.
Through the implementation of inclusive practices and the enhancement of the inherent goods of competitive sports, it sets an
example for the wider sports community, illustrating that competitive sports can be reimagined to ensure equal opportunities
for participation and recognition for athletes of all backgrounds and abilities.
Keywords: Special Olympics, competitive sports, inclusion, competition, intellectual disability
Bibliography:
Martínková, I. (2013). Instrumentality and values in sport (1st ed.). Karolinum.
McNamee, M. (2008). Sports, virtues and vices: Morality plays. Routledge.
Morgan, W. J. (Ed.). (2007). Ethics in sport. Human Kinetics.
SO. (2015). Special Olympics Official General Rules. https://media.specialolympics.org/resources/leading-a-program/general-
rules/Special-Olympics- General-Rules-Amended-2015-8-17.pdf?_ga=2.215840663.1050301392.1654675359-
805861717.1631071350
Simon, R. L. (2018). Fair play: The ethics of sport. Routledge.
Torres, C. R. (Ed.). (2014). The Bloomsbury companion to the philosophy of sport. A&C Black.
Wenner, L. A. (2022). The Oxford Handbook of sport and society. Oxford University Press.

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RAFAEL VALENCIA CANDALIJA, UNIVERSITY OF SEVILLE, SPAIN
ANT ISE MITI SM IN EURO PEAN F OOTBA LL
This paper attempts to analyse anti-Semitic hate speech in European football. In order to do so, it is essential to approach the
study of the issue from two different angles.
In the first of these, we will proceed to analyse the events that took place in the run-up to the Second World War and the
persecution of the Jewish community carried out by the German Third Reich after the approval of what is known as the Aryan
Paragraph.
This persecution undoubtedly had an impact on the world of sport in general, and particularly on football. An example of this
was the coining of the concept of Judenklubs, used to designate those clubs and sports organisations that had among their
managers, players and fans people who were part of the Jewish community. This association between football and the Jewish
community sometimes led to persecution and even deportation to concentration and extermination camps all over Europe.
On the other hand, an exhaustive analysis of the anti-Semitic tendencies detected today will be carried out. Unlike in the 1940s,
today it is the fans and clubs traditionally associated with Judaism that experience and suffer these types of incidents in the
stands of European stadiums, mainly because of what we consider to be a misuse of human rights such as freedom of
expression.
All of this will lead us to study the solutions that are being put into practice from different sectors. Not only from the world of
law and the European institutions, but also the important initiatives being implemented by the clubs themselves.
Keywords: Antisemitism, European Football, Jewish Players, Jewish Fans, Jewish Club, Solutions
Bibliography:
VALENCIA CANDALIJA, R. (2021), Libertad religiosa y protección de las creencias en el fútbol", Madrid: Tecnos
VALENCIA CANDALIJA, R., “Historia y presente del antisemitismo en el fútbol europeo”, en COMBALÍA SOLÍS, Z., DIAGO DIAGO, P.
y GONZÁLEZ-VARAS IBÁÑEZ, A. (Coords.), Libertad de expresión y prevención de la violencia y discriminación por razón de la
religión, Valencia: Tirant lo Blanch, 2020
KUPER, S. (2012), “Ajax, The Dutch, the War. The Strange Tale of Soccer during Europe´s Darkest Hour”, New York: Nations Book
SCHÜLER-SPRINGORUM, S. (2012), “Génesis y actualidad del antisemitismo moderno”, en Constelaciones-Revista de Teoría
Crítica (4).

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ROBIN LUKE VARGHESE, SREENARAYANAGURU OPEN UNIVERSITY, KERALA, INDIA
PA RTIS AN S PECTATO RSH IP AND TEA M SP ORTS: A REJ OIND ER
Spectatorship in sports is often associated with the affect that the viewers of sport have towards the game they watch. Dixon
classified sports spectatorship into two broad categories: the Purists and the Partisans. The former refers to the ‘dispassionate’
viewer and lover of sport, whereas the latter refers to the ‘passionate’ viewer and lover of the participants of sports on the field
of play. Later on, Mumford made explicit certain crucial differences with some of the implications of Dixon’s classification.
Mumford also put forth the claim that partisan spectatorship is associated with team-sports (and rarely with individual sports)
since the partisan spectator always loves the team that they support. Individual sports, according to Mumford, have the
disadvantage of not being able to ‘woo’ the unconditional support of partisan spectators since, by default, they fail to contain
and reflect what is termed 'the collective’ which team-sports can easily do. Moreover, in individual sports, even at the elite
stages, there is the possibility of more than one individual player representing the same team (of a country, a club, a community,
or sporting associations), so that the partisan spectator fails to get a chance to unite her emotions towards one single entity on
the field during the competition. Some of the recent scholarly works on fandom also keep such a Mumfordian overtone that
(partisan) spectatorship in team-sports is just love for the team, the collective.
This paper opposes Mumford’s claim that partisan spectatorship is always based on love and allegiance towards the team as a
collective unit. Contrary evidence is available in certain contemporary forms of popular team-sports such as cricket and football,
where the love of partisan spectators towards the team they support is derivative since the objects of love in such cases are not
the teams. It is also an allied misconception that Mumford’s view spells out that partisan spectatorship in team-sports
necessarily involves allegiance to a community that the team represents. Such a view implies and imposes the limitation that a
partisan spectator, in the first place, must be loyal to the more basic organizations that the team represents. This paper argues
that partisan spectatorship could be related to team-sports in some alternate manner by identifying some such traces of
partisanship in the evolving milieu of team sports, where its realization is purely based on love’ of a different kind.
In the final analysis, the paper argues that the main reason for the wrong identification of the relation between partisan
spectatorship and team-sports lies with a crucial limitation of Mumford’s (and Dixon’s) broad classification between partisans
and purists. Another internal distinction within the category of partisan spectatorship is required to address the problem at
stake, and such a sub-classification will be proposed.
Key Words: Spectatorship, Team-sport, Franchise-Sport, Icon Player, Fandom
Bibliography:
Davis, P. (2019).The Purist/ Partisan Spectator Discourse: Some Examination and Discrimination. Sports Ethics and Philosophy.
13:2, 247-258.
Dixon, N. (2001).The Ethics of Supporting Sports Teams. Journal of Applied Philosophy. 18, 149-158.
Dixon, N. (2016).In Praise of Partisanship. Journal of Philosophy of Sport. 43:2, 233-249.
Russell, J.S. (2012).The Ideal Fan or Good Fans. Sports Ethics and Philosophy. 6:1, 16-30.
Feezell, R. ( 2004). Sports, Play and Ethical Reflection. Urbana and Chicago: Illinois.
Kadlac, A. ( 2022). The Ethics of Sports Fandom. New York: Routledge.
Mumford, S. (2012). Watching Sports: Aesthetics, Ethics and Emotion. New York: Routledge.
Tarver, E.C. (2017). The I in the Team: Sports Fandom and the Reproduction of Identity. London: Chicago.

