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Flours from microwave-treated buckwheat grains improve the physical properties and nutritional quality of gluten-free bread
Abstract
Microwave (MW)-assisted hydrothermal treatment of buckwheat grains was explored to improve the physical properties and nutritional quality of gluten-free (GF) bread. A mixture of 80% rice flour and 20% corn starch was used as control recipe (CR), whereas for fortification, 50% of the rice flour was replaced with native buckwheat flour (BN) or buckwheat flour from grains treated with several MW cycles (exposure/rest cycles of 10/50 s, BT1, 20/40 s, BT2, or 30/30 s, BT3, at 30% moisture content and 8 min MW exposure). The BN fortified dough showed increased consistency and elastic response, compared to CR, with the MW treatment further enhancing these effects. Due to the enormous increase in complex modulus (G1*) (from 1060 Pa for CR to 10679 Pa for BT3), the hydration of doughs was subsequently adjusted to obtain similar G1*. The inclusion of MW-treated flours led to higher consistency and elastic recovery. The lower specific volume (SV) and higher crumb hardness encountered for BN (3.88 mL/g and 1.45N) were alleviated by the inclusion of MW-treated flours (4.61 mL/g and 0.90N for BT1, 4.39 mL/g and 0.85N for BT3), resulting in similar SV and lower staling than CR. Moreover, compared to BN and CR, the BT2 and BT3 breads showed a significant reduction in glucose release during in vitro starch digestion (up to ‒25%), and an increase in protein digestibility (up to +23%). Overall, the experimental findings pointed to the feasibility of using MW to improve the physical and nutritional quality of buckwheat flour-enriched GF bread.
Microwave heating technology performs the characteristics of fast heating, high efficiency, green energy saving and easy control, which makes it deeply penetrate into the food industry and home cooking. It has the potential to alter the appearance and flavor of food, enhance nutrient absorption, and speed up the transformation of active components, which provides an opportunity for the development of innovation foods. However, the change of food driven by microwave heating are very complex, which often occurs beyond people's cognition and blocks the development of new food. It is thus necessary to explore the transformation mechanism and influence factors from the perspectives of microwave technology and food nutrient diversity. This manuscript focuses on the nutritional macromolecules in food, such as starch, lipid and protein, and systematically analyzes the change rule of structure, properties and function under microwave heating. Then, the flavor, health benefits, potential safety risks and bidirectional allergenicity associated with microwave heating are fully discussed. In addition, the development of new functional foods for health needs and future market based on microwave technology is also prospected. It aims to break the scientific fog of microwave technology and provide theoretical support for food science to understand the change law, control the change process and use the change results.
Roasted yellow split pea (YSP) flours were used to substitute wheat flour, at 10–20% (flour basis) in wheat bread formulations. Rheometry showed that roasted YSP flour addition increased elasticity and resistance to deformation and flow of the composite doughs, particularly at 20% substitution; instead, at 10% addition (either raw or roasted YSP flour), there were no effects on dough rheology and bread textural properties. Breads fortified with roasted YSP flour at levels >10% exhibited lower loaf-specific volume and harder crumb compared to control (bread without YSP flour). Moreover, only breads with 20% roasted YSP flour displayed a significantly higher staling extent and rate, compared to control, as assessed by large deformation mechanical testing and calorimetry (starch retrogradation) of crumb preparations. This formulation also showed a large increase in β-sheets and β-turns at the expense of α-helix and random coil conformations in protein secondary structure as assessed by FTIR spectroscopy. Roasting of YSP effectively masked the “beany” and “grass-like” off-flavors of raw YSP flour at 10% substitution. Overall, roasted YSP flour at the 10% level was successfully incorporated into wheat bread formulations without adversely affecting dough rheology, bread texture, and shelf-life, resulting in final products with a pleasant flavor profile.
The influence of heat-moisture treatment (HMT) and flour hydration (DY) on the restoration of dough viscoelasticity of wheat/non-wheat binary matrices was investigated by applying fundamental and empirical rheological procedures, and the protein structural reorganization was monitored by measuring residual protein solubility in different media, and by assessing the accessibility of thiol groups inside the protein network. Single chestnut (CN), chickpea (CP), millet (MI), and teff (T) flour samples submitted to HMT (15% moisture content, 1 h and 120 °C) were blended with wheat flour at 10% (CN, CP) and 30% (MI, T) of replacement, and binary matrices hydrated at low (L), medium (M), and high (H) DY. Structuring ability of HMT was mainly observed in cereal flour blends (T, MI), where higher elastic moduli and lower loss tangent together with solid-like elastic structure over higher shear stress were observed as compared with treated non-cereal flour blends (CN, CP). Increased flour hydration significantly weakened blends structure, inducing a stepped decrease in dynamic moduli values particularly noticed in cereal blends at highest level of flour hydration, and a shift from elastic-like to viscous-like structure at lower shear stress in non-wheat cereal matrices. The formation of a protein network with reinforced compact structure associated to the presence or formation of intramolecular (CN, CP, T) and intermolecular disulphide bonds (CN, CP, MI, T), water-soluble (CN, MI) and water-insoluble aggregates (CP, T) is feasible to achieve with proteins of non-wheat flours submitted to HMT, particularly in high DY doughs. The lower the amount of free thiols in high molecular weight proteins encompassing high degree of crosslinking, corresponded to thermally treated samples (T, MI) blended at L and M hydration levels. For thermally treated samples, the lower the amount of free thiols in high molecular weight proteins encompassing high degree of crosslinking, corresponded to T and MI binary matrices blended at L and M hydration levels. These samples exhibited a solid-like elastic structure over higher shear stress and showed increased tolerance to stress/strain before losing the structure.
This work evaluated the impacts of pH and sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration on some functional properties, in vitro protein digestibility, and amino acid profile of sesame (Sesamum indicum) protein isolate (SPI) produced using simultaneous recovery of protein and oil technique. The emulsion activity index (EAI), foam capacity (FC), and protein solubility varied with pH and ionic ability. Foam capacity rose with an increase in ionic strength. Protein solubility ranged from 8.39% at pH 4 to 55.08% at pH 10. In vitro protein digestibility of the SPI with pepsin–pancreatin enzyme systems was 89.57%. Amino acid profile showed that essential amino acids constituted 39.48%. The amino acids had good scores well above 50%. The results showed that SPI extracted by aqueous technique could be used as food ingredient, particularly as thickener, binder, and ingredient in baked food products. This work evaluated the effects of pH and salt concentration (NaCl) on some functional properties, in vitro protein digestibility, and amino acid profile of sesame protein isolate (SPI). Foam capacity increased with the increase in ionic strength, protein solubility ranged from 8.39% at pH 4 to 55.08% at pH 10, in vitro protein digestibility of the SPI with pepsin–pancreatin enzyme systems was 89.57%, and amino acid profile showed that essential amino acids constituted 39.48%. The results showed that SPI extracted by aqueous technique could be used as food ingredient, particularly as thickener, binder and ingredient in baked food products.
The buckwheat flour was studied as a potential healthy ingredient for improving the nutritional and technological quality of gluten-free bread. The effect of exchange of gluten-free formulation mass by buckwheat flour in 10, 20, 30 and 40 % was investigated. The increase in loaf specific volume with rising buckwheat flour addition was observed. Compared with the control sample, decrease in whiteness and increase in redness and yellowness of crumb were noticed. The rising amount of buckwheat flour in gluten-free bread formulation caused a decrease in crumb hardness during storage. This was in agreement with the decrease in starch gelatinisation enthalpy with the increasing amount of buckwheat flour in gluten-free formula in comparison with the control sample. Buckwheat flour could be incorporated into gluten-free formula and have a positive influence on bread texture and delaying its staling.
The physical modification of buckwheat grain, a pseudocereal with great interest in gluten-free (GF) product development, using microwave-assisted hydrothermal treatment (MWT), was evaluated. Buckwheat grains were microwaved (8 min at 18W/g) at four moisture contents (MC): 13%, 20%, 25%, and 30%, maintained constant throughout the treatment using a hermetic container. The impact of MWT on the techno-functional and rheological properties of flour was significantly affected by the MC of the grains. The flour obtained from grains treated with 30% MC (MW-30) was the most modified, showing the highest water absorption capacity (+43%) and a dramatic reduction in its emulsifying activity to almost zero, indicating the loss of its protein functionality during treatment. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed a delay in the gelatinisation temperature (+3.7 °C) with a significant reduction in the gelatinization enthalpy (−27%), which is compatible with a partial pre-gelatinization of the flour. In contrast, the lowest grain MC led to opposite effects on most of the flour properties measured. The most significant difference was its improved ability to form stable emulsions (ES) (+188%) and a significant, albeit moderate, increase in gel structural stability and tolerance to stress. Based on these results, MWT combined with the MC of grain during treatment may be a viable and effective alternative to modulate the techno-functional properties of buckwheat flour and improve its applicability in GF food formulations.
Steam explosion (SE) is an efficient technology to disrupt the hard structure of cereal bran and improve its biological activities. In this study, different intensities of SE were applied in Tartary buckwheat bran (TBB) to study 1) the changes of bran structures and 2) the release efficiency of polyphenols. Results illustrated SE diminished the contents of free polyphenols in TBB by 6.24–21.65%, while the bound ones were increased by 15.23–120.81%. The in vitro study demonstrated that the scavenging organic free radical DPPH· activity and oxygen radical absorption capacity (1.6 MPa for 60 s) of total polyphenols were significantly improved. Furthermore, the free quercetin contents were increased by 4–6 times and the free rutin contents were decreased by 60–75%. SE made TBB particle size changed, specific surface area increased, thermal stability enhanced, but polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity decreased. All the results suggested that SE could enhance the antioxidant activity of TBB polyphenols through changing the constituent proportion, structure, thermal stability, and enzyme activity of bran.
Microwave radiation (MW) is an environment-friendly technology used to physically modify flours. Rice flour was MW-treated at different moisture content (MC) (3 %, 8 %, 13 %, 15 %, 20 % and 30 %). In vitro starch digestibility was determined and related to the changes caused by MW treatment to flours' structure and thermal properties, which were influenced by MC. A reduction of 49 % and 65 % in the gelatinization enthalpy of samples treated at 20 % and 30 %MC denoted a partial gelatinization. A loss of granular crystallinity in treated samples was confirmed by XR-diffraction and FTIR, particularly at 15 %, 20 % and 30 %MC. MW promoted the formation of random-coil, α-helix and β-turn protein structure, and the disappearance of LF-β-sheet. Morphological differences were found between samples treated at 8 %MC (loss of polygonal structure, protein layer covering granules' surface and small holes) and 30 %MC (rounded and aggregated granules, covered with exudate amylose). In vitro starch digestibility revealed that samples treated at 20 % and 30 %MC showed 40 % and 47 % higher rapidly digestible starch, 48 % and 70 % lower slowly digestible starch and 90 % lower resistant starch than the untreated flour. Flour MC in MW-treatment allowed the modulation of structural and thermal characteristics of rice flour and consequently its starch hydrolysis rate.
Celiac patients cannot consume food containing gluten, so it becomes a challenge for the food industry to develop bakery products without gluten. Limited information is available on the rheological characteristics of gluten-free (GF) doughs. Unlike wheat flour dough, GF dough has poor rheological properties and is difficult to handle for molding and sheeting. In this chapter, rheological measurements applied to the GF dough and associated limitations are presented. Effect of ingredients on GF dough rheology and how dough rheology affects the quality of bread are also discussed. The design of GF breads remains an empirical task, but some conclusions can be drawn from all the rheological and quality studies. The best-developed breads are obtained from doughs not too strong or too weak. Pasting properties and other physicochemical and structural properties of GF matrices also affect the physical quality of the final bread.
The microwave widely applied to process cereals and grains. However, its effects on their chemical components are still not explored clearly. In this study, millet kernels treated by microwave. The physical and chemical properties of starch in microwave‐treated millet kernels (SMM) investigated and compared to those in untreated millet kernels (SUM). The experimental results indicated that the peak viscosity of SMM reduced with the increase of microwave time and initial moisture content of millet kernels (IMM). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Background and Objectives
Buckwheat is a pseudocereal that has been considered a potential ingredient in bakery products, mainly due to its composition. Many bioactive compounds are found in the outer layers of the grain. This study aimed to produce gluten‐free breads using refined buckwheat flour (RBF) and whole‐grain buckwheat flour (WBF). Three formulations were developed: F1 (100%‐RBF); F2 (70%‐RBF and 30%‐WBF); and F3 (55%‐RBF and 45%‐WBF). The flours were evaluated for pasting, thermal, and thermomechanical properties. The breads were characterized for specific volume, color, moisture content, water activity, firmness, total reducing capacity, antioxidant capacity, rutin and quercetin levels, protein content, in vitro protein digestibility, in vitro starch digestibility, and sensory acceptance.
Findings
RBF presented superior results for pasting and thermomechanical properties, with no significant difference for thermal properties. Breads from formulation F1 had greater specific volume, lower firmness, higher protein digestibility, and better sensory acceptance, when compared to F2 and F3. However, the incorporation of WBF to F2 and F3 led to an increase in rutin and quercetin levels, total reducing capacity, antioxidant capacity, and total protein content. Principal components analysis showed a clear distinction between formulations with and without WBF, and how the parameters evaluated were dependent on the composition of the buckwheat flour used for bread preparation.
Conclusions
RBF and WBF flours proved to be promising ingredients for the preparation of gluten‐free breads with nutritional improvement.
Significance and Novelty
Data on the use of WBF and nutritional characteristics of breads were obtained. Future studies should evaluate the presence of antinutritional compounds.
Effects of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP, 100, 300 and 500 MPa for 30 min at 25 °C) treated maize (MS), potato (PS), and sweet potato (SS) starches on thermo-mechanical, rheological, microstructural properties and water distribution of gluten-free model doughs were investigated. Significant differences were found among starch model doughs in terms of water absorption, dough development time, and dough stability at 500 MPa. Total gas production of MS, PS and SS doughs was significantly increased from 541 to 605 mL (300 MPa), 527 to 568 mL (500 MPa) and 551 to 620 mL (500 MPa) respectively as HHP increased. HHP increased storage (G′) and loss (G″) modulus in terms of rheological properties suggesting, the higher viscoelastic behavior of starch model doughs. The dough after 500 MPa treatment showed lower degree of dependence of G′ on frequency sweep suggesting, the formation of a stable network structure. In addition, continuous abundant water distribution and uniform microstructure were found in MS (300 MPa), PS (500 MPa) and SS (500 MPa) doughs for 60 min fermentation. Thus, the starches after HHP show great application potential in gluten-free doughs with improved characteristics.
This study describes the use of the Mixture Design for simultaneals to improve the physical properties and acceptability of gluten-free bread (GFB) based on whole pseudocereals flour, as well as to define dough and bread instrumental predictors of the sensory quality of GFB. Three simplex-centroid designs were used to study the effects of each pseudocereal flour (amaranth – AF, buckwheat – BF, and quinoa – QF) blended with rice flour (RF) and potato starch (PS) on dough and bread properties. A total of 30 GFB formulations were produced and evaluated. Results reveal relationships between dough Mixolab parameters, such as C3 and C4, related to gelatinization and starch stability, with crumb moisture and firmness of GFB formulation, in which higher values of these parameters related to higher acceptability scores (>7 on a 10cm hydroid hedonic scale). However, higher values of the secondary parameter C3-C4 was related to lower loaf-specific volume, impairing appearance and texture acceptability, as well as overall liking. The interaction effects between pseudocereal flour and RF increases dough consistency, bread volume, softness, and acceptability. Blends of 50% AF, BF, or QF with 50% RF results in GFB with high acceptability (overall liking of 8). The maximum pseudocereal proportions to obtain acceptable GFB (scores ≥7 for appearance, color, odor, texture, flavor acceptability and overall liking) were 60% AF, 85% BF, and 82% QF blended with RF. The combination of instrumental and sensory methods was useful to identify parameters capable of predicting the GFB quality, which may be useful for food scientists and producers to face the challenges regarding the development of healthier and better quality GFB to meet consumer needs.
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Recently, there has been an increase in demand for gluten-free (GF) products due to the growing number of gluten-intolerant and healthy individuals choosing to follow a gluten-free diet. Gluten-free bread (GFB) is a staple food product; therefore, many recent studies have reported the nutritional properties of GFB. However, an overview of the current ingredients and nutritional labeling of GFB worldwide has not yet been provided. This review aimed to gather the latest information regarding the most used ingredients in GFB formulations and the nutritional quality of these products from different countries, based on studies published in the last decade (2010–2020). Our analysis showed that GFB had a lower protein and a higher fat content than gluten-containing bread, and the dietary fiber content was highly variable between countries. Some studies have revealed a high glycaemic index in most products, which is associated with the extensive use of rice flour and starch as the main ingredients in GFB formulation. Label information presented significant differences from the data obtained through the chemical analysis of fiber and other nutritional components. Micronutrient fortification is not common in the GFB. The nutritional quality of commercial GFB is a crucial issue that needs to be addressed.
Access link: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/PAF3XPUCYMV4B7QSN5DI/full?target=10.1080/10408398.2021.1952403
Gluten free although initially restricted to consumers with certain pathologies, it is currently attracting more and more consumers without medical needs. In fact, it is one of the most innovative niches in the food market. Gluten free bakery foods, besides pasta and extruded products have been the most challenging developments from the technological point of view. This chapter covers the latest innovation considering ingredients, technologies, and processing, for developing nutritive and sensory attractive gluten free foods.
Cereals, one of the starch sources, have a tremendous and steady production worldwide. Starchy foods constitute the major part of daily calorie intake for humans. As a simple and green modification approach, heat-moisture treatment (HMT) could change the granular surface characteristics and size, crystalline and helical structure, as well as molecular organization of cereal starch. The changing degree is contingent on HMT parameters and botanical origin. Based on the hierarchical structure, this paper reviews functionalities of heat-moisture modified cereal starch (HMCS) reported in latest years. The functionality of HMCS could be affected by co-existing non-starch ingredients through non-covalent/covalent interactions, depolymerization or simply attachment/encapsulation. Besides, it summarizes the modulation of HMCS in dough rheology and final food products’ quality. Selecting proper HMT conditions is crucial for achieving nutritious products with desirable sensory and storage quality. This review gives a systematic understanding about HMCS for the better utilization in food industry.
Flour from twenty-three Tartary buckwheat varieties were evaluated and compared for proximate composition, mineral and amino acid profile. Further, pasting properties and process characteristics such as foaming, oil and water absorption capacities, emulsification properties were determined for identifying the efficient application of Tartary buckwheat in food systems. Ash, protein and fat contents of the flours ranged between 1.76-2.80%, 9.06-14.88%, and 2.02-3.60%, respectively. Buckwheat flours from all varieties had abundant K, Mg and Ca content, with the highest in B-121, IC-329200 and IC-274439, respectively. All essential amino acids were detected in all varieties with leucine present in abundance. Isoleucine, cystine and asparagine were limiting. Emulsifying and foaming properties of all buckwheat flours improved as the pH increased from 4 to 10. Emulsion activity index (pH 10) showed a significant positive correlation with hydrophobic amino acids. Flours from most of the buckwheat varieties had unique pasting properties with very low set back and breakdown viscosities indicating paste stability and lower retrogradation tendency, making them suitable for thickening of sauces and soups.
This study aimed at assessing the effect of physicochemical properties and the particle size of different fractions of buckwheat and quinoa on the behaviour of gluten-free dough and bread quality. Quinoa and buckwheat grains were milled with a hammer mill and then separated in three fractions. These fractions where then re-milled with a cyclonic mill to obtain samples of similar sizes. Results showed that the chemical composition of these fractions was very different and played a major role on bread quality. Proteins, lipids and fibre negatively affected bread quality, whereas starch-rich fractions were more adequate for breadmaking. Re-milling quinoa and buckwheat fractions increased bread volume, although chemical composition still influenced bread properties. For hammer-milled fractions, both the finest fractions resulted in breads with higher technological quality, as well as a final product with more fibre, minerals and proteins.
The present study investigated the changes in structural and emulsifying properties of lotus seed protein isolates (LSPIs) under different microwave-vacuum (MV) treatments. A decrease of fluorescence peak intensity with blue-shift of the fluorescence emission maximum indicated that MV treatment induced unfolding of LSPIs so that more hydrophobic residues were exposed. Raman spectra showed that the ordered secondary structures (α-helix, β-sheet) gradually converted into β-turns and random coils during 50-150 W MV treatment. Particle size distribution and atomic force microscope revealed that the amounts of small subunits increased when the LSPIs were modified by 50-100 W MV treatment. Emulsions prepared by 100-W-MV-LSPIs exhibited the optimal emulsifying ability with the smallest oil droplet sizes. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and analytical centrifugal analyzer further proved 50-100 W MV-treatment enhanced the flocculation and creaming stability. Our findings provide a certain theoretical foundation to apply MV technology for developing desirable LSPIs-stabilized emulsions.
The physicochemical properties of starch can be modified by hydrothermal treatments, inducing changes of dough and final product properties. The effect of these treatments depends on the temperature, the starch-moisture ratio and the exposure time. The most used hydrothermal treatments applied on cereals and pseudocereals starches and flours are heat moisture treatment (HMT) and annealing (ANN). The differences between HMT and ANN consist of working temperatures and moisture content. In HMT the treatment temperature is above the gelatinization temperature, while in ANN it is comprised between the gelatinization temperature and the glass transition. This paper aims to summarize the influence of these thermal treatments on the starches (crystallinity, swelling and water absorption, thermal, gelatinization, pasting, retrogradation, and digestibility properties) and the impact on the rheological and textural characteristics of dough and final product. This review highlights the possibility to use modified starches and treated flours in food products development and to evaluate the effects of hydrothermal treatments on starch and flour functionality.
The physical modification of rice flour by heat-moisture treatment assisted by microwave radiation and its effect on the rheological and pasting properties of gluten-free doughs and the physical quality of their resulting bread was investigated. Two levels of flour initial moisture content, 20% (MW-20%) and 30% (MW-30%) and two levels of its addition (30% and 50%) to the dough were evaluated to assess the potential of the physical treatment to modify dough viscoelasticity and bread-making ability. MW-30% treated rice flour showed the most notable results. It provided enhanced dough viscoelasticity vs the control (100% native rice flour), increasing the dough G1′ modulus up to 69% and 135% for the treated flour additions of 30% and 50% of MW-30% respectively. The treated flour increased the resistance of doughs to deformation and enhanced their elastic behavior and recovery capacity up to 170% when compared to the control dough. The major effects on pasting parameters were also obtained for the doughs formulated with MW-30% flour at the maximum substitution level (50%). It delayed the pasting temperature, decreased the peak, trough and final viscosities with respect to the control dough. Both MW-treated rice flours (MW-20% and MW-30%) led to bread with higher-specific volume, softer crumb and delayed staling. The MW assisted heat moisture treatment of rice flour seems to be a valuable procedure to improve the viscoelastic behavior and bread-making performance of gluten-free doughs.
Background: The gluten-free market is expanding rapidly. The reasons for this reflect a growing interest in adopting a gluten-free diet (GFD). This is partly explained by an increasing number of people diagnosed with Celiac Disease (CD), but also because of public perceptions that a GFD is a healthy diet option. However, products specifically marketed as gluten-free (GF) are reduced in several sensorial characteristics, are more expensive, and have lower nutritional values than comparable alternatives. Scope and approach: The aim of this review is to provide an up-to-date set of factors that underpin consumers' preferences and adherence to GFD. After screening, 54 articles were considered for the review. Key findings and conclusions: The review classifies the factors affecting GFD in eight groups: "Factors specific to the GFD"; "Socio-demographic factors"; "GF products' factors"; "Psychological Factors"; "Symptoms related to Celiac"; "Celiac Disease's factors"; "Quality of Life"; "Other Factors". Results on the level of association and significance of the factors affecting adherence to GFD are mixed. Moreover, in the process of reviewing the literature, this review reveals that most of the studies that have investigated factors associated with adherence to GFD are focused primarily on celiac patients while neglecting the fact that many non-celiac adopt the diet. From this we discuss future research directions, and what questions remain unanswered in the domain of adherence to the GFD.
Complex starch is gaining research attention due to its unique physicochemical and functional properties. Lotus seed starch (LS) suspensions (6.7%, w/v) with added green tea polyphenols (GTPs) (10%, w/w) were subjected to ultrasound (200–1000 W)-microwave (150–225 W) (UM) treatment for 15 min. The effects of UM treatment on the physicochemical properties of the LS-GTP system were investigated and exceeded that of microwave or ultrasound alone. The properties (morphology, X-ray diffraction pattern and so on) were affected by GTPs to various extents, depending on ultrasonic power. These influences may be explained by the non-covalent interactions between GTPs and LS. V-type LS-GTP inclusion complex and non-inclusive complex formation were observed. Their morphology and the distribution of GTPs molecules within them were estimated using scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Furthermore, the digestion of LS-GTP complex was investigated by a dynamic in vitro rat stomach-duodenum (DIVRSD) model, lower digestion efficiency of LS has been achieved and the residues showed gradual improvement in morphology. These all experimental results do provide new insight into the complex starch production.
The study of new gluten-free (GF) foods is necessary since consumers intolerant to gluten are more and more frequently diagnosed. The study evaluated the impact of acidification -with acetic + lactic blend at 0.5 g/100 g level- and protein fortification -with caseinate (CA) or soy-protein isolate (SPI)- on the rheological features of wheat, corn, potato and tapioca starch-based bread doughs. Oscillatory and creep-recovery tests were carried out to characterise their viscoelastic behaviour, and thermomechanical tests were performed to assess their visco-metric performance. Dough stickiness was also measured. The acid blend had a modulator effect on dough rheological properties that depended on both the type of protein and the source of the starch. Proteins structured and strengthened the doughs especially those made with SPI-potato starch and CA-wheat starch mixtures. Acidification decreased G′ and G″ moduli until 70% with respect to unacidified doughs. The effect was much more marked in protein-fortified doughs. A significant increase in all pasting viscosities was observed with protein addition, particularly in the case of CA. In general, protein addition decreased dough stickiness whereas the opposite effect was noted with the presence of acid. Acidification of protein-enriched starch matrices modulate dough rheological properties which are of relevance in GF products development.
The addition of bioactive β-glucan to gluten-free breads is of special interest to people suffering from celiac disease. Most of the studies found in literature involve cereal (1 → 3)(1 → 4)-β-glucan, while those from yeast and fungi are still nearly unexplored. This study focuses on the effect of fortifying gluten-free rice-based doughs and breads with (1 → 3)(1 → 6)-β-glucan concentrates derived from yeasts –soluble (SBG) and insoluble (IBG)– and fungi (Pleurotus Ostreatus) (FBG). SBG-enriched doughs were less firm and exhibited lower resistance to deformation than doughs with FBG or IBG. In contrast, FBG- and IBG-enriched doughs increased their resistance to deformation as the concentration increased. Doughs with a firmer consistency as determined by a forward extrusion test (FBG- and IBG-enriched doughs) corresponded to those with larger dynamic moduli and lower frequency dependence, lower elastic deformation and higher viscosity at steady state. The physical quality of breads was significantly improved by addition of all types of (1 → 3)(1 → 6)-β-glucan at optimized dough hydration. They caused an increase in the specific volume of the breads, a reduction in their hardness and longer shelf-life. Sensory evaluation also demonstrated an improvement in bread organoleptic attributes when SBG was added.
The microwave radiation thermal treatment of rice flour was studied and its impact on physical and structural characteristic in relation to the initial moisture content (IMC) (20% and 30%) was evaluated. To explain the fundamentals of observed changes the microwave radiation absorption capacity of flour as well as temperature and moisture change during the treatment were evaluated. The flour particle morphological structure as well as crystallinity/amorphous region ratio changed after the treatment. The flour thermal properties also altered revealing IMC significant impact on the gelatinization temperature, that raised up to 3 °C, and the amylopectin retrogradation extent that increased up to a 7% in the most intense microwave-treated flours with respect to the native flour. Lower peak, setback and breakdown viscosities - that decreased with respect to the native flour up to 42%, 34% and 86% respectively-and higher pasting temperatures -that increased up to 10 ºC- were also observed. An exceptional microwave irradiation efficiency resulting in rice flour physical changes in significantly shorter times, 4–8 min, than conventional heat-moisture treatment processes was concluded.
Native tartary buckwheat starch (NTBS) and native tartary buckwheat flour (NTBF) were modified by heat-moisture treatment (HMT) with different moisture levels (200, 250, 300, and 350 g/kg) to investigate the effect of HMT on their physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility. Compared to native samples. The onset, peak, conclusion temperatures of HMT-modified samples increased, while the pasting viscosities, enthalpy decreased. After HMT, the gel hardness of starch and flour decreased by 262 and 62.1 g, respectively. But the slowly digestible starch (SDS) content of starch and flour increased by 71.3 and 27 g/kg, respectively, meanwhile the resistant starch (RS) content of starch and flour increased by 23.8 and 41 g/kg, respectively. HMT did not change the A type crystalline pattern of NTBS and NTBF, but the relative crystallinity of NTBS and NTBF increased by 16% and 7%, respectively. HMT had a far greater effect on morphology and pasting properties on flour than on starch. The granule morphology was noticeably changed by HMT, HMT created more cavities and holes on the surface of HMT flours than HMT starches. The results showed that HMT greatly modified the physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of NTBS and NTBF to expand their application range.
Bran is a promising ingredient for nutritional fortification in starch-based dough systems. However its incorporation is a technological challenge favoring a shift in dough functionality. The objective of this study was to elucidate the impact of bran on baking performance independent of dough firmness and start of gelatinization. Therefore, corn starch was replaced by quinoa bran (10% to 50%) and water addition (80 to 110 g/100 g flour) was standardized on a fixed complex shear modulus (G*) and start of gelatinization (TOnset) based on a corn starch reference dough. A destabilizing effect by bran particles was counteracted in corn starch dough by adjusting the water content up to 110 g/100 g flour. Moreover, a negative correlation between TOnset and loaf volume was determined (r = − 0.9042), thus an early TOnset should be aspired in order to prevent gas release and to stabilize corn starch- quinoa bran dough.
Gluten free (GF) flour (amaranth, buckwheat, chickpea, corn, millet and quinoa) was blended with rice flour to compare their impact on dough rheological characteristics and bread quality. The potential of some GF-rice blends in breadmaking has already been studied on blends with prevailing content of rice flour. The impact of added flour may be expected to rise with increasing amount of flour; therefore blends containing 30 g/100 g, 50 g/100 g and 70 g/100 g of GF flour in 100 g of GF-rice blend were tested. Under uniaxial deformation, peak strain was not impacted by the addition of GF flour; stress (12.3 kPa) was, however, significantly (P < 0.05) decreased (2.9–6.2 kPa). The reduction initiated by the presence of buckwheat, chickpea, quinoa and partly amaranth, together with thermally-induced dough weakening initiated by buckwheat and quinoa flour, may be related to significantly better crumb porosity. Overall acceptability of composite breads containing amaranth, chickpea and quinoa was negatively impacted by the aroma and taste of these flours. Higher potential to improve rice dough behavior and bread quality was found in the blend containing buckwheat flour (30 g/100 g; 50 g/100 g). Millet and corn flour deteriorated dough and bread quality.
A novel continuous microwave-assisted enzymatic digestion (cMAED) method is proposed for the digestion of protein from Scomberomorus niphonius to obtain potential antioxidant peptides. In this study, bromelain was found to have a high capacity for the digestion of the Scomberomorus niphonius protein. The following cMAED conditions were investigated: protease species, microwave power, temperature, bromelain content, acidity of the substrate solution, and incubation time. At 400 W, 40 °C, 1500 U⋅g⁻¹ bromelain, 20% substrate concentration, pH 6.0 and 5 min incubation, the degree of hydrolysis and total antioxidant activity of the hydrolysates were 15.86% and 131.49 μg⋅mL⁻¹, respectively. The peptide analyses showed that eight of the potential antioxidant peptide sequences, which ranged from 502.32 to 1080.55 Da with 4-10 amino acid residues, had features typical of well-known antioxidant proteins. Thus, the new cMAED method can be useful to obtain potential antioxidant peptides from protein sources, such as Scomberomorus niphonius.
Background
There is increasing interest in utilization of buckwheat for healthy food applications. Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) and tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum) are cultivated in Asia, Europe, and Americas for various food formulation and production. Starch, the major component of the seeds, may account over 70% of the dry weight. Therefore, it is expected that, to a large extent, the quality of starch determines the quality of buckwheat food products. Furthermore, Buckwheat starch has great potential for various food and non-food uses due to the unique structural and functional features.
Scope and approach
This review summarises the current knowledge of chemical composition, chemical structure of amylose and amylopectin, physical structure of granules, physicochemical properties, enzyme susceptibility, modifications, and uses of buckwheat starch. Suggestions on how to better understand and utilise the starch are provided.
Key findings and conclusions
Amylose contents of buckwheat starch ranged from 20 to 28%. Starch granules are most polygonal with size ranging from ∼2 to 15 μm and an average diameter of ∼6–7 μm. The polymorph is A-type. The amount of extra-long unit chains of amylopectin (DP > 100) is higher than that of cereal amylopectins. Low glycaemic index of buckwheat food products could be attributed to the non-starch components. Buckwheat starch has been used as fat replacer, ingredient for extruded products, nanocomposite material, and fermentation substrate for alcoholic beverage. It may be concluded that buckwheat starch can be a unique source of specialty starch for innovative food and non-food applications.
The influences of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), microwave heating (MW), and boiling (BL) on the chemical compositions, phytic acid, tannin, saponin, trypsin inhibitor activity, protein digestibility, and microstructure of buckwheat grains were investigated. All three processes decreased the starch, protein, fat, and ash contents. HHP and MW reduced the total flavonoids by 19 %, lower than that in the BL samples (38 %). HHP lowered the ω-6/ω-3 ratio by 6.4 %, while MW and BL increased the ω-6/ω-3 ratio by 4.9 and 2.6 %, respectively. MW reduced essential amino acids and total amino by 3.1 and 4.8 %, respectively, but the reductions were lower than in other treated samples. Phytic acid was lowered by 45.5 % in HHP samples, by 33.4 % in MW samples, and by 62.7 % in BL samples. Trypsin inhibitor activity decreased by 63 % in BL samples and by 13 % in other treated samples. BL induced the highest losses of tannin (35.7 %) and saponin (27.6 %), followed by MW treatment (27.5 and 20.1 %) and HHP treatment (19.9 and 14.6 %). The protein digestibility increased by 0.8, 3.6, and 6.5 % under HHP, MW, and BL conditions, respectively. Taken together, three treatments offered varying degrees of decreases in the antinutritional factors and increases in in vitro protein digestibility, as well as retention of nutritional components of the buckwheat. Therefore, it might be suggested that special care should be taken when selecting a processing method for the development of health-promoting buckwheat products.
Abstract Heat-moisture treatment (HMT) and annealing (ANN) were applied in the test to investigate how they can affect the physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of common buckwheat starch (CBS). In the practice, these two modification methods did not change typical 'A'-type X-ray diffraction pattern of CBS. However, the gelatinization temperature, amylose content, and relative crystallinity increased and peak viscosity value and gelatinization enthalpy of CBS declined significantly. Both the solubility and swelling power, which were temperature dependent, progressively decreased along with the treatments. Remarkable increase in slowly digested starch and resistant starch level was found at the same time. Besides, the decreases of rapidly digested starch and total hydrolysis content by using HMT were greater than by using ANN. The results indicated that the ANN and HMT efficiently modified physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of CBS and were able to improve its thermal stability, healthy benefits and application value.
The functional properties of starch depend on a number of integrated factors, which include polymer composition, molecular structure, interchain organization, and minor constituents such as lipids, phosphate ester groups, and proteins. Chemical, enzymic, and physical modification of starch, with either preservation or destruction of the native granule, broaden the functionality-imparting properties of different starches. The greatest challenge is to relate physicochemical properties and functions of starch with information on various levels of structure. There is a diversity of structures depending on starch source, amylose-amylopectin ratios, lipid, moisture and plasticizer contents, and thermo-mechanical histories. In addition to difficulties in describing and quantifying the structural morphology of starch materials, the ultra structural level of starch also presents a great challenge. This chapter discusses some aspects of phase transition behavior and other material properties of starch, particularly as they pertain to the structural order and interactions of the starch polysaccharides with water, lipids, and other solutes. Understanding the thermally induced structural transitions of starch is helpful in controlling its physical properties and processing behaviors (e.g. plasticization, viscosity), as well as in designing products with improved properties (e.g. texture, stability). The description of the state and phase transition behavior of starch systems is focused on with an emphasis on their molecular organization and their response to various environments (temperature, solvent, other cosolutes). Selected material properties are also discussed in an effort to demonstrate structure-function relationships of this biopolymer mixture in pure systems and in real food products.
Physicochemical and digestive properties between wheat starch (WS) and wheat flour (WF) which had been modified by using heat-moisture treatment (HMT) were investigated. Reduced peak viscosity and increased pasting temperature were found in both WS and WF after HMT. Samples treated with a higher moisture treatment (25% and 35%) exhibited biphasic endotherms. HMT significantly changed crystal structure of WS and WF, and patterns transferred from A to A + V with moisture content increase indicating a formation of starch–lipid complex. Besides, HMT caused the clumping of starch granules and the aggregation of denatured protein, observed using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and light microscopy. The higher moisture contents produced HMT samples with higher resistant starch content. In addition, HMT wheat flour showed a higher resistant and slowly digestible starch content when compared to the other counterpart of WS.
Barley rusks are traditional bakery items that existed as food staple of the Cretan—Mediterranean diet and a natural source of cereal β-glucans that have well-recognized hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycemic properties, largely attributed to their rheological behavior. The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of flour particle size and hydrothermal treatment on the potential nutritional functionality of barley rusks. Rusks were made using either a coarse (d50 350 μm) or a fine (d50 200 μm) barley flour stream without (control) or with prior autoclaving at two moisture levels (11–12 and 13–14%). HPLC-SEC-RI profiles of β-glucans isolated from barley flours and rusk revealed a shift of their molecular weight (MW), from above 1×106 to 0.17–0.28×106, upon rusk making due to endogenous β-glucanase activity. However, the MW of β-glucans in the products was preserved upon complete thermal inactivation of β-glucanase, merely by flour autoclaving at 13–14% moisture. The ‘physiological impact’ of barley rusks was assessed by measuring the amount of solubilized β-glucans (0.5–0.7 g/100 g rusk) and the viscosity (2–7 mPa s) of the rusk extracts, using an in vitro digestion protocol. Both autoclaving and increasing flour particle size significantly (p<0.05) increased the viscosity of the rusk ‘physiological extracts’. Furthermore, with an in vitro digestion assay, lower enzymic starch degradation was noted for the coarse flour rusks compared to the products made from the fine flour (18–37% vs. 32–53% after 5 h of digestion). Flour autoclaving also led to significant (p<0.05) reduction of starch digestibility. A strong negative correlation (p=0.003) between the degree of starch enzymic degradation and the viscosity of the rusk extracts was found. Overall, flour particle size and autoclaving of flour could be key processing factors for making barley-based baked items with improved nutritional–physiological function.
The market for gluten-free products is increasing. Owing to better diagnostic methods, more and more people are identified to have coeliac diseases. Production of bakery products that do not harm these people is a big challenge for bakers and cereal scientists in the twenty-first century. The use of different cereals and flours makes it necessary to find possibilities to take over the task of gluten by other flour ingredients, by the addition of different components, by different flour and dough treatment or by changing the method of baking. The purpose of this review is to give an overview about the various possibilities to increase the baking quality of gluten-free bakery products, increasing their water-binding capacity, uniform the crumb structure and increase the final bread volume. All the listed methods and ingredients are already in single use helpful to increase the quality in gluten-free bread production.
This work is an overview of the literature in the area of microwave treatment of starch strongly related to changes in its physicochemical, functional and structural properties. The importance of good knowledge of the microwave parameters and starch dielectric properties is highlighted to avoid the improper microwave application on starch or starch-based materials. Future perspectives of microwave processing of starch are suggested.
Mixolab, as the rheological instrument, was utilized to create gluten-free products. According to obtained Mixolab profiles, mixtures of rice flour and husked buckwheat and rice flour and unhusked buckwheat flour expressed rheological properties similar to wheat flour. In both types of mixtures the ratio of rice flour to buckwheat flour was 90:10, 80:20 and 70:30. According to the Mixolab profiles of the investigated systems, gluten-free products containing unhusked buckwheat flour had higher water absorption values, lower stability and weaker protein network structure, as well as lower peak viscosity than those consisted of husked buckwheat flour.Increasing the amount of husked buckwheat flour from 10% to 20% resulted in both G′ and yield stress value increase, but further increase of the husked buckwheat flour on 30% resulted in both G′ and yield stress value decrease. However, increasing the amount of unhusked buckwheat flour from 10% to 20% resulted in significant decrease of G′ and yield stress value having no significant impact with the addition of 30% of unhusked buckwheat flour.Hardness, expressed as a work of compression of the final product, increased with the amount of both types of buckwheat flour. Samples containing UBF expressed not significantly higher values of hardness than those prepared with HBF. According to obtained results of sensory evaluation of the final products it can be concluded that all six combinations of tested gluten-free breads were sensory acceptable.
Bread is a major staple food consumed daily in all parts of the world. A significant part of the human population cannot tolerate gluten, a storage protein found in wheat, rye and barley, and therefore, products made from alternative cereals are required. During this study, the bread-making potential of seven gluten-free flours, wheat and wholemeal wheat flour was compared. Fermentation potential of the different flours was determined, showing that dough development height of gluten-free and wholemeal wheat samples was lower than for wheat and oat flour. Apart from standard bread quality parameters such as loaf-specific volume and physical crumb texture, also water activity and shelf life have been determined. The shelf life of gluten-free breads was reduced compared to wheat bread. Aroma profiles were evaluated by a trained panel. Wheat, oat and wholemeal wheat breads were liked moderately, while the remaining samples had lower liking scores. Crumb grain characteristics were investigated using image analysis, and microstructure was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Overall, only breads produced from oat flour were of similar quality to wheat bread, and the utilization of buckwheat, rice, maize, quinoa, sorghum and teff flours resulted in breads of inferior quality.
Microwave heating of soybeans for 9 min decreased protein solubility from 80 to 17%, from 81 to 18%, and from 72 to 16% when deionized H2O, 0.6N NaCl and 0.4N CaCl2, were used as solvents, respectively. Experiments were conducted to determine ‘in vivo protein digestibility and metabolizable nitrogen using male Sprague-Dawley rats. The percentages of true digestibility were found to be 73, 84, 87 and 81 when the soybeans were microwave heated for 0, 9, 12 and 15 min, respectively. Microwave heating soybeans up to 15 min did not alter the fatty acids composition of the beans.
Starch is quantitatively an important component of the human diet, being present in grains, tubers and legumes. Starch has for a long time been considered by many as being slowly but completely digested in the small intestine, resulting in modest glycemic responses and with no physiological role other than as an energy source. It is now understood that in fact the metabolic fate and physiological properties of starch can vary considerably, and both the botanical source and the effects of food processing are major determinants of starch digestibility. In addition to the nature of the starch itself, the site, rate and extent of digestion of starch in the human small intestine are influenced by a number of host factors. The rate at which starch is digested in the human small intestine results in a wide range of glycemic responses, and this physiological measurement has been used to rank foods by their glycemic index. In vitro studies have indicated that glycemic response and the rate of starch digestion are closely correlated. Rapidly digestible starch (RDS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS) fractions together represent the starch that is likely to be digested completely in the human small intestine, with any remaining starch defined as the resistant starch (RS) fraction that is available for fermentation in the large bowel. Measurements of RDS, SDS and RS can be obtained by one simple procedure. Values for the different starch fractions obtained by the in vitro method described here represent reproducible measurements that can be used to classify dietary starch according to its potential digestibility. In addition to these starch fractions, two terms, rapidly available glucose (RAG) and slowly available glucose (SAG), are introduced to reflect the rate at which glucose (from both sugars and starch) is likely to be absorbed in the small intestine.
Cereal Chem. 83(1):62–68 Millstream flours, bran, pollard, and germ fractions were prepared from two Australian and two New Zealand wheat cultivars using a pilot-scale roller mill. The distribution of six redox enzymes in milling frac-tions and the relationship of the enzymes to baking parameters were investigated. Lipoxygenase (LOX), dehydroascorbate reductase (DAR), and protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) tended to be higher in the tail-end fractions of break and reduction flour streams, but the highest levels were in the bran, pollard, and germ fractions. These enzymes had moderate to strong correlations with ash content of flour. These results indicated that a considerable amount of these enzymes in the tail-end flour streams were likely to be derived from contamination with bran, aleurone, or germ components of grain. Peroxidase (POX) tended to be higher in the break flours, but polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and ascorbate oxidase (AOX) tended to be evenly distributed in the millstream flours. These three enzymes generally had poor correlations with ash and baking parameters. LOX and DAR had a negative correlation with the baking quality of bread made in the absence of ascorbic acid (AA) but a poor correlation with improvement of bread quality made with AA. The negative correlation probably reflects the high content of ash (hence trichomes), glutathione, and protein thiols in those fractions that have high LOX and DAR, and these high-reducing-power components and trichomes in flour may be the actual cause of poor quality bread. PDI generally had a poor correlation with bread quality in the absence of AA but a significant positive corre-lation with improvement in the quality of bread made with AA. It thus seems that the endogenous levels of these six enzymes were not a limiting factor in the breadmaking process, except for PDI, the levels of which may have positively influenced breadmaking in the presence of AA.
The effect of hydrocolloids on dough rheology and bread quality parameters in gluten-free formulations based on rice flour, corn starch, and sodium caseinate (control) was studied; the hydrocolloids added at 1% and 2% w/w (rice flour basis) were pectin, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), agarose, xanthan and oat β-glucan. The study on rheological behavior of the doughs containing hydrocolloids, performed by farinography and rheometry, showed that xanthan had the most pronounced effect on viscoelastic properties yielding strengthened doughs; addition of xanthan to the gluten-free formulation resulted in a farinograph curve typical of wheat flour doughs. Moreover, among the preparations supplemented with hydrocolloids the elasticity and resistance to deformation of dough, as determined by oscillatory and creep measurements, followed the order of xanthan > CMC > pectin > agarose > β-glucan. The type and extent of influence on bread quality was also dependent on the specific hydrocolloid used and its supplementation level. Generally, the volume of breads increased with addition of hydrocolloids except for xanthan; with increasing level of hydrocolloids from 1% to 2% the loaf volume decreased except for pectin. Empirical methods were used for evaluation of porosity and elasticity of the crumb; high values of porosity were found for breads supplemented with CMC and β-glucans at 1% concentration, and pectin at 2%, whereas high crumb elasticity was exhibited by CMC, pectin and xanthan at 2%. An increase in lightness (L value) of crust was observed with the addition of β-glucan at 1%, whereas the whiteness of crumb was improved with inclusion of xanthan. Sensory evaluation by a consumer panel gave the highest score for overall acceptability to the gluten-free formulation supplemented with 2% CMC. In most cases, addition of hydrocolloids did not affect significantly the water activity (aw) values of crumb. During storage of breads a reduction in aw and an increase in firmness of crumb (compression tests) were observed. Compared to the control formulations, crumb firmness was not alter significantly with addition of pectin, CMC and agarose (at 1–2%), and of β-glucan (at 1%); instead, addition of xanthan (1–2%) as well as β-glucan (2%) resulted in crumb hardening.
Heat-moisture treatment (HMT) and annealing (ANN) are physical modifications that change the physicochemical properties of starch without destroying its granular structure. These hydrothermal treatments are processes in which the starch-to-moisture ratio, temperature, and heating time are critical parameters that need to be controlled. In HMT, starch is heated to temperatures above the gelatinisation temperatures but with insufficient moisture to gelatinise. In ANN, starch is exposed to excess water for an extended period of time at a temperature above the glass transition but below the gelatinisation temperature. The impact of such hydrothermal treatments on starch pasting, morphological, crystalline, thermal, and physicochemical properties, as well as on the enzymatic and acid susceptibility of starch will be discussed. The paper also highlights some applications of hydrothermally treated starch. This review is of significance not only for the development of novel starches for food and non-food applications, but also for understanding the impact of HMT and ANN on starch and its functionality.
Effects of microwave heating on solubility, digestibility and metabolism of soy protein
- Y S Hafez
- A I Mohamed
- F M Hewedt
- