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Nordic Social Work Research
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rnsw20
Consequences of COVID-19 for victims of domestic
violence in calls to the Finnish national Nollalinja
helpline
J. Hietamäki, E. Hyväri, O. Kekkonen & E. Niklander
To cite this article: J. Hietamäki, E. Hyväri, O. Kekkonen & E. Niklander (17 Dec 2023):
Consequences of COVID-19 for victims of domestic violence in calls to the Finnish national
Nollalinja helpline, Nordic Social Work Research, DOI: 10.1080/2156857X.2023.2288919
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/2156857X.2023.2288919
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa
UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
Group.
Published online: 17 Dec 2023.
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Consequences of COVID-19 for victims of domestic violence in
calls to the Finnish national Nollalinja helpline
J. Hietamäki
a,b
, E. Hyväri
c
, O. Kekkonen
c
and E. Niklander
a
a
Competence Cluster for Violence Prevention Work, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland;
b
Faculty of Social Sciences and Business Studies, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland;
c
Faculty of Social
Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
ABSTRACT
Domestic violence (DV) is a serious social and global problem and
a human rights violation, and DV is exacerbated during periods of
social crisis. This study elucidates how COVID-19 has aected life
circumstances, changes in experienced violence, and seeking and
receiving help through public services, using data from calls placed
to the national Nollalinja helpline. The data are based on anonymous
Nollalinja service tracking from April 2020 to December 2020. During
that period, Nollalinja encountered 170 COVID-19 related DV calls. We
identied four themes in the relationship between DV and COVID-19:
(1) isolation and strained conditions; (2) escalation of violence; (3)
diculties and prolongation to seek help; (4) diculties and prolon-
gation obtaining help. The results were also interpreted by using an
ecological model. At the individual level, COVID-19 and its associated
restrictions aected emotions and increased problems. At the relation-
ship level, the consequences were noticeably more time spent with
the perpetrator of DV, increased exposure to the violence, and
decreased opportunities to obtain help. At the community level, the
consequences were prolongation and diculties obtaining help. At
the societal level, the restrictive measures and recommendations to
minimize the transmission of COVID-19 increased the severity of DV in
society at large. These results highlight important observations about
points of weakness in the services during the pandemics. These nd-
ings can be used to help improve the training for professionals,
services and the provision of aid for victims of DV during and after
the social crisis.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 22 October 2022
Accepted 22 November 2023
KEYWORDS
Domestic violence; intimate
partner violence; COVID-19;
helpline; hotline
Introduction
Domestic violence (DV) is a global social and public health problem, and it has been labelled the
shadow pandemic of the COVID-19 pandemic (UN Women 2020). Societal crises such as pan-
demics, natural disasters, wars, and economic crises are linked to the exacerbation of DV, including
violence against women and children (VAW/C) (Catani et al. 2008; Cerna-Turoff et al. 2021;
Mannell et al. 2022, Rieger et al. 2022; Thurston, Stöckl, and Ranganathan 2021).
DV and VAW/C have increased during the pandemic, according to many studies (Campbell
2020; Sánchez et al. 2020; Toseeb 2022). Petermann et al. (2020) found that there were differences
between the studies in terms of whether the results indicated that VAW/C had decreased, increased,
CONTACT J. Hietamäki johanna.hietamaki@thl.fi
NORDIC SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
https://doi.org/10.1080/2156857X.2023.2288919
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. The terms on which this article has been published allow
the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
or had not changed (also Ivandic, Kirchmaier, and Linton 2021). But research evidence that
violence is exacerbated among people who have experienced intimate partner violence (IPV)
appears to be consistent (Hamadani et al. 2020; Hietamäki et al. 2022; Näsi and Kolttola 2021;
Perez-Vincent et al. 2020).
In Finland, the prevalence of DV had not changed when reviewed using a crime victim survey,
but some of those who had experienced IPV reported that the COVID-19 pandemic had exacer-
bated emotional and controlling violence (Näsi and Kolttola 2021). However, DV experienced by
children increased in Finland (Hietamäki et al. 2022). Furthermore, IPV became more severe for
those parents who had experienced IPV before the pandemic (Hietamäki et al. 2022.) Calls to
helpline Nollalinja decreased generally during the Emergency Powers Legislation period, but the
proportion of calls about intimate partner violence and psychological violence increased
(Tuominen et al. 2022). Based on the results presented above, the COVID-19 pandemic appears
to have led to a worsening of IPV and to increased DV experienced by children in Finland.
Finland enforced the Emergency Powers Act between March 17th and June 15th in 2020.
Physical distancing, face masks, quarantine and limited access to certain services were some of
the measures taken intended to decrease the infection rate. Distance learning was introduced into
schools, remote work was encouraged, social services decreased in-person meetings and unneces-
sary health service appointments were postponed while the health workers were redirected to treat
people with severe COVID-19 symptoms.
The COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions and recommendations broadly affected
people’s lives, work, public services, and communities. It impacted negatively on income and
working life, and increased women’s financial dependency on their partners, relatives, or friends.
Furthermore, a negative impact on mental health and increased anxiety and stress (Mesiäislehto
et al. 2022.). Access to social and health services became more difficult during the COVID-19
pandemic (Romakkaniemi et al. 2021).
The COVID-19 pandemic has also affected the lives of DV victims. Some explanations have been
offered as to how pandemics and other social crises are related to the increase and exacerbation of
DV and VAW/C. Petermann et al. (2020) found nine direct or indirect pathways linking pandemics
to VAW/C: (1) economic insecurity and poverty-related stress; (2) quarantines and social isolation;
(3) disaster- and conflict-related unrest and instability; (4) exposure to exploitative relationships
due to changing demographics; (5) reduced health care service availability and access to first
responders; (6) inability of women to temporarily escape abusive partners; (7) virus-specific sources
of violence; (8) exposure to violence and coercion in response efforts; and (9) violence perpetrated
against health care workers (Cerna-Turoff et al. 2021; Petermann et al. 2020). These pathways can
be associated with mental health problems and trauma (Petermann et al. 2020; Thurston, Stöckl,
and Ranganathan 2021). The above-mentioned pathways have similarities with the pathways
defined by Thurston et al. (2021), who found three hypothesised pathways linking VAW/C during
disasters and post-disasters: (1) increase of stressors that trigger violence (e.g. housing insecurity,
economic insecurity, trauma, mental health problems, unemployment, lack of social support); (2)
increase in enabling environments for violence (e.g. risky post-disaster housing environments,
insecure living conditions); and (3) exacerbation of underlying drivers of violence (e.g. gender
inequalities and worsened social norms). Understanding the mechanisms underlying these
dynamics will help develop methods for mitigating these adverse effects. Domestic violence may
have persisted long before the victim seeks help; help-seeking may have many barriers, such as
increased violence severity, fear of consequences, feelings of shame, lack of knowledge about
available services, and language barriers (e.g. Lelaurain, Graziani, and Lo Monaco 2017).
Petermann et al. 2020 explain that fear, insecurity, and control associated with pandemics
create an environment that can exacerbate and trigger various forms of violence during the
pandemic or crisis period. The increase of violence is linked to economic insecurity, pan-
demic-related instability and unrest, quarantine and social isolation, difficulties escaping from
a violent family member, reduced access to social and health care services, virus-specific
2J. HIETAMÄKI ET AL.
sources of violence, exposure to violence and coercive violence (Campbell 2020; Petermann
et al. 2020; Petersson and Hansson 2022). The restrictions, such as stay-at-home recommen-
dations, have had a substantial effect on the environmental factors that led to unintended
consequences for the victims of DV (Ivandic, Kirchmaier, and Linton 2021; Petersson and
Hansson 2022; Rieger et al. 2022). The home has been found as an unsafe place for victims of
DV during the pandemic (Petersson and Hansson 2022; Sanchez et al., 2020).
The results from research related to the COVID-19 pandemic and DV reported that the COVID-
19 pandemic contributed the incidence of IPV, increasing controlling, mental, and financial
violence compared to pre-pandemic (Näsi and Kolttola 2021; Morgan and Boxall 2020; Sánchez
et al. 2020). During COVID-19-related restrictions, financial stress was connected with increased
DV overall and especially psychological violence (Arenas-Arroyo, Fernández-Kranz, and
Nollenberger 2020; Tuominen et al. 2022). Furthermore, sexual, and physical violence increased
when the partner was quarantined (Perez-Vincent et al. 2020). In addition, gendered violence, such
as femicide, increased during the pandemic (Standish & Weil 2021). After lockdown, the frequency
DV-related Google searches increased in many countries (Berniell and Facchini 2021).
Fear of contagion of COVID-19 has been used as a tool for control, giving an excuse to keep the
partner isolated at home, away from outdoor activities, social contacts, help and use of services, and
working and studying outside of the home (Nenonen et al. 2022; Sánchez et al. 2020). Perpetrators
have also created idiosyncratic COVID-19 rules to punish their victims and force them to follow
COVID-19 instructions (Nenonen et al. 2022). Victims of DV have reported difficulties accessing
services because the abuser was at home due to COVID-19 lockdown restrictions, and DV help
services had limited availability (Hietamäki et al. 2021; Husso et al. 2021).
Research related to DV helplines in the context of COVID-19 frequently assess the trends in
calls. Many countries have reported a substantial increase in the number of calls (Ghoshal 2020,
Petrowski et al. 2021; Viero et al. 2021). Perez-Vincent et al. (2020) found that calls increased by
32% following COVID-19 mobility restrictions, and most of these additional calls were related to
psychological violence (also Tuominen et al. 2022). However, the results are mixed; reports indicate
that calls to helplines related to violence have increased in some countries and decreased in others
(Petrowski et al. 2021). The research about how COVID-19 has affected DV and access to help is
limited using the data from low threshold helpline against DV. This article aims to address this gap.
More specifically, we aim to investigate the effects of COVID-19 on DV and access to services.
We examine how COVID-19 has affected the life situations, changes in experienced violence, and
seeking and obtaining help through social and health services. Our research provides insight into
how individuals seeking help for DV describe and experience the effects of COVID-19 on DV and
access to related services.
The Nollalinja helpline
In 2015, Finland ratified the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence
against Women and Domestic Violence (the Istanbul Convention). All of the Nordic countries and
most other European countries have ratified the Istanbul Convention (The Council of Europe
2022). The article 24 requires the signatories to have a national, available 24/7, free-of-charge
helpline for the victims of VAW and DV. The state took responsibility to fund Nollalinja using
victim surcharges levied on offenders. The Nollalinja helpline is organized by the Finnish Institute
for Health and Welfare (THL). The service is provided by the NGO Setlementti Tampere. There are
also other helplines for the victims of violence against women (e.g. Women’s Line, Crisis Center
Monika’s helpline) in Finland. Nollalinja is the only helpline open 24/7.
Nollalinja is a helpline for the victims of VAW and DV or a threat to either, their close ones, and
professionals. The helpline was launched in December 2016, and it is based on a lengthy interna-
tional and national development process (Hietamäki et al. 2020). Nollalinja professionals offer help
NORDIC SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 3
in Finnish, Swedish, and English; furthermore, other languages are available using the interpreta-
tion service.
The Nollalinja helpline received 19,349 calls in 2020, with an average of 52.9 calls per day. The
number of incoming calls increased from previous years (Hietamäki et al. 2020). In the spring of
2020, the COVID-19 pandemic – related restrictions were the most extensive, help-seeking from
Nollalinja decreased approximately 100–200 fewer calls per month. After the strictest stay-at-home
restrictions were lifted in June 2020, the number of calls reached a record high throughout the rest
of the year. The need for help seemed to accumulate (Hietamäki et al. 2021). In 2021, the number of
calls decreased in the Nollalinja and other helplines (e.g. Women’s Line and Crisis Center Monika
Helpline) (Hietamäki et al. 2021, 2022) and also in Swedish helpline Kvinnofridslinjen (NCK 2022).
The changes in the number of calls and the increase in remote work were responded to by
opening the Nollalinja chat service. Through the chat, the Nollalinja service became more accessible
in situations where it was not safe for the victim to call the helpline.The chat service was launched
with separate funding at the end of March 2021.
Methodology
The research is based on data received from the anonymous Nollalinja service tracking form. THL is
responsible for tracking and reporting calls placed to Nollalinja. The staff at Nollalinja are
responsible for completing an anonymous electronic service tracking form to report on the
operation and activity on Nollalinja. The service tracking form is completed based on the issues
raised by the caller. The form is structured and includes some open-ended questions. The struc-
tured questions are related to, for example, the role of the caller; to whom the violence was directed;
who was the perpetrator; the gender of the victim and the perpetrator; the forms, duration, and
consequences of the violence; whether you have sought help before, and if so, from which services;
and what kind of help you were referred to. The research plan was approved by the Ethical
Committee of THL.
Starting from April 2020, two open questions were added to the anonymous service tracking
form regarding the COVID-19 pandemic. One question concerns the experiences of the impact of
the pandemic on household violence: ‘How did the caller describe the effects of the COVID-19
pandemic and its control measures (e.g. generally, effect on violence, perpetrator threatening with
virus infection, difficulty leaving home)?’ Another question concerns the help and support provided
to the caller: ‘How did the staff respond and give support about the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g.
effects on conversation with the user, directing towards services, providing information on shelters
to professionals)?’. Identifiable details in the entries were anonymized for this article.