113 | P a g e
ASK VEST CHRISTIANSEN, AARHUS UNIVERSITY, DENMARK
TH E L OGIC AL CONSEQUENC ES OF SHI FTING FRO M FAI RNESS TO RIGHTS WITHIN THE IOC ’S F RAMEWOR K
When the International Olympic Committee (IOC) launched the organization’s second iteration of its guidelines for transgender
athletes in sport, it had science and fairness at its core. The third iteration fundamentally diverged from this to make human
rights, including the right to participate, the starting point for its Framework (International Olympic Committee, 2015, 2021).
The Framework specifies that “Everyone, regardless of their gender identity […] should be able to participate in sport safely and
without prejudice [and be] allowed to compete in the category that best aligns with their self-determined gender identity.”
However, to allow self-identification into categories, is to suspend regulation of categories based on objective criteria. I line with
Pike, Hilton and Howe, I argue that it is properties of biological bodies, not properties of identities, that determine where
someone belong (2021). To be excluded from a category one is not eligible for, is not a denial of one’s human right to participate
in sport.
In this paper I will discuss the logical consequences of IOC’s shift from fairness to rights and what challenges it entails for sport. I
conclude that even if a human rights-centered approach is preferable in society at large, this is not the case for sport.
Keywords: Athletes’ rights, IOC, sport, gender, sex, eligibility
Bibliography:
International Olympic Committee (2015), IOC consensus meeting on sex reassignment and hyperandrogenism. Retrieved from
https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/Commissions_PDFfiles/Medical_commission/2015-
11_ioc_consensus_meeting_on_sex_reassignment_and_hyperandrogenism-en.pdf
International Olympic Committee (2021), IOC Framework on fairness, inclusion and non-discrimination on the basis of gender
identity and sex variations. Retrieved from https://olympics.com/ioc/documents/athletes/ioc-framework-on-fairness-inclusion-
and-non-discrimination-on-the-basis-of-gender-identity-and-sex-variations
Pike, J., Hilton, E. N., & Howe, L. A. (2021). FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER. The biological and ethical challenges to including
transgender athletes in women’s sports. Retrieved from Canada: https://macdonaldlaurier.ca/wp-
content/uploads/2022/03/Dec2021_Faster_higher_stronger_Pike_Hilton_Howe_PAPER_FWeb.pdf

114 | P a g e
ESBEN VOLSHØJ, VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, AARHUS, DENMARK, AND NORWEGIAN SCHOOL OF SPORT SCIENCES IN
OSLO, NORWAY
TEACHING MEANINGFUL PHYS ICA L ED UCATION IN PR IMAR Y SC HOOL
In recent years the framework of Meaningful PE has been interested in developing pedagogical principles to promote students'
meaningful experiences (Fletcher & Ní Chróinín, 2021). The focus on Meaningful PE has emerged over the past 50 years (Arnold,
1979; Kretchmar, 2000; Metheny, 1968) as a response to objectifying, performative, and instrumental tendencies in society
which the German sociologist Hartmut Rosa argues prevents us from living the good life (Rosa, 2019, pp. 25–35).
The Meaningful PE framework is rooted in social constructivism to address meaningful experiences in PE (Fletcher & Ní Chróinín,
2021, p. 6). As the body takes a central role in subjective experiences in PE, it is relevant to contribute to the current framework
drawing on the phenomenology of perception as a way to reveal meaning (Merleau-Ponty, 2013).
In light of the contemporary societal and existential challenges, the purpose of the present Ph.D. project is to contribute to the
current framework of Meaningful PE with an existential embodied perspective on how teachers can teach PE in primary school.
Merleau-ponty (2013) places the body subject at the center of sense-making and argues that our sense- making is always
already directed toward the world, and our capacity for reflexivity is thus derived from original bodily intentionality. From this
perspective, human knowing is inseparably entangled with the ways we touch and sense the world (Gallagher, 2017). Human
sense-making is founded on a dialogue of movements between a questioning subject and a responding world, thus the sense-
making activity is essentially embodied in action (Fuchs & de Jaegher, 2009, p. 489). De Jaegher and Di Paulo propose, that
sense-making processes in bodily encounters are founded on a regulated coupling of the agents involved at the level of direct
bodily engagement (De Jaegher & Di Paolo, 2007, p. 493). This suggests that sense- making in social interactions like teaching PE
takes place through shared coordination of movements. The teacher’s and the students’ gestures, gazes, touch, and voices thus
become deeply integrated into their sense-making in PE.
The project also draws on theory about existential education by the Dutch professor Gert Biesta (2022) and his thoughts about
world-centred education. World-centred education should contribute to students’ sense-making by allowing them to be a
subject in and with the world (Biesta, 2022b, p. 36). Biesta argues that world-centred education is essentially a matter of
attending the students to the world by pointing (Biesta, 2022a, p. 18). Teaching thus becomes a matter of an affective dialog
between the teacher, the student, and the educational context (Biesta, 2022b, pp. 92–96).
The projects grounding in the theory of embodiment and existential education provide a conceptual framework that guides and
focuses the domain of the study (Køster & Fernandez, 2021). Inspired by phenomenological grounded qualitative research, the
design employed in the present project is phenomenological grounded action research.
The presentation will provide an existential embodied perspective on Meaningful PE and offer a tentative analysis of how PE-
teachers can attend students to the world of PE at the level of direct bodily engagement.
Keywords: Meaningful PE, Intersubjectivity, Attention, Enaction
Bibliography:
Arnold, P. J. (1979). Meaning in movement, sport & physical education (1st ed.). Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.
Biesta, G. (2022a). Why the form of teaching matters: Defending the integrity of education and of the work of teachers beyond
agendas and good intentions. Revista de Educacion, 2022(395), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2022-395-519
Biesta, G. (2022b). World-centered education (1.). Routledge.
De Jaegher, H., & Di Paolo, E. (2007). Participatory sense-making: An enactive approach to social cognition. Phenomenology and
the Cognitive Sciences, 6(4), 485–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-007-9076-9

115 | P a g e
DEBORAH P. VOSSEN, ST. FRANCIS XAVIER UNIVERSITY, NOVA SCOTIA; TALIAH L. POWERS, PENNSYLVANIA STATE
UNIVERSITY, USA
SO CRAT IC L ESSONS IN GRASSH OPPER PHI LOSOPH Y ABST RAC T:
Bernard Suits’ (1925-2007) masterwork The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia (1978; 2014) and its recently published sequel,
Return of the Grasshopper: Games, Leisure and the Good Life in the Third Millennium (2023), both deviate from the structure
typical of traditional philosophical works. Written as a Socratic dialogue, Suits advances interrelated definitional and Utopian
game playing theses via a mega-parable featuring the voices of the Grasshopper and his disciples – two former ants – Skepticus,
the critical one, and Prudence, the cautious one.
Regarding his definitional thesis, Suits clearly states ‘playing a game is the voluntary attempt to overcome unnecessary
obstacles’ (Suits 2014, 43). However, the tenets of his Grasshopper’s Utopian thesis, suggesting ‘game playing is what makes
Utopia intelligible’ (Suits 2014, 188), are less obvious since they rely upon the philosopher’s resolution of a conceptually – and
existentially – tantalizing ‘tangle of riddles about play, games, and the good life’ (Suits 2014, 13).
With these riddles establishing the motivation for this essay, our purpose is to share some Socratic features of the
methodological lens we have been using in our mutual quest for resolution. First, we summarize the Socratic method in its
application to Suits’ extended tale of the Grasshopper and his disciples. Second, we suggest his inquiry might be best explained
as an effort to explore the logical implications of the conditional assumption that if any given definition of game playing is
worthy of acceptance, then it should yield a realistic – livable; possible; practical; prudential – vision of the good life. Finally, we
conclude with some promising possibilities for further philosophical inquiry within the quest to resolve the Grasshopper’s ‘tangle
of riddles about play, games, and the good life’ (Suits 2014, 13).
Keywords: Grasshopper logic; Socratic method; conceptual analysis; definitional thesis; Utopian game playing thesis
Bibliography:
Hurka, T. 2014. Introduction. In The Grasshopper: Games, Life, and Utopia. 3rd ed. Peterborough: Broadview Press: ix-xxviii.
Plato. 1997. Meno. Translated by G.M.A. Grube. In Plato: Complete Works. Edited by John M. Cooper and D.S. Hutchinson.
Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company: 870-897.
Reich, R. 1998. Confusion about the Socratic Method: Socratic Paradoxes and Contemporary Invocations of Socrates. Philosophy
of Education Yearbook: 68-78.
Suits, B. 2014. The Grasshopper: Games, Life, and Utopia. 3rd ed. Peterborough: Broadview Press.
Suits, B. 2023. Return of the Grasshopper: Games, Leisure and the Good Life in the Third Millennium. Edited by Christopher C.
Yorke and Francisco Javier Lopez Frias. Routledge.

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FOREST WAGNER AND KEVIN KREIN, UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA SOUTHEAST, USA
COWBO Y PR OFES SIO NALI SM: A CULTURAL STUDY OF BIG- MOUNT AIN T OURIS M IN TH E L AST F RONTI ER
Geographical features and cultural traits may influence the character of big-mountain tourism in Alaska. For example, Alaska’s
wild landscape, rich climbing and skiing history, and cultural mythos of wilderness and frontier fostered its status as a major
destination for niche big-mountain tourism. Growth in the industry since the 1980s has been phenomenal, though a change
threatens the identity of mountain guides of the region, demanding they accept international standards for their self-regulating
and uniquely Alaskan version of big-mountain tourism.
This research explores big-mountain niche tourism in Alaska, considering the influences of wilderness and frontier concepts on
the tourism culture and examining guides’ and clients’ motivations for participation in the industry. I queried clients and guides
at two guiding services, the Alaska Mountaineering School and its Denali mountain climbers, and Alaska Powder Descents and its
Coast mountain heli-skiers. The quantitative client survey assessed participant motivations for engaging in big-mountain
tourism, for hiring a guide, and for traveling to engage in mountain tourism. The qualitative guide interview asked guides their
motivations for working in big-mountain tourism, their experience with the management of big-mountain risk, and changes they
had observed over time in the industry. I am a professional mountain guide and instructor in Alaska and use this experience as a
third data point.
The findings show that Alaska’s big-mountain tourism offers individuals a transcendental, sublime, yet physical encounter, one
that is part of a globalized political and economic system. Except for the guides themselves, the high mountains are generally
accessible only to those who are at the high end of the socioeconomic spectrum. Gender is also a defining characteristic of the
industry, as the guiding ranks and the clientele in Alaska’s big-mountain tourism are overwhelmingly male. For guides, the
frontier mythos of intrepid and rugged individualism is a powerful motivator, an identity construction that relates well with the
depictions of the region in early literature, and in images promoted by the tourism industry. Clients on the other hand may come
to Alaska because it is geographically exceptional, but they are not as enamored of the frontier ideology that resonates so
deeply with many permanent residents.
Keywords: nature sport; tourism; arctic and northern studies
Bibliography:

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QIAN WANG AND IRENA MARTÍNKOVÁ, CHARLES UNIVERSITY, CZECHIA
TH E O NTOLOG ICAL SIGNIF ICAN CE O F MOV EMENT
In Merleau-Ponty’s (2012) words, consciousness is originally ‘I can’ rather than ‘I think’, which means that we, humans, firstly
take up the world in and through bodily movement. Such movements are spontaneous bodily reactions to what we encounter in
the world. And this is also in line with the meaning of ‘affordances’ of the environment, as articulated by Gibson (2015).
Firstly, we shall explore the idea of spontaneous movement.
Then we shall explore three other types of movement in human activities. One is abstract movement, such as acting without any
concrete material to act upon. The second is movement in sports training, in which the body is moved and is most often guided
by others to move as an object. The third is movement in traditional eastern meditative practices such as Chinese Qigong, Taichi
and Japanese martial arts, which emphasize an ‘embodied self’ (Yuasa,1993): an integration of the body and consciousness
(Zhang, 2015). In these practices, the body is also the moving subject, but the movements are not triggered by the affordances
of the environment.
Merleau-Ponty’s idea of embodiment resonates with the eastern philosophy of the body manifested in these practices.
This paper will demonstrate these four types of movements based on Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology and will seek to explore
the ontological significance of various kinds of movement.
Keywords: Embodiment, movement, Merleau-Ponty, body subject
Bibliography
Gibson, J. J. (2015). The Theory of Affordances. In The ecological approach to visual perception (pp.119–136). Psychology Press,
Taylor & Francis Group.
Merleau-Ponty. (2012). Phenomenology of perception. (D. Landes, Trans.) London: Routledge.
Yasuo, Y., Shigenori, N., & Hull, M. (1993). Body, Self-Cultivation, and Ki-Energy. SUNY Press.
Zhang, Z. (2015). Embodiment Study of ‘Back to Sport in itself’. Journal of Sports and Science, 36(5).
This presentation is supported with the Grant Agency of Charles University (project no. 80122).

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CHARLENE WEAVING, ST. FRANCIS XAVIER UNIVERSITY, CANADA
BI G A IR, $ PINS & OBJECTIFICATION: AN ANAL YSIS OF OLIVIA DUNNE AND EILEE N G U
I analyse the cases of two University USA women athletes. American Olivia Dunne is a 21 year old former USA National gymnast
and current gymnast at Louisiana State University. Eileen Gu is a 20 year old Chinese American freestyle skier who was the first
freestyle skier to win three medals at one Winter Olympics. In 2022, Gu competed for China and won gold in the big air and
halfpipe, and earned silver in the slopestyle event. Gu is currently a student at Stanford University. Both Dunne and Gu have
massed impressive social media followers, for example Dunne (TikTok- 5.7 M & Instagram- 3.7 M), and Gu (TikTok- 1.7 M &
Instagram- 1.7M). I share these numbers because both athletes have become social media influencers and their social media
presence has resulted in profitable endorsements. Dunne’s net worth is estimated to be 3.3M and, is considered to be the
highest valued woman NCAA athlete whereas Gu’s net worth is estimated to be 32M. Even though the athletes are making
significant money; like social media, things are not always as ‘perfect’ as they appear.
Both athletes’ stories emphasize stereotypes and stigmas that surround women athletes. Intersections of equity, racism, and
body politics will also be examined. Specially, I will address sexual objectification and challenge psychological analysis of self-
objectification. The work of Nussbaum and Young will be applied in order to analyse the two athlete examples.
Keywords: Women athletes; social media; self-objectification
Bibliography:
Nussbaum, M.C. (1999). Sex and Social Justice. Oxford University Press
Young, I. M (2005). On Female Body Experience. Oxford University Press

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DYLAN WILLIAMS, FORT LEWIS COLLEGE, USA
‘L AYER ED C ONVENTI ONAL TH EOR Y O F SPORT’
In this paper, I propose a methodology of rational discourse for those wanting to participate in conservations surrounding
athletic life in all its forms. Without an obvious structure, intellectual debates surrounding issues in sports can get easily
muddied which means that any kind of discourse theory of sport designed to be open to the entire relevant sporting community
is likely destined to fail. Whether necessary to make these discourse theories practical or simply to better our understanding of
each other’s and the community’s perspectives on things like the purpose of sport, there seems to be a demand for this kind of
structure. This shortened version of the paper picks up at the point I suggest categorizing the different levels of debate into
three sections based on the knowledge required to understand and participate in each particular discussion. My description of
shallow and deep conventions when tracking the epistemology of sporting actions invokes the work of Andrei Marmor. I also
attempt to answer some of the more pressing questions posed by William Morgan in his book Sport and Moral Conflict: A
conventionalist theory surrounding the debate between amateur and professional sporting communities. I then consider a few
critiques posed to conventional theories of sport in general. Finally, I conclude this paper by examining a controversial case in
contemporary sports ethics to show how my perspective can provide a method for reasoned and practical debate.
Keywords: conventionalism, sportsmanship, ethos, epistemology
Bibliography:
D’Agostino, F. (1981) “The Ethos of Games.” In Philosophic inquiry in sport, edited by William Morgan & Klaus Meier, 63-72.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, 1988.
Kaluziński, Bartosz (2019). “Rules and Games.” Philosophia 47 (4):1165-1176.
Morgan, W. (2020). “Sport and Moral Conflict: A Conventionalist Theory.” Temple University Press.
Sanchez, R. (2022). ‘I Am Lia’: The Trans Swimmer Dividing America Tells Her Story. Sports Illustrated. From
https://www.si.com/college/2022/03/03/lia-thomas-penn-swimmer-transgender-woman-daily-cover.
Simon, R. (2004). “Fair play: The Ethics of Sport (2nd ed.)”. Westview Press.

120 | P a g e
GARETH WILTSHIRE, LOUGHBOROUGH UNIVERSITY, UK
SPO RT A ND BEING- TOWARD S-DEA TH: POSSI BILI TY, ANXIETY AND AUTH ENTICIT Y A T THE TRAN SPLA NT GA MES
Death is an important consideration in existentialist philosophy and is perhaps most explicitly accounted for in Heidegger’s
being-towards-death. For Heidegger, the awareness of one’s own mortality is fundamental to the human condition. When
confronted by death – especially in moments of reflection – we are compelled to grapple with the meaninglessness of our
existence and yet Heidegger argues that the response to this confrontation is ultimately liberating, prompting a disruption of the
Dasein and a willingness to live a more authentic life. Death and sport have not been extensively explored together, perhaps
because exercise is seen as a powerful life-extending elixir in public health rhetoric or perhaps because sport is largely seen as a
pursuit of early and mid- life. When they have been explored in the philosophy of sport literature, death and sport have been
brought together in the context of risk in extreme sports. The aim of this paper is to reveal a new intersection between death
and sport by examining the case of the Transplant Games; an Olympic- style event exclusively for organ transplant recipients.
Death makes itself apparent through the Transplant Games in several ways; through reminding competitors of their personal
experience of surviving serious illness, through promotional materials around the Games that aim to raise awareness of organ
donation (referred to as ‘the gift of life’), and through the visual presence of pharmaceutical sponsors who trade in the
postponement of death. This paper unpacks the peculiar joining together of death and sport in the case of the Transplant Games
through a Heideggerian lens, hoping to illustrate why the Games appears to be so meaningful to its competitors, spectators and
stakeholders.
Keywords: Heidegger, being-towards-death, transplantation, authenticity.
Bibliography:
Heidegger, M. (1927 / 1953) Being and Time. State University of New York Press, Albany
Tuncel, Y. (2015) Defeat, Loss, Death, and Sacrifice in Sports, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 42:3, 409-423
Müller, A. (2011) From Phenomenology to Existentialism – Philosophical Approaches Towards Sport, Sport, Ethics and
Philosophy, 5:3, 202-216

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NINA WINDGÄTTER, UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, USA
COM MERC IALIZ ING WO MEN’S SPOR TS: HOW F AR DO WE WANT TO GO?
Excellent scholarship in recent years has established major financial disparities between men’s and women’s sports, with men
earning more as athletes and markets valuing male athletes, men’s teams, and men’s leagues more than corresponding female
participants and women’s organizations. At the same time, there is a growing backlash against the commercialization of men’s
sports.
In this paper, I argue that stakeholders of women’s sports need to think long and hard about how much they want women’s
sports to commercialize and what parts of the current culture and practices ought to be preserved as women’s sports
commercialize. Put another way, in which ways ought women’s sports attempt to be equal to men’s sports?
I first point to major disparities in men’s and women’s sports and argue that these are unjustifiable from the point of view of
equality. I then examine critiques of hyper-commodification from Walsh & Giulianotti and argue that while women’s sports now
have (1) clubs that are explicitly organized as corporate entities, (2) athletes who are becoming increasingly professionalized, (3)
a proliferation of advertising and merchandising such that stadiums are ‘diseased by the eczema of logos’, it is not the case that
(4) a ‘venalisation of the ethos’ of sport has happened to the same degree as it has for men’s sports. Moreover, there are
experiments in ownership of women’s teams now as teams find ways to free themselves from negligent owners. In addition,
women athletes have reasons to prefer professionalization, given that in today’s world it is hard to be an elite athlete while
working a full- time job. Further, their current lack of access to training, travel, nutritional, and health resources is holding
women’s sports back, and these things come from increased investment.
Women athletes, fans, and other stakeholders should actively resist the venalization of our sports for moral and aesthetic
reasons. Morally, we ought to work to prevent financial considerations from clouding out what we need for a mutual pursuit of
excellence. Aesthetically, the women’s game should work to preserve one of its best current features: the joy that women
athletes exude when they’re on a major stage, getting to compete at the highest level. The stakes for women’s sports are much
lower financially than for men’s sports, and this frees the women’s game from a lot of the nastiness of the men’s game.
However, it holds athletes, teams, and leagues back from developing skills and strategy. Women’s sports ought to capitalize on
the current increase in interest, but they ought to learn lessons from the men’s game about what to pursue and what to avoid.
Keywords: gender inequality, commercialization, commodification, egalitarianism
Bibliography:
Allison, R. (2018). Kicking Center: Gender and the Selling of Women's Professional Soccer. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University
Press
Simon, R., C. Torres and P. Hager. (2015). Fair Play: The Ethics of Sport. Boulder, Co: Westview Press
Walsh, A. & R. Giulianotti (2007). Ethics, Money and Sport. New York: Routledge.

122 | P a g e
JUNKO YAMAGUCHI, TSUDA UNIVERSITY, JAPAN
SE NSATI ON AND LI VED EXPE RIENC E
There are many different cultures in the world. Different cultures feel, treat and think differently. However, what is sought in
each style probably has something common and deeply related. While the ancient civilizations have become part of the world’s
great traditions, other civilizations have many of the revitalizing properties of their medical and exercise systems.
By the 19th century, as Western and non-Western members began to meet and exchange one another, they will notice that “the
body is an open system linking social relations to the self, a vital balance between interrelated elements in a holistic cosmos”
(Kleinman, 1988).
In the 20th century, it has become clear that living organisms have many functions related to the human perception and
cognition. The term "lived experience" is used in phenomenological researches. What does “lived experience" stand for? How is
it different from just "living experience”? And how does it work for the essential nature of sport and physical activity, then?
Based on the metaphorical context the features of differentiated “lived experience” are extracted.
In a famous life story, Helen A. Keller (1880-1968) suffered from her triple affliction of being unable to see, to hear and to speak.
She later wrote about her own experience closely. How did she learn to speak and write using her sensibility, then? As it is
known, having studied with a tutor Sullivan, Helen knew that everything had a name, and tried to remember different names.
One day, Helen was at the edge of the garden-well, and her one palm was under the cold water, while Sullivan was writing the
term “water” on her other palm.
While touching the water, Helen realized that names separate and group the things. The term WATER groups of the
differentiated meanings. Like water and non-water (say stone), red and non-red, names are one with each other like light and
shadow.
Certainly, we have an experience, but the lived experience makes a different sensibility for a whole body. That is, “Awareness is
a relation between a subject (qua experiencing) and an object (qua experienced)” (Zaharia, 1990). Truly, it is a concept based on
a certain idea. Unless the world is divided by one’s own sensation, a way of "meaning" will not be born, nor will one’s own
definition (thought) be born.
To sum up, the sensation is contact with something that is not oneself. The world is what we perceive and recognize in and
through the body.
Thus, the cultural phenomenon called sport and physical activity can’t be deciphered without both Western ideas and non-
Western ideas. Like the sports games, “achieved sense of unity” between the two makes up the sport.
Keywords: dual body; differentiate the world; metaphor; phenomenology
Bibliography:
Kleinman, A., The Illness Narratives-Suffering, Healing, and the Human Condition, New York: Basic Books Inc.,1988, p.11.
Manen, M., Researching lived experience: human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. New York: SUNY series, 1990.
Zaharia, D., Self-Awareness and Alterity-A Phenomenological Investigation, Northwestern University Press, 1990, p.16.

123 | P a g e
SANJA ŽARKOVIĆ, UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE, SERBIA
ST RANGE BED FELL OWS: THE UN EASY RELA TIONS HIP BETW EEN SPO RTS A ND POLI TICS
Under Rule 50 of the Olympic Charter: ’’No kind of demonstration or political, religious or racial propaganda is permitted in any
Olympic sites, venues or other areas’. This is the principle of political neutrality of sports, the source of legitimacy and autonomy
for the International Olympic Committee.
However, the argument that sport and politics should not mix and the long-held belief that athletes should just ’’shut up and
play ball’’, have been challenged to their core by contemporary events, such as wide-ranging sporting sanctions against Russia,
in response to its war on Ukraine, and the Black Lives Matter movement. This is along the lines of Aristotle’s view that ’’man, by
nature, is a political animal’’, and that moral virtue can be developed to a full extent only through participation in political life.
This paper will focus on two controversial issues with regards to the principle of political neutrality of sports: the extent to which
athletes should enjoy freedom of expression and whether sporting sanctions are justified.
Freedom of expression is a fundamental human rights, which comes with restrictions, but in relation to athletes, these
restrictions are even more severe than is the case with ordinary citizens, because they are expected to completely succumb to
the will of sports governing bodies, in the interest of pursuing harmonious relations with national authorities.
The paper will look into philosophical and legal justifications for allowing athletes freedom of expression and the conditions
under which restrictions on this freedom may be imposed, in order to satisfy the requirement of consistency.
Contrary to the claim of sports’ neutrality, sporting sanctions are a concession to the realization that sports can be
instrumentalized for the purpose of propaganda. Nevertheless, in addition to neutrality being a fundamental ethical principle,
sporting sanctions can violate the requirement of equality, the right to work and the right to participate in cultural/sporting life.
The paper will look into whether the principle of political neutrality of sports is practicable and what are the possible
ethical/legal justifications of sporting sanctions.
Keywords: neutrality, sport, politics, freedom of expression, sporting sanctions
Bibliography:
Goretti, L. The Sporting Sanctions Against Russia: Debunking the Myth of Sport’s Neutrality, Istituto Affari Internazionali (2022):
1-30.
Morgan, W. Sport and Moral Conflict. A Conventionalist Theory. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2020).
Naess, HE. The neutrality myth: why international sporting associations and politics cannot be separated, Journal of the
Philosophy of Sport 45(1) (2018) : 1-17.
Nafziger,J. Nonaggressive Sanctions in the International Sports Arena, 15 Case W. Res. J. Int'l L. 329 (1983) Available at:
https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/jil/vol15/iss2/7

124 | P a g e
XIAOLIN ZHANG, CHENGDU SPORT UNIVERSITY, CHINA
TH E S PORT EPISTEM OLOG Y OF PAUL WEI SS
In The Concept of Mind , Gilbert Ryle distinguishes between two types of knowledge: "knowing that" and "knowing how". The
former refers to the knowledge based on facts, information, and propositions. This type of knowledge can be articulated in
language and is often acquired through formal education, reading, or other forms of information gathering. The latter refers to
knowledge based on skills, abilities, and practical know-how, such as how to ride a bike. This type of knowledge is often difficult
to articulate in words and is acquired through repeated practice and experience.
Similarly, Michael Polanyi proposes the concepts of "explicit knowledge" and "tacit knowledge" in his book Personal Knowledge.
Like Ryle and Polanyi, Paul Weiss, the founding father of modern sport philosophy, believes that both kinds of knowledge are
important for athletes’ success. Besides, he argues that sports can reveal the ultimate truth by emphasizing that “the
examination of sport in terms of principles which are to be at once revelatory of the nature of sport and pertinent to other
fields- indeed, to the whole of things and knowledge. ”
For Weiss, sports involve not only the explicit knowledge of "knowing that", such as the sports rules, records and so on, but also
the tacit knowledge of "knowing how", which essentially involves the physical abilities, skill, will and emotion of the athlete. In
his book Sport: A Philosophic Inquiry, Weiss emphasized that for athletes, the basic concern is to pursue excellence, which
requires training before the athletes test themselves in games. Weiss holds that training is to learn how to control the body. “By
making them (athletes) go through various moves and acts many times its aim is to get their bodies to function in accord with
what those bodies are expected to do. Training helps them to be their bodies, to accept their bodies as themselves. It makes
those bodies habituated in the performance of moves and acts while enabling them to function harmoniously and efficiently,
and thereby be in a position to realize the projects at which the vectorial minds terminate.” Athletes acquire embodied
knowledge through this process. In addition to these two dimensions, Weiss argues that sports can also reveal higher truths
about existence, thus adding a third dimension to his sports epistemology. In a word, for Weiss, the sport knowledge can be
categorized as knowledge about sports (the fact knowledge such as rules), knowledge of sports (the embodied knowledge such
as skills), and knowledge through sports (the philosophical knowledge such as one and many).
Keywords: Paul Weiss, Sport Epistemology, Knowledge
Bibliography:
Breivik, G. (2014). Sporting knowledge and the problem of knowing how. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 41:2, 143-162.
Polanyi, M. (1958). Personal Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind. New York: Routledge.
Weiss, P. (1969). Sport: A Philosophic Inquiry. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University.
Weiss, P. (1971). Philosophy in Process, vol. 5. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University.

125 | P a g e
ANA CRISTINA ZIMMERMANN AND SORAIA CHUNG SAURA, UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL; BERNARD ANDRIEU
UFR STAPS - UNIVERSITÉ PARIS CITÉ, FRANCE
TH E N OTION OF H ARMONY: REF LEC TIONS F ROM TRADI TIONAL GAM ES WI TH BRAZ ILIA N IND IGENOU S PEO PLES
Ecology and sustainability are subjects in philosophy of sport that question values in contemporary western society. One aspect
that stands out from these topics is our relationship with the environment and others from the perspective of corporeality. The
proposal of body ecology and discussions on slow sports point out a sensible knowledge of the body that expands the
understanding of being alive. Deep ecology (Næss, 2005) goes in a similar direction, highlighting the potential of intense contact
with nature.
The word “harmony” is often used by practitioners of activities in nature to describe their experiences. In this paper, we propose
to reflect on the notion of "harmony" with the environment looking at the case of indigenous games. Traditional games
challenge conventional ways of seeing sports and cultural identity. Furthermore, in the case of Brazilian indigenous peoples,
they challenge the way we perceive our connection with the world. The paper considers the background of the phenomenology
of Merleau-Ponty (2002), emersiology (Andrieu, 2020), body ecology, and sport ecology (Andrieu et al., 2018a; Andrieu et al.,
2018b) in dialogue with indigenous cosmology (Krenak, 2019; Kopenawa & Albert, 2013).
We first explore traditional communities' cosmologies centred on corporeality, which seek to preserve the time for sensitive
experience necessary for otherness relationships. Next, we investigate how traditional games can provide a comprehensive
understanding of this connection. In this context, we explore the notion of harmony considering the case of traditional games
from Brazilian indigenous peoples. It is possible to understand harmony from the perspective of the intertwining with an organic
system of interrelations. In this sense, indigenous games have much more to offer than a set of games representing different
nations' cultural aspects. Furthermore, indigenous games help us to access a different cosmology that supports an ecological
understanding of our belonging to the world.
Keywords: Phenomenology, Traditional Sports and Games (TSG), body ecology, harmony.
Bibliography:
Andrieu, B., ed. (2020). Manuel d’émersiologie. Sesto S. Giovanni: Éditions Mimésis. Andrieu, B., J. Parry, A. Porrovechio, and O.
Sirost, eds. (2018a). Body Ecology and Emersive Leisures, London: Routledge.
Andrieu, B., T.P. Nóbrega and O. Sirost. (2018b). Body Ecology: a new philosophy through cosmotic emersiology. Acta
Universitatis Carolinae Kinanthropologica, 54 (1): 17-24.
Krenak, A. (2019). Ideias para adiar o fim do mundo. São Paulo, Companhia da Letras.
Kopenawa, D.; Albert, B. (2013). The falling sky: words of a Yanomami Shaman. Belknap Press.
Merleau-Ponty, M. (2002). Phenomenology of Perception. London: Routledge.
Næss, A. (2017). Une écosophie pour la vie: introduction à l’écologie profonde. Paris, Éditions du Seuil.

126 | P a g e
CLAIRE C. ZVOSEC, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, USA; NATHAN R. BAER, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, USA
EX PLOR ING A SUBJE CTIV IST PERSP ECTIV E OF MEANI NGFUL W ORK FOR SP ORT EMPL OYEES
As scholars continue to position sport as a unique field of study (Andrew et al., 2021), one area receiving increased attention has
been the management and development of sport employees through the lenses of human resource development and positive
organizational behavior (Kim et al., 2019; Oja et al., 2022). POB strategies conceptualize their employees as more than simple
manipulators of tools, but as tools-in-themselves from which organizations can benefit (Luthans & Avolio, 2009; Oja et al., 2022).
Meaningful work is an evolving ideology that shifts as more data is collected on the nature of work and how employees fit within
its bounds (Lysova et al., 2019). At its core, meaningful work involves the pursuit of meaningfulness in life through work, thereby
enhancing an individual’s perception that their life is meaningful (Yeoman et al., 2019; Steger, 2019). Thus, the concept of
meaningful work carries a set of philosophical principles that aim to explain its (1) necessity and (2) its development.
Aristotle’s perspective on virtue ethics has heavily influenced the modern literature surrounding meaningful work (Beadle,
2019). Ethical scholars aim to understand whether meaningful work is worth pursuing and what defines some work as more
meaningful than other forms. The conditions of work must be so that the employee is able to have work that is meaningful to
broader society (Michaelson, 2011). In doing so, ethics and moral philosophy scholars adopt a consistent approach to
meaningful work that posits a normative perspective (Michaelson, 2021; Michaelson et al., 2014).
Some scholars have offered what they deem to be a Kantian approach to meaningful work, in which autonomy in decision-
making within work is necessary to the determination that one's work is meaningful (Bowie, 1998). Those who study subjective
meaningfulness are far more interested in the thoughts of employees in practical settings (Michaelson, 2021). This is because
they take the word of workers at face-value, defining their own perception of meaningfulness within the work itself (Simpson et
al., 2019; Steger et al., 2012). Through a Kantian perspective, it would be then possible for sport employees to conceptualize
meaningful work in unique ways depending on the needs of their jobs and their individual goals.
While sport organizations may be driven to innovate to meet market needs (Ratten, 2016), and meaningful work might be an
avenue by which they could be able to do so (Baer et al., 2021; Oja et al., 2022), the current landscape of work in the sport world
may not be conducive to typical meaningful work settings (Bowie, 2019; Breen, 2019).
This study explores the ways in which different subsets of sport employees (i.e., professional sport employees, college sport
employees, and recreation employees) perceive meaningful work via in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Discussion will center
on meaningful work for sport employees as framed though a reflective, subjectivist lens, including a focus on meaningful work in
sport as being part of one’s calling, sport work as ethical work, and future directions for meaningful work and sport employees
considering they are tools-in-themselves for their respective sport organizations.
Keywords: human resource development; positive organizational behavior; virtue ethics; Kantian approach
Bibliography:
Bowie, N. E. (1998). A Kantian theory of meaningful work. Journal of Business Ethics, 1083- 1092.
Beadle, R. (2019). Work, meaning, and virtue. In Yeoman, R., Bailey, C., Madden, A., & Thompson, M. (Eds.), The Oxford
handbook of meaningful work (pp. 73-87). Oxford University Press.
Lysova, E. I., Allan, B. A., Dik, B. J., Duffy, R. D., & Steger, M. F. (2019). Fostering meaningful work in organizations: A multi-level
review and integration. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 110, 374-389.
Oja, B. D., Zvosec, C. C., & Kim, M. (2022). Reimagining sport/leisure workplace design and management: conceptualizing
sport/leisure employee growth. Managing Sport and Leisure, 1-17.
Michaelson, C. (2021). A normative meaning of meaningful work. Journal of Business Ethics, 170(3), 413-428.
Michaelson, C., Pratt, M. G., Grant, A. M., & Dunn, C. P. (2014). Meaningful work: Connecting business ethics and organization
studies. Journal of Business Ethics, 121(1), 77-90.

PUBLISHER
Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split
EDITORS
Matija Mato Škerbić
Goran Gabrilo
Emily Ryall
ISBN 978-953-7988-07-4