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Predicting competitive integrated employment outcomes of Asian American vocational rehabilitation Clients: A national study

Authors:

Abstract

Purpose The current study investigated the relationships between demographic variables, cash benefits, vocational rehabilitation (VR) services, and employment outcomes of Asian Americans VR clients. Methods The data were extracted from the most recent Rehabilitation Service Administration database (RSA‐911). Among 17,278 case services records, 5784 clients met the inclusion criteria. Chi‐square automatic interaction detector and logistic regression analyses were employed to investigate the employment outcomes. Results The results indicated that Asian American clients who have completed a bachelor's degree or more do not receive disability‐related benefits, and those who received more VR services were more likely to achieve competitive integrated employment (CIE). In addition, VR counseling and job placement services were significant predictors of employment outcomes. Conclusions These findings provide valuable insights into the factors influencing CIE among Asian American VR clients with disabilities. The results further underscore the importance of VR professionals possessing cultural competence to effectively serve a diverse clientele.
Received: 5 June 2023 Revised: 2 November 2023 Accepted: 27 November 2023
DOI: 10.1111/ssqu.13323
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Predicting competitive integrated employment
outcomes of Asian American vocational
rehabilitation Clients: A national study
Cahit Kaya1Jina Chun2Ayse Torres3Roy K. Chen4
1Department of Educational Sciences, Harran
University, ¸Sanlıurfa, Turkey
2Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and
Special Education, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
3Department of Counselor Education, Florida
Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, USA
4School of Rehabilitation Services and Counseling,
University of Texas-Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg,
Texas, USA
Correspondence
Cahit Kaya, Department of Educational Sciences,
Harran University, ¸Sanlıurfa, Turkey.
Email: rehber.cahit@gmail.com
Abstract
Purpose: The current study investigated the relationships
between demographic variables, cash benefits, vocational reha-
bilitation (VR) services, and employment outcomes of Asian
Americans VR clients.
Methods: The data were extracted from the most recent Reha-
bilitation Service Administration database (RSA-911). Among
17,278 case services records, 5784 clients met the inclu-
sion criteria. Chi-square automatic interaction detector and
logistic regression analyses were employed to investigate the
employment outcomes.
Results: The results indicated that Asian American clients
who have completed a bachelor’s degree or more do not
receive disability-related benefits, and those who received more
VR services were more likely to achieve competitive inte-
grated employment (CIE). In addition, VR counseling and job
placement services were significant predictors of employment
outcomes.
Conclusions: These findings provide valuable insights into the
factors influencing CIE among Asian American VR clients with
disabilities. The results further underscore the importance of
VR professionals possessing cultural competence to effectively
serve a diverse clientele.
KEYWORDS
vocational rehabilitation, Asian American, Rehabilitation Service Administra-
tion, vocational rehabilitation counseling and guidance service, job placement
services
Social Science Quarterly. 2023;1–14. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ssqu © 2023 by the Southwestern Social Science Association. 1
2KAYA ET AL.
Rehabilitation researchers have, since 1938, examined the access and participation of racial and ethnic
minorities within the vocational rehabilitation (VR) system (e.g., Atkins and Wright 1980; Capella 2002;
Dziekan and Okocha 1993; Feist-Price 1995; Giesen et al. 2004; Moore 2002; Mwachofi 2008; Olney and
Kennedy 2002; Rosenthal et al. 2005; Wilson 2000; Wilson et al. 2001). Despite various legislative acts and
policy endeavors, the analysis of racial disparities in VR services indicates limited changes over time (Yin
et al. 2021). At the national level, those identifying as White are less likely to apply for VR services than their
African American, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Hispanic counterparts. However, they possess
higher application rates than their Asian counterparts (Yin et al. 2021). Within these racial subgroups, the
White subgroup demonstrates higher eligibility, service utilization, and employment rates compared to
the African American, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Hispanic subgroups, but lower rates than the
Asian subgroup (Yin et al. 2021). Although these disparities are well documented, relatively few studies
have addressed the factors affecting competitive integrated employment (CIE) within specific racial groups
with disabilities. This study focuses on these factors for Asian Americans with disabilities who received
VR services.
The United States is home to 18.6 million Asian Americans, comprising nearly 6 percent of the resident
population (U.S. Census Bureau 2019). Of these, over a million (1,315,999) Asian Americans live with
disabilities, with approximately half (537,908) belonging to the working-age group (Paul et al. 2020). The
number of Asian Americans with disabilities increased from 6.2 percent in 2010 to 7.2 percent in 2019 (U.S.
Census Bureau 2019). While Asian Americans with disabilities have historically displayed high employment
rates, reaching 43.1 percent prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, their employment rates remained lower than
those of Asian Americans without disabilities (Pauli 2022).
The influence of culture on the utilization of rehabilitation services and outcomes is profound. Culture
shapes perceptions of disability, beliefs surrounding the causes of disabilities and rehabilitation services,
and several aspects of help-seeking behavior (Yan et al. 2014). The intersection of disability and Asian cul-
ture can pose unique challenges, as disabilities have historically carried a sense of shame and familial failure
within Asian cultures. This perception often leads to avoidance or refusal of rehabilitation services outside
the family sphere, contributing to comparatively lower rates of Asian Americans applying for VR services
(Yan et al. 2014; Yin et al. 2021). In mental health literature, Asian Americans are often characterized as
challenging to reach within social support systems (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services 2001).
Despite the growing Asian American population in the United States, there is limited research on reha-
bilitation service needs among Asian Americans with disabilities. Most studies on minority status and VR
services have predominantly centered on African Americans with disabilities (e.g., Vryhof and Balzacar
2020). While some research exists on help-seeking intentions among Asian Americans within the mental
health literature (e.g., Lee et al. 2014), few have delved into their utilization of state VR services (Park et al.
2022).
The Asian population is one of the fastest-growing racial groups in the United States, and with
this growth, the number of Asian Americans with disabilities is steadily increasing. It is essential to
recognize that distinct cultural norms, expectations, and challenges can shape their perception of and
engagement with VR services. Enhancing awareness and understanding of the specific issues and service
needs for this racial group is imperative to improving the utility and quality of VR services. Achiev-
ing this goal will help maximize the full inclusion and integration of this racial group into society,
improve their quality of life, psychological well-being, and the effectiveness of VR services. Addressing
this research gap, our study employs a data mining approach to assess demographic variables, service
patterns, and CIE rates of Asian American VR clients. By utilizing the chi-square automatic interaction
detector (CHAID) and purposeful selection multivariate logistic regression analyses, this study endeav-
ors to identify variables influencing employment outcomes for Asian Americans with disabilities who
have received state VR services. In doing so, the study seeks to contribute to a more comprehensive
understanding of the challenges faced by this specific demographic within the VR system, thereby aid-
ing in the formulation of informed strategies for enhancing their employment outcomes and overall
well-being.
Vocational rehabilitation and Asian Americans 3
METHOD
Data source
The data were extracted from the U.S. Department of Education’s Rehabilitation Service Administration
Case Service Report database (RSA-911) for fiscal year 2018. This database comprises administrative data
gathered by each state VR agency on consumers within a specific fiscal year. These case records contain
detailed demographic information regarding demographics, disabilities, type of state VR services, source of
financial support, and employment status at closure. The RSA-911 database serves as a vital repository for
tracking the provision and impact of VR services for individuals with disabilities across the United States.
Periodically, the Department of Education releases aggregated data sets of case records from RSA-911,
offering valuable insights for research and clinical purposes.
For fiscal year 2018, 833,150 VR clients exited the VR system (employed vs. not employed). Although
the duration of provision of the services may vary, VR clients can be provided with different VR services till
they exit the program. Among those, 17,278 VR clients identified themselves as Asian Americans. The cur-
rent study analyzed case records of 5784 clients who met the following inclusion criteria: (a) self-identified
as exclusively Asian American, (b) were aged 16 or older, (c) had received at least one VR service, and
(d) were not employed at the time of application. This study excluded data of clients who identified with
dual racial backgrounds, such as both Asian American and African American were excluded. This decision
was made to focus specifically on the VR experiences and employment outcomes of clients who identified
solely as Asian Americans. The lower age threshold was set at 16, as this aligns with the commencement of
child labor tracking (Roux et al. 2020). Additionally, individuals with any type of employment at the time
of their application were excluded from the analysis. This exclusion allowed us to examine the association
between VR services and the achievement of CIE.
Participants
The study involved 5784 Asian Americans who received VR services. These participants had a mean age of
30.08 years (SD =13.53), with ages ranging from 16 to 82. A majority of the participants were male (59.9
percent), with a high school degree or higher (41.3 percent), and not social security disability beneficiaries
(67.7 percent). The participants exhibited a range of disabilities, with almost all (99 percent) having sig-
nificant disabilities. Significant disabilities are defined as severe physical or mental impairments that limit
functional capacities for employment, necessitating multiple VR services over an extended period. These
disabilities encompassed various chronic illnesses and conditions, including but not limited to arthritis,
autism, brain injuries, neurological disorders, musculoskeletal disorders, and spinal cord conditions. Fur-
ther details about the demographic and disability-related characteristics of the sample are presented in
Tables 1and 2.
Variables
Independent variables
This study had two sets of independent variables: demographic characteristics and receipt of cash bene-
fits and VR services. Demographic characteristics included age (youth, 16–24 years; young adults, 25–39
years; middle-aged, 40–54 years; and seniors, 55 and above), gender (male or female), and education level
(none, high school diploma, some college/associated degree, or bachelor’s degree or higher) at the time
of application. The variable “Receipt of Cash Benefits” referred to whether individuals received Supple-
mental Security Income (SSI) or Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI), with options being either not
receiving SSI or SSDI or receiving SSI or SSDI. Another set of variables included various VR services,
4KAYA ET AL.
TAB L E 1 Demographic characteristics of Asian American vocational rehabilitation (VR) clients.
Asian American
Characteristic/service n%
Age
19–24 2926 50.6
25–39 1469 25.4
40–54 994 17.2
55 or older 395 6.8
Gender
Male 3462 59.9
Fema le 2314 40.0
Education level
No education level was completed 1592 27.5
A secondary school diploma or equivalency, or certificate of
attendance completion
2386 41.3
Postsecondary education or associate degree 945 16.3
Bachelor degree or higher 778 13.5
SSI/SSDI recipient
Yes 1868 32.3
No 3916 67.7
Significant disability
Yes 5728 99.0
No 55 1.0
Abbreviations: SSI, Supplemental Security Income; SSDI, Social Security Disability Insurance.
such as college or university training, occupational training, on-the-job training, registered apprenticeship,
job readiness training, and more. Detailed descriptions of these services can be found in the Reporting
Manual for the Case Service Report (U.S. Department of Education 2020).
Outcome variable
The dependent variable in this study is “competitive integrated employment”. CIE as defined in the RSA-
911 manual is work that can be full-time or part-time, with compensation meeting Fair Labor Standards
Act, state/local minimum wage, or customarily rates for individuals without disabilities. It also includes
self-employment that generates income similar to that of self-employed individuals without disabilities.
Additionally, the worker in CIE must be eligible to receive benefits provided to other employees, and the
work is typically conducted in community-based settings, enabling employees with disabilities to inter-
act with other employees. Moreover, this type of employment offers, as appropriate, opportunities for
advancement.
Data analysis
The current study used a descriptive quantitative correlational design. Preliminary analysis confirmed that
the variables’ correlations remained below 0.80, indicating no multicollinearity among these variables. This
Vocational rehabilitation and Asian Americans 5
TAB L E 2 Cause of disability among Asian American vocational rehabilitation (VR) clients.
Cause of disability n%
Accident or Injury other than TBI or SCI 179 3.1
Alcohol abuse or dependence 29 0.5
Amputations 18 0.3
Anxiety disorders 209 3.6
Arthritis and rheumatism 36 0.6
Asthma and other allergies 11 0.2
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder 178 3.1
Autism 713 12.3
Blood disorders 13 0.2
Cancer 32 0.6
Cardiac and other conditions of the circulatory system 31 0.5
Cerebral palsy 110 1.9
Congenital condition or birth injury 492 8.5
Depressive and other mood disorders 705 12.2
Diabetes mellitus 48 0.8
Digestive 30.1
Drug abuse or dependence other than alcohol 68 1.2
Eating disorders anorexia bulimia or compulsive overeating 1 0.0
End-stage renal disease and other genitourinary system disorders 39 0.7
Epilepsy 43 0.7
HIV and AIDS 13 0.2
Immune deficiencies excluding HIV and AIDS 5 0.1
Mental illness not listed elsewhere 110 1.9
Mental retardation 584 10.1
Multiple sclerosis 70.1
Muscular dystrophy 13 0.2
Parkinson disease and other neurological disorders 17 0.3
Personality disorders 34 0.6
Physical disorders or conditions not listed elsewhere 244 4.2
Polio 46 0.8
Respiratory disorders other than cystic fibrosis or asthma 3 0.1
Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders 409 7.1
Specific learning disabilities 721 12.5
Spinal cord injury 21 0.4
Stroke 57 1.0
Traumatic brain injury 80 1.4
Abbreviations: AIDS, acquired immune deficiency syndrome; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; SSI, Supplemental Security Income; SCI, spinal
cord injury; TBI, traumatic brain injury.
6KAYA ET AL.
study employed CHAID analyses and a multivariate logistic regression with a purposeful selection of vari-
ables to investigate the relationship between the independent variables and CIE. In particular, CHAID
analysis was used to segment demographic variables into homogeneous groups and examine their con-
nection with CIE. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between
demographic variables, cash benefits, VR services, and CIE outcomes. In conducting the regression analy-
sis, we followed Hosmer et al.’s (2013) recommendations for purposefully selecting variables to construct
the most concise and best-fit model, as detailed in Appendix A.
Furthermore, a series of chi-squared tests, t-tests, and one-way analyses of variance were conducted
to examine the relationship between demographic variables and CIE outcomes. Descriptive statistics,
including means, standard deviations, and frequencies of the independent variables, were calculated
to provide an overall profile of the sample and VR services. All analyses were conducted using IBM
SPSS 24.
RESULTS
The results indicated that 41.2 percent of the participants attained CIE following the receipt of VR ser-
vices. Recent research shows that Asian Americans are more likely to achieve competitive employment
than their white and other minority counterparts (Yin et al., 2021). The most frequently provided VR ser-
vices included VR counseling and guidance (93.2 percent), job placement assistance (11.2 percent), and
information and referral services (9.7 percent). Several other VR services were offered to less than 1 per-
cent of the clients, such as graduate college or university training, 4-year college or university training,
junior or community college training, registered apprenticeship training, basic academic remedial or reme-
dial training, disability-related skills training, miscellaneous training, Randolph Sheppard entrepreneurial
training, customized training, customized employment services, extended services, personal assistance ser-
vices, technical assistance services, reader services, and interpreter services. These services were removed
from the further analysis.
On average, the clients stayed in the VR system for 26.73 months (SD =25.10, Mdn =19, range
=0–258) and received 1.79 (SD =1.78, Mdn =1, range =1–15) services. Participants who had CIE
received a greater number of services (M=1.87, SD =1.93) than participants who could not achieve
CIE (M=1.69, SD =1.53; t(5693) =3.87, p<0.001; d=0.10, equal variance not assumed). It is
important to note that the majority of the participants (70.1 percent) received only one VR service. How-
ever, time spent in VR services did not make a significant difference between participants who achieved
CIE (M=26.71, SD =25.59) and who did not achieve CIE (M=26.74, SD =24.76; t(5779) =0.50,
p=0.96).
CHAID analysis was used to determine factors influencing CIE among Asian Americans with disabili-
ties who received VR services. The decision tree in table format is presented in Appendix BTable A1. The
results highlighted that receipt of cash benefits, education level, and age significantly impacted the CIE
of Asian American VR clients. However, gender did not have such an effect. The analysis revealed a false
classification rate of 39.1 percent, consistent with rates reported in prior similar studies (Kaya et al. 2018).
The results indicated that the receipt of SSI/SSDI served as the most significant predictor of CIE. Clients
not receiving SSI/SSDI achieved a competitive employment rate of 45 percent, whereas those receiving
such benefits had a competitive employment rate of 31.6 percent. Furthermore, within the group of clients
not receiving SSI/SSDI cash benefits, those with postsecondary education, associate degrees, or bache-
lor’s degrees of higher had competitive employment rates of 53.4 percent. In contrast, clients with a high
school degree achieved a rate of 47.2 percent, while clients with no formal education achieved a rate of
37.3 percent. Age-wise, among clients without SSI/SSDI, those aged 16–24 had a competitive employ-
ment rate of 43.1 percent, while clients aged 25 or older achieved a rate of 53.8 percent. For clients who
received SSI/SSDI, those with postsecondary education, associate degrees, or bachelor’s degrees or higher
had a competitive employment rate of 37.2 percent, while clients with high school education or no formal
education achieved a rate of 28.7 percent.
Vocational rehabilitation and Asian Americans 7
TAB L E 3 The relationship between significant predictor variables and competitive employment for Asian American with
disability.
Predictors BSE BSig. Odds ratio 95 percent CI
Education level
No education 0.000
High school graduate 0.307 0.069 0.000 1.360 1.188 1.556
Post-secondary education 0.534 0.086 0.000 1.705 1.440 2.019
Bachelors degree or higher 0.593 0.091 0.000 1.809 1.514 2.163
Cash benefits 0.657 0.061 0.000 0.519 0.460 0.584
VR services
Job exploration counseling 0.531 0.246 0.031 0.588 0.363 0.951
Vocational rehabilitation counseling 0.422 0.123 0.001 1.524 1.198 1.940
Supported employment 1.165 0.276 0.000 0.312 0.182 0.536
Counseling on enrollment opportunities 0.640 0.288 0.026 0.527 0.300 0.928
Work-based learning experiences 0.485 0.274 0.076 1.625 0.950 2.780
Job placement assistance 0.231 0.091 0.011 1.260 1.054 1.505
Note: Final model =χ2(10, N=5701) =244.53 p<0.001, The Nagelkerke R2=0.05. Hosmer and Lemeshow =χ2(7, N=5701) =8.92, p=0.25,
n.s.
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; Sig., significance; VR, vocational rehabilitation.
As shown in Table 3, the omnibus test for the final logistic regression model was significant, χ2(10, N=
5701) =244.53 p<0.001, indicating significant relationships between predictor variables and the outcome
variable. Detailed analysis descriptions are available in Appendix C. The Nagelkerke R2of 0.05 indicates a
small effect of predictors on the outcome variable. However, the Hosmer and Lemeshow test, a measure
of goodness of fit, χ2(7, N=5701) =8.92, p=0.25, n.s., confirmed the model’s good fit to the data.
The model accurately classified 60.4 percent of participants into competitively employed and unsuccessful
employment outcome groups.
In particular, Asian American clients with varying levels of education showed differences in their
likelihood of obtaining competitive employment compared to those with no formal education. Clients
with a bachelor’s degree or higher (odds ratio [OR] =1.80, 95 percent confidence interval [CI]: 1.51–
2.16), post-secondary education or associate degree (OR =1.70, 95 percent CI: 1.44–2.01), and a
high school education (OR =1.36, 95 percent CI: 1.18–1.55) had higher odds of obtaining competi-
tive employment. On the other hand, clients receiving SSI/SSDI were less likely to secure competitive
employment (OR =0.51, 95 percent CI: 0.46–0.58) compared to those without disability-related
cash benefits. Specific VR services had the following impact on the odds of obtaining competitive
employment:
Clients receiving VR counseling and guidance services had 1.52 times greater odds (OR =1.52; 95
percent CI: 1.19–1.94) than those without these services.
Clients receiving job placement assistance had 1.26 times greater odds (OR =1.26; 95 percent CI:
1.05–1.50) than those not receiving job placement assistance.
Clients receiving supported employment (SE) services had reduced odds (OR =0.31, 95 percent CI:
0.18–0.53) compared to those without these services.
Clients receiving counseling on enrollment opportunities were less likely to obtain competitive
employment (OR =0.52, 95 percent CI: 0.30–0.92) than those without these services.
Clients receiving job exploration counseling were less likely to obtain competitive employment (OR =
0.58, 95 percent CI: 0.36–0.95) than those without these services.
8KAYA ET AL.
DISCUSSION
Education as a key factor
Our findings underscore the pivotal role of education in determining employment outcomes. As clients’
education levels increased, their likelihood of achieving CIE significantly improved. This result aligns with
prior research, which has consistently shown a positive correlation between higher levels of education
and reduced unemployment rates (Liming and Wolf 2008). Moreover, individuals who received college or
university training through the VR system experienced enhanced CIE outcomes (Gillmore et al. 2001). In
a broader labor market context, the 2020 unemployment rate for individuals with a high school diploma
(9.0 percent) was roughly double that of those with bachelor’s degrees (5.5 percent) (The U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics; BLS 2021). Given that a substantial portion of our study participants (41.3 percent) held
only a high school diploma, while only 29.8 percent had some postsecondary experience or a bachelor’s
degree, our results reaffirm the critical importance of education in achieving competitive employment.
Impact of receiving cash benefits
Receiving cash benefits emerged as a significant differentiating factor between Asian American clients
who achieved competitive employment and those who did not. This finding aligns with extensive research
demonstrating a negative association between cash benefits and employment outcomes (Chan et al. 2006;
Chun et al. 2018; Dutta et al. 2008; Kaya et al. 2018). However, recent research highlights that Asian
Americans with lower levels of education face a heightened risk of job loss compared to their White
counterparts, and they are not necessarily more likely to regain employment (Kim et al. 2021). Therefore,
the convergence of being an Asian American with a disability, having limited education, and receiving
SSI/SSDI may exert a pronounced influence on competitive employment. Additionally, cultural factors
play a role, as Asian Americans may associate seeking financial assistance with vulnerability and familiar
shame (Millner and Kim 2017). Consequently, beneficiaries might be reluctant to jeopardize their hard-
earned benefits (Olney and Lyle 2011). Furthermore, clients receiving SSI/SSDI might experience a higher
degree of disability severity, which can impede functioning and reduce the likelihood of achieving CIE.
Impact of VR services
The number of VR services received emerged as a key predictor of competitive
employment
Our results corroborate earlier research, such as Nord and Hepperlen’s study (2016), which highlighted
the cumulative effect of combining various VR services on employment outcomes. His results showed the
magnitude of increased odds of employment for those receiving two or three job-related services, ranging
from four times greater for those receiving job search and placement services to over 16 times greater for
those receiving job search, job placement, and on-the-job support (Kaya et al. 2021). Notably, our study
demonstrated that 70.1 percent of Asian American clients received only one type of service, predomi-
nantly VR counseling and guidance (received by 93 percent of clients). This highlights the vital role of
developing individualized plans for employment (IPE). Effective vocational planning involves a problem-
solving process that actively engages people with disabilities in needs assessment, information processing,
goal setting, decision making, planning, action, and self-evaluation (Roessler et al. 2018). During the selec-
tion of services for the IPE, counselors should provide expert guidance to help clients select services that
enhance their capability to meet job demands and lessen potential barriers (Roessler et al. 2018). In the
realm of vocational planning, the significance of cultural competence cannot be overstated. It entails not
Vocational rehabilitation and Asian Americans 9
only recognizing the rich tapestry of cultural diversity within the client population but also understanding
and respecting the unique cultural factors, values, and beliefs that influence each individual’s vocational
goals and preferences.
Specific impactful VR services
After controlling the effect of demographic variables, only two services were significantly positively asso-
ciated with CIE: (1) VR counseling and guidance and (2) Job placement service. This finding is consistent
with previous research indicating that Asian American clients who received VR counseling and guidance
and job placement services were more likely to achieve competitive employment (Chun et al. 2018;Lee
et al. 2020). VR counseling and guidance service distinct from general counseling and guidance, addresses
personal, medical, family, social, and vocational barriers that individuals with disabilities may face in achiev-
ing employment outcomes. It also offers an opportunity for clients to develop interpersonal and behavioral
skills (Sung et al. 2015) and may enhance their participation in VR services.
Job placement remains a cornerstone of the rehabilitation process. It was identified as the most influ-
ential predictor of CIE for Asian Americans, regardless of their disability status (Chun et al. 2018;Lee
et al. 2020). Job placement services encompass job development, job search assistance, and connecting
clients with suitable jobs that match their skills and abilities, often involving training, technical support, and
follow-up support (Roessler et al. 2018). Changes in legislation, client expectations, labor market trends,
and business needs have dramatically reshaped how job placement should be provided. In the era of glob-
alization and information technology, job placement requires a new set of competencies for counselors
and practitioners to ensure better employment outcomes for clients with disabilities.
Unlike some previous studies, this study did not identify additional VR services with significant positive
impacts on CIE. This discrepancy may result from differences in methodology and sample selection.
Our study included all Asian Americans with disabilities who received VR services rather than focusing
on a specific disability type. Therefore, we found VR services that have a significant relationship with
employment for general Asian American VR consumers. From analysis viewpoint, we expected fewer VR
services to exhibit significant associations with competitive employment. However, the results should be
interpreted in light of this point, and further research in this area is also warranted.
Lastly, the results indicated that Asian Americans with disabilities who received SE services were less
likely to achieve CIE compared to those who did not receive the service. This observation may stem
from the possibility that recipients of SE services often represent individuals with the most profound dis-
abilities who have previously faced challenges in obtaining and maintaining employment. Furthermore,
Asian Americans with disabilities who received counseling on enrollment opportunities and job explo-
ration counseling exhibited lower likelihoods of achieving CIE compared to their counterparts who did
not partake in these services. It is noteworthy that these services fall under the category of pre-employment
transition services primarily offered to youth with disabilities. Given the importance of education in Asian
American culture, it is plausible that these clients prioritize pursuing post-secondary educational opportu-
nities as a means to enhance their employment prospects. It is important to emphasize that these discussion
points are not conclusive and necessitate further research related to delve deeper into this subject.
Implications
The findings of this study proved the critical role of education in shaping CIE outcomes for Asian Amer-
icans with disabilities. Practitioners need to identify all available training and education options within
various industries, along with the specific criteria for entry, to support the success of their clients. Fur-
thermore, recognizing that higher education often equates to greater skill development, it is important
to provide educational opportunities and training programs (e.g., adult education and postsecondary
10 KAYA ET AL.
education options, educational workshops, auditing college courses, and registered apprenticeships). These
offerings can significantly enhance the interpersonal, social, and employment skills of Asian American
clients.
Asian Americans with disabilities who received cash benefits were less likely to achieve CIE. Previous
research has advocated for the provision of benefits counseling to increase competitive employment rates
among clients who receive cash benefits (Gruman et al., 2014). Given that benefits counseling is more
often provided to clients in this category, it is crucial for counselors to be well positioned to help these
clients in developing a comprehensive plan that promotes self-sufficiency while optimizing workplace
participation, all while retaining important benefits.
In the context of services provided, it is noteworthy that a majority of the clients received only VR
counseling and guidance, with only 11.2 percent of clients receiving job placement services. To better
serve Asian American VR clients, it is important to expand the range and diversity of services available.
In addition, while maintaining a focus on providing job placement services, practitioners should remain
attuned to the cultural and behavioral patterns of their clients. This involves conducting a thorough skill
and interest analysis before matching a client with a potential job.
Previous research has recommended that VR counselors acknowledge the unique experiences of
culturally diverse clients, acquire culturally sensitive counseling skills, and develop culturally sensitive inter-
ventions (Southwick et al. 2013; Thomas et al. 2010). Given that Asian American clients with disabilities
often experience socio-cultural barriers that can impede their rehabilitation process, it is critical that VR
counselors receive training to serve a culturally diverse clientele in a manner that promotes empowerment
and full engagement. When working with Asian American clients, counselors must consider cultural fac-
tors, values, the influence of family, community dynamics, and other environmental factors. Recognizing
the multifaceted experiences of being an Asian American with a disability, it is important to understand
that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to working with this homogeneous group. Counselors must adapt
their approaches to align with each individual’s unique needs and experiences, considering their specific
cultural perspectives, disability, values, and lifelong socialization experiences.
Limitations
The current study has several important limitations that should be taken into consideration when inter-
preting the results. First, this study included all Asian American VR clients; therefore, we found limited VR
services that are significantly associated with CIE. Second, the data from this study were extracted from
the RSA-911 data set. Only available variables were used in the current study, and the variables could not
be manipulated; therefore, there is only a correlational relationship between the variables, a cause effect
relationship cannot be determined. In addition, although VR counselors use different cross-checks, it is
possible that VR counselors had errors in entering the data.
Table A1.
CONCLUSION
The current study highlights the crucial role of education in promoting CIE for Asian Americans with
disabilities. It is evident that the employment rate within this group significantly increases as the level
of education increases. Conversely, clients who received cash benefits were less likely to attain CIE. The
results also indicate that clients who received VR counseling and job placement assistance were more likely
to achieve competitive employment, highlighting the positive impact of these services. In contrast, clients
who received SE and counseling on enrollment opportunities, and job exploration exhibited a reduced
likelihood of achieving CIE. These findings underscore the need for further research in this area to gain
deeper insights into the observed trends and inform future interventions.
Vocational rehabilitation and Asian Americans 11
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
ETHICS STATEMENT
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical
standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration
and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
ORCID
Cahit Kaya https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0757-320X
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Vocational rehabilitation and Asian Americans 13
TAB L E A1 DECISION TREE IN TABLE FORMAT FOR ASIAN AMERICAN WITH DISABILITY
Unsuccessful
outcome
Competitive
employment
n%n%χ2p
Asian American with disability 3400 58.8 2384 41.2
Asian American with disability who received SSI/SSDI 1277 68.4 591 31.6 104.491 0.000
Asian American with disability who did not receive SSI/SSDI 2123 54.2 1793 45.8 104.491 0.000
Asian American with disability who received SSI/SSDI and
had no formal education or a secondary school diploma or
equivalency, or certificate of attendance completion
876 71.3 353 28.7 14.121 0.005
Asian American with disability who received SSI/SSDI and
had postsecondary education or associate degree or
bachelor’s degree or higher
401 62.8 238 37.2 14.121 0.005
Asian American with disability who did not receive SSI/SSDI
and had no formal education
787 62.7 468 37.3 63.806 0.000
Asian American with disability who did not receive SSI/SSDI
and had a secondary school diploma or equivalency, or
certificate of attendance completion
817 52.8 730 42.7 63.806 0.000
Asian American with disability who did not receive SSI/SSDI
and had postsecondary education or associate degree or
bachelor’s degree or higher
519 46.6 595 53.4 63.806 0.000
Twenty-five years or older Asian American with disability
who did not receive SSI/SSDI and had a secondary school
diploma or equivalency, or certificate of attendance
completion
272 46.2 317 53.8 16.786 0.000
Sixteen to twenty-four years old Asian American with
disability who did not receive SSI/SSDI and had a
secondary school diploma or equivalency, or certificate of
attendance completion
545 56.9 413 43.1 16.786 0.000
APPENDIX A: DESCRIPTION OF PURPOSEFUL SELECTION OF
VARIABLES
Purposeful regression includes five steps: (1) examining one-on-one relationships between independent
variables and dependent variables at a significance level of p<0.20; (2) entering the variables that were
found significant in step 1 into a regression model at a significance level of p<0.05; (3) retaining variables
that were found significant at step 2, and removing variables that were not significant and did not change
beta coefficient of the significant variables more than 20 percent; (4) entering variables that were found
not significant at step 1 into the model and checking their significance; and (5) checking interactions and
adequacy of the model and fit.
APPENDIX C: DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF MULTIVARIATE LOGISTIC
REGRESSION WITH PURPOSEFUL SELECTION OF VARIABLES
Multivariate logistic regression with purposeful selection of variables was used to investigate the relation-
ships between demographic variables, VR services, and CIE. As a first step, one-on-one relationships
between the independent variables and CIE were examined. The results indicated that all of the demo-
graphic variables and VR services except gender, on-the-job training, job search, job placement, short-term
job support, information referral, maintenance, and rehabilitation technology services had a significant
relationship with CIE at a significance level of p<0.20. In the second step, the significant variables in
14 KAYA ET AL.
step 1 were entered into a logistics regression model at a significant level of p<0.05. The results indicated
when entered together, only education, SSI/SSDI, job exploration counseling, work readiness training, VR
counseling, and SE services were significantly associated with competitive employment at p<0.05 level.
In step 3, the variables that were not significant and did not change beta coefficient of the significant vari-
ables more than 20 percent were removed from the model. When work-based learning experiences were
removed from the model, the beta coefficient of work readiness training changed from 0.626 to 0.769, and
when counseling on enrollment opportunities was removed, the beta coefficient of job exploration coun-
seling changed from 0.598 to 0.765. When instruction on self-advocacy was removed, work readiness
training become nonsignificant, and counseling on enrollment opportunities become significant. There-
fore, work-based learning experiences and counseling on enrollment opportunities were retained. In step
4, the variables that were not significant in step 1 were put into back to the model. Among those variables,
job placement turned out to be significant. The final model included the following variables that were
significantly associated with CIE: education level, SSI/SSDI, job exploration counseling, VR counseling
and guidance, SE services, counseling on enrollment opportunities, and job placement assistance.
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Data
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