The full data set contained a total of 7763 service tracking forms concerning instances of DV
gathered between April 1 and 31 December 2020. The callers to the Nollalinja helpline who placed
COVID-19-related DV calls (N = 170) were mostly victims of DV (94%). The other callers were
a close person (e.g. family member, friend; 5%), professional (1%) and perpetrator (8%). In most
cases (80%), the perpetrator of the violence was a partner (former or current partner or dating
partner). The other perpetrators were parents (9%), children (5%), other family member or relative
(6%), or another person (7%). Emotional violence (83%) was the most frequently raised type of
violence in the discussions. Threats of violence (39%); physical (39%), financial (13%), and sexual
(9%) violence; neglect (7%); persecution (5%); exposure to violence (4%); and structural violence
(3%) were also discussed.
The data was imported from SPSS to an Excel spreadsheet, in which the first revisions were
made. The calls in which COVID-19 was discussed (N = 170) were selected for analysis. The content
of the entries was analysed by thematic content analysis (Braun and Clarke 2006). The descriptions
about the calls are interpretations by the staff based on the conversations with the caller. First, the
data was read through carefully. The researchers discussed the first observations and planned the
steps of the thematic analysis. In the first round of analysis, two main themes were identified from
4J. HIETAMÄKI ET AL.
the data: (1) descriptions of COVID-19-related violence, and (2) descriptions of changed life
circumstances and seeking help from services due to the pandemic. These two categories were
then further examined. One researcher examined the theme of COVID-19 related violence and
another researcher the second theme of changed life circumstances and services. The researchers
identified and named more specific themes. The observations were then again discussed. The data
was thematically rearranged with four main themes, which included descriptions about strained
conditions, COVID-19-related violence, help-seeking, and services. With further examination of
the themes related to changes caused by COVID-19, it was found that the themes intertwine and
intersect gradually, which suggests that they impact one another. COVID-19 has formed
a relationship between strained conditions, violence, and simultaneously, difficulties in seeking
and obtaining help from services.
These four themes were further interpreted by utilizing an ecological model and shifting the
perspective to the ecological framework to understand the multifaced nature of DV (see Krug et al.
2002). The themes formed in the analysis and their content were rearranged in the context of the
ecological model to interpret the changes caused by COVID-19 at different levels of society. The
ecological model has been used to broaden understanding how restriction measures and the various
consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g. financial difficulties, increased substance use) have
affected DV and access to help (e.g. Murhula, Singh, and Myende 2021; Sánchez et al. 2020; Rieger
et al. 2022). The ecological model has been used to better understand the complex nature of
violence; the ecological model of DV explores the complex interplay between individual, relation-
ship, community, and societal factors on DV.
The eects of the COVID-19 pandemic for victims of domestic violence
Four themes were identified in the calls to Nollalinja relating to DV and COVID-19, all of
which intersect with one another (Figure 1). The themes are (1) isolation and strained
Figure 1. The impact of COVID-19 on the life circumstances of people experiencing domestic violence (DV), on the impacts on DV,
on help-seeking, and on access to services.
NORDIC SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 5
conditions due to COVID-19 and DV; (2) escalation of violence during COVID-19; (3)
difficulties and prolongation to seek help due to COVID-19; and (4) difficulties and
prolongation obtaining help in services during COVID-19. Together, these factors compli-
cate the overall situation of the victim of DV relative to pre-pandemic. The COVID-19
pandemic has created additional difficulties; for example, the victims of DV experienced
more intense levels of violence while health and social services simultaneously become less
accessible.
Isolation and strained conditions due to COVID-19 and domestic violence
According to calls to Nollalinja, the COVID-19 pandemic caused strained conditions for victims of
DV. The pandemic and its associated restrictive measures have increased time spent at home,
caused strains in relationships, brought financial difficulties, and made leaving home more difficult.
Receiving help and support from friends and family decreased in many situations for victims of DV,
causing them to experience feelings of anxiety, fear, and loneliness.
The pandemic strained the lives of victims of violence by increasing stressors and time spent at
home due to remote working, unemployment, and decreased access to public spaces. Increased time
spent at home has led to greater tension in relationships and caused more disputes. One caller
described that being made to work from home has prevented the possibility of ‘taking a breath’ from
a high-tension situation. Increased time spent at home in many descriptions was related to
increased alcohol consumption, increased disputes, and increased threatening situations.
During the spring of COVID-19, the husband has been working at home and there have been more
threatening situations because of that.
The pandemic has increased involuntary time spent together, alcohol/substance abuse, and threat of violence.
As the stressors increased, COVID-19-related movement and travel restrictions made it more
difficult for victims to escape violent situations. In cases when the victim was in quarantine, it
was even more difficult to leave home and escape from threatening situations. Some callers had
contacted Nollalinja because their usual safety net was unavailable due to travel restrictions; in these
cases, callers had been directed to a shelter.
COVID-19 made it more difficult to access safety net from Uusimaa area. (to other parts of Finland)
Caller and perpetrator at home due to quarantine.
Financial difficulties had also strained the situations of victims. One caller described that financial
difficulties led to more tension and introduced a financial power imbalance in the relationship.
Financial difficulties and increased time spent at home are often described with increased threat of
violence.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the spouse has been unemployed, financial assets are running low, relation-
ship and communication is getting more tense and use of alcohol has increased. Caller experiences intensified
fears and financial responsibilities.
COVID-19 has caused great financial difficulties and partner has caused threat of violence in the family.
Callers also described changes in living arrangements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as
the prolonged separation process. In these cases, the victim and the perpetrator had remained or
been ‘trapped’ in the same residence. In some situations, separation processes had been prolonged
due to difficulties in obtaining a residence, which had effectively forced the victim and perpetrator
to live together. According to one caller, the perpetrator had stayed at the victim’s residence because
of the pandemic. Another caller described the emergence of violence after having moved into
shared housing due to the pandemic.
Because of COVID-19, the perpetrator has stayed at the victim’s residence. (although the decision was to
divorce)
6J. HIETAMÄKI ET AL.
The callers also described decreased resources and burdening emotions caused by the
pandemic. In particular, decreased help and social support to victim from friends and
family was a recurring theme. Lack of social support led to an increase in experiences of
anxiety, loneliness, fear of abandonment, and insecurity. Some callers described that vio-
lence-related traumatic memories were recalled because of the pandemic and increased
loneliness.
COVID-19 is making it difficult to reconnect with friends and family. Being left alone is causing anxiety.
Escalation of violence during COVID-19
Callers described violence as being exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic and talked about the
escalation of violence. Constant cohabitation with the perpetrator was reported to have prolonged
and exacerbated situations of conflict. In particular, emotional violence, controlling behaviours, and
placing undue blame on the victim in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic were recurrent themes
that emerged from the data. Even if the victim was not physically in the same residence as the
perpetrator, the victim may have been isolated from social supports and may, therefore, have been
more vulnerable to violence (e.g. digital and psychological violence).
The perpetrator has blamed the victim for exposure to COVID-19 because the victim still works outside of the home.
[The caller] is under constant threat of emotional violence because husband is at home due COVID-19.
The COVID-19 pandemic was described as having increasing impact on controlling behaviour. The
exploitation of the COVID-19 pandemic as a tool for control emerged in several calls to the Nollalinja
helpline, and COVID-19 was used to justify preventing the victim from mobilizing freely, engaging in
leisure activities, working, and seeing family and friends. On the one hand, pandemic-related restrictions
on movement were used as a reason to prevent any departure from the residence. On the other hand, the
perpetrator could be forced to leave the shared home, leaving the victim alone when the restrictions
closed off public spaces. In some cases, coercive control was used when the victim was required to care for
and bring food to the at-risk perpetrator, which also exposed the victim to increased emotional violence
in caregiving situations. In some reports, the partner’s jealousy was reduced when pandemic-related
restrictions prevented them from leaving their residence.
Using COVID-19 as an excuse, other parent is refusing child – parent meetings.
Controlling partner does not allow meeting other people because of COVID-19.
The changes in families’ financial situations caused by the COVID-19 pandemic were described as
having increased the risk for financial violence. The systematic non-payment and extortion of
maintenance payments emerged as a trend in the data. Poor financial circumstances were exploited
for coercive control and power by perpetrator.
Previous partner is using financial abuse and refusing to pay child support.
Challenging times financially, partner is taking advantage of the situation because caller had lost the job.
COVID-19 caused financial difficulties and threats of violence in the family.
Disagreements on COVID-19 and associated hygiene guidelines were the source of several conflicts.
In some cases, deliberate failure to follow hygiene instructions was used as an instrument for
violence, which was perceived as a form of psychological violence in situations where the victim was
in constant fear of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Dispute over sloppy handwashing by partner.
Caller has been assaulted and accused for ‘using the mask incorrectly’. This has caused shock, fear, and guilt.
NORDIC SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 7
Difficulties and prolongation to seek help due to COVID-19
Getting help at the height of the crisis was not entirely straightforward. Even though social and
health services were open, the pandemic made it difficult to access services. Increased time spent
together at home increased the risk of conflict and made it more difficult to access help. Restrictions
on mobility and increased teleworking due to the pandemic made it possible to place the victim
under constant surveillance by the perpetrator, thereby increasing the difficulty of seeking help.
Fear of contracting COVID-19 also emerged as a barrier to seeking help. Especially for victims at
risk of COVID-19, the fear of infection can make it much more difficult to seek safety. Victims of
violence had to weigh the consequences of violence against the possible consequences of COVID-19
infection. Fear of infection had also prevented some of them from reporting and intervening in an
acute violence situation for fear of infection. In exceptional circumstances, heightened fears, lone-
liness, and difficulty accessing one’s support and safety networks have, in some situations, increased
the difficulty of leaving a violent relationship.
Caller says that she/he is cannot leave to shelter because she/he is in an at-risk COVID-19 group.
Caller reluctant to leave violent relationship because caller would be completely alone.
Even minor flu can restrict access to services. Although shelters quickly organized quarantine
facilities for exposed or at-risk individuals once the COVID-19 pandemic began, in some situations
users with the flu did not dare to seek services while waiting for a negative test result, for example.
Flu symptoms exposed them to prolonged potentially violent situations when access to public
services was prevented. Being at risk or having flu symptoms may also have made it difficult to seek
help from shelters, especially in the early stages of the pandemic. In addition, access to help from
relatives may have been reduced, which may have made it more difficult to access public services.
The caller is sick and must stay home while waiting for COVID-19 test results. The threat of violence is
present.
The caller said she/he would not be admitted to the shelter because of a cold, even though the COVID-19 test
was negative. The caller said she/he was instructed to get a medical certificate.
The COVID-19 is a major social crisis with respect to ongoing barriers against seeking and
accessing help for DV situations. Victims are forced to choose which crisis poses a greater threat
and adapt accordingly.
[Caller experienced] isolation tightened the situation and caller told [to Nollalinja that] they will seek help
after COVID-19 is over.
Difficulties and prolongation obtaining help in services during COVID-19
Several calls described how the COVID-19 pandemic had reduced their access to services. This
deterioration in access to services was particularly evident in the descriptions of callers who had
been receiving services before the pandemic began. Many different forms of support and care
relationships were placed on hold due to the pandemic. The data described interruptions in service
contacts and delays in resolution processes.
Interruptions in sources of psychological support, such as therapy, was reported by callers to
have caused a decrease in well-being and psychological functioning. Face-to-face meetings were
replaced by remote meetings, which in some cases was perceived as a factor undermining the
quality of assistance received. The interruptions in usual psychological care led to intensified
feelings of loneliness and was perceived as particularly harmful in situations in which a person
had a history of a traumatic events. These interruptions led to experiences of abandonment and
undermined the trust built in the care relationship.
8J. HIETAMÄKI ET AL.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the treatment relationship [. . .] was interrupted for a long time and the
condition deteriorated radically during this period.
Therapy has been put on hold during the COVID-19 pandemic. For the traumatised caller, it has been a strong
experience of rejection and has undermined [. . .] the building of trust with the therapist.
The callers also described lengthy court proceedings, mediation situations, custody cases, and police
investigations. Some calls described delays and interruptions in family and social work. In some
cases, children were also not consulted or appointments were postponed in processes concerning
them. In addition, there had been interruptions in usual services provided by DV help professionals,
according to the callers.
Custody cases were prolonged because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
In the case of the circumstances report [concerning custody and visiting rights], the children’s hearing was not
held and was postponed.
Ecological model and domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic
We used the ecological model as a framework to interpreting and organizing the results in this
research (Figure 2). The ecological model of DV is a widely used approach to understand how the
complex interplay between individual, relationship, community, and societal factors on DV.
Individual-level factors include characteristics of the individual that increase the likelihood of
being a victim or perpetrator of violence. The second level of the ecological model examines the
ways in which social relationships in the immediate community, such as relationships with
a partner or with family members, contribute to the risk of becoming a victim or a perpetrator of
violence. Factors at the community level include the contexts in which social relations develop,
seeking to identify the characteristics of a victim or perpetrator of violence. Factors at the societal
level include broad social factors that influence the level of violence (e.g. health, economic and social
policies, cultural norms) (Belsky 1980; Krug et al. 2002).
In our study, the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic at the individual level are reported as an
increase in burdening emotions such as anxiety, fear, and loneliness, as well as reacting to past
traumatic memories. Situations for victims of violence were also burdened by financial strain and
increased alcohol and substance use, as well as an increase in the frequency of threatening behaviour
by the perpetrator. Increased stressors at the individual level appear as risk factors for DV.
From the perspective of relationships, the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the amount of
time spent at home and limited opportunities for leaving the residence. In some situations where
the partners live together, increased time spent together has increased the frequency and severity of
disputes and created a more threatening environment. Opportunities for ‘taking a breath’ outside
the home diminished along with remote working and limited access to public spaces.
The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated and increased the frequency of DV. Particularly, coercive
control, isolation, and victim-blaming seem to be highlighted forms of violence during the
pandemic. The deteriorating economic situation has highlighted the forms of economic violence.
Also, when isolated, there was an increased risk of exposure to digital violence. Restrictions and
recommendations related to COVID-19 were reportedly used as a tool to exert control; for example,
by preventing work, social relationships, and movement outside of the residence. On the other
hand, as activities outside the home decreased, some callers described reduced control by the
perpetrator. Decreased support from friends and family and the inability to utilize usual safety nets
had complicated the situations of victims of DV. Lack of social support increased experiences of
anxiety, and loneliness and made it more difficult to leave home.
At the community level, access to help from social and health services was restricted.
Contacts with services had weakened for those who had been receiving help from services
prior to the COVID-19 pandemic for those who had been receiving help from these services
prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, according to some callers, there were
NORDIC SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 9
interruptions in their usual mental health services (e.g. counselling). At the same time,
opportunities to seek help decreased. As a result of the pandemic, seeking help was delayed,
with some callers planning to seek help once the pandemic was over. Recommendations for
remote working and studying, as well as the restrictions of public spaces and leisure
activities, reduced communal activities outside the home. Studies identified relationships
to communities and social networks as a key factor for reducing loneliness and leaving
a violent relationship (Goodman & Epstein 2022).
At the societal level, the lives of DV victims were affected by restriction measures of public
spaces, movement, and travel; recommendations for keeping distance and avoiding close contact;
and remote working and studying recommendations. Following the recommendations had
increased the amount of time spent at home and caused straining situations in families and
relationships. Society-wide infection prevention recommendations can also be abused by perpe-
trator by justifying control and isolation.
Conclusions
Data from the Nollalinja helpline described callers’ experiences about how COVID-19 had
affected the lives of DV victims and their experiences surrounding getting help for DV, as
written by Nollalinja professionals. The callers to Nollalinja were predominantly victims of DV,
Figure 2. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence (DV) and access to help in an ecological framework.
10 J. HIETAMÄKI ET AL.
but calls were also received from friends or family of the DV victim, from social and health care
professionals, and from the perpetrators themselves.
According to the calls, the stressful conditions that arose because of COVID-19, such as
decreased socialization and reduced opportunities to leave home, increased the threat and
occurrence of violence, as well as increased insecurity, fear, and loneliness. The results from
our research support the idea that COVID-19 and conditions related to it have exacerbated DV
through stress, financial insecurity, and social isolation, as Petermann et al. (2020) described.
The callers to Nollalinja highlighted unemployment and alcohol problems of the perpetrator.
The stress and isolation became stressors that increased the likelihood of DV, as other
researchers have corroborated (Petermann et al. 2020; Thurston, Stöckl, and Ranganathan
2021).
Psychological violence during the COVID-19 pandemic was perceived to have increased
based on the data (also Tuominen et al. 2022). Control of the victim was perceived to be
easier than pre-pandemic, and control of movement and work was justified by the limita-
tions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic and threats of COVID-19 infection (also
Morgan and Boxall 2020; Petersson and Hansson 2022; Sánchez et al. 2020). Pandemics
have also been used as an opportunity for violence, such as when perpetrators have created
idiosyncratic pandemic-related rules to punish the victim and force the victim to follow
mandated pandemic-related instructions (Nenonen et al. 2022). The perpetrator can isolate
the victim by limiting opportunities for the victim to report the situation and to seek help,
based on the calls placed to the Nollalinja helpline. COVID-19 has created an environment
that renders this kind of violence more evident (also Nenonen et al., 2021; Women’s Aid
2020). Increased possibilities for control and surveillance by the partner can also reduce the
opportunities for seeking help (Campbell 2020; Husso et al. 2021; Women’s Aid 2020).
Our results indicate that access to social and health services and assistance was threa-
tened in many ways throughout the pandemic. Appointments with social work and mental
health professionals for people experiencing violence were postponed or cancelled. The
disruption of regular therapy sessions caused significant harm and deterioration in psycho-
logical well-being. The postponement of various case management processes caused an
increased workload (e.g. court processes, custody cases, police investigations, social work
proceedings). Other studies corroborate our finding that help service availability was limited
for victims of DV – and for all people – during the COVID-19 pandemic (Husso et al.
2021; Romakkaniemi et al. 2021; Women’s Aid 2020).
Minorities may meet even much more challenges to get help (Hulley et el. 2023).
Intersections of race, gender, disability and age affect the ways how COVID-19 affected
DV and access to help. Even though in calls made to Nollalinja helpline the challenges
faced by minorities are not seen, other research shows that these issues have been experi-
enced and considered in other violence intervention services in Finland (Husso et al. 2021).
DV experienced by migrants and disabled people have intensified during the pandemic
while structural barriers reduce access to help (Elbelassy et al. 2023; Husso et al. 2021;
Toseeb 2022)
In turn, seeking help was rendered increasingly difficult by factors related to COVID-19 (e.g. fear
of contracting COVID-19, flu symptoms) and by factors related to COVID-19 restrictions (e.g.
increased time spent at home and in the presence of the perpetrator). Regarding the use of shelter
services, the number of families in shelters decreased, especially among families with children,
during the COVID-19 pandemic (Hietamäki et al. 2022).
The results of our research were also interpreted using the ecological model of DV helped us to
better understand the complex and deteriorating situations. At the societal level, restrictive mea-
sures and recommendations to prevent the spread of COVID-19 affected the lives of DV victims
making life more serious for those who have experienced DV (also; Murhula, Singh, and Myende
2021; Petersson and Hansson 2022).
NORDIC SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 11
Discussion
The Social Welfare Act requires that social services, such as social work, must be organized for
people who have experienced DV. But violence is not systematically considered in social work
(Jaakola 2020). Those who have experienced IPV were more dissatisfied with social services
compared to those who have not experienced IPV. DV results in the need for social work and
other social services (Siltala et al. 2023.).
Professionals in social work and other services needs more understanding how fear,
uncertainty and absence of control associated with social crises (e.g. pandemics, wars)
forms an environment that can exacerbate and trigger various forms of violence
(Petermann et al. 2020). There is a need to improve access to social work and the provision
of help for victims of DV, particularly during and after periods of social crisis. Supportive
relationships for victims of DV are essential especially when public restrictive measures
include recommendations for social distancing and isolation. Suggested strategies are routine
inquiry for the presence of IPV in social work, training to recognize signs of DV and
consequences of DV, skills to support victims of DV and understanding how societal crises
affect DV. There are also suggestions to the development of mobile applications to seek help
without needing to make phone calls and use code words to alert the operator that the caller
requires help (Kaittila 2017; Neil 2020; Rossi et al. 2020; Viero et al. 2021).
The need to provide training on violence for all social work students as part of their
undergraduate studies is necessary in Finland. It is possible to graduate as a social worker
without having learned a basic knowledge of DV (Niklander, Notko, and Husso 2019). In
Sweden it has been found that training, high self-competence and administrative procedures
increase the likelihood that social workers regularly ask clients about intimate partner violence
(Lundberg and Bergmark 2021). Furthermore, there is the Higher Education Ordinance in
Sweden (Högskoleförordning 1993, 100) and it provides for specific education on violence
against women and on domestic violence for different professional groups, for example social
workers.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
The work was supported by the Parliament of Finland for investigating the social impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Notes on contributors
Johanna Hietamäki PhD, is a senior researcher at the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare. Her recent research is
focused on availability of shelters, cost of domestic violence (DV), impacts of COVID-19 on DV and development of
ACE-questionnaire.
Elli Hyväri M.Soc.Sc. Faculty of Social Science, Tampere University. Her recent research is focused on interpersonal
violence from the perspectives of social and health care services, violence work, and families.
Outi Kekkonen M.Soc.Sc. Faculty of Social Science, Tampere University. She is interested in transnational family
relations and gender based violence.
Elisa Niklander M.Soc.Services from the Laurea University of Applied Sciences and studying Administrative Sciences
at the Faculty of Management, University of Vaasa. She is working at the Finnish Institute for Health. Her research
deals with organizing the shelter services in Finland.
12 J. HIETAMÄKI ET AL.
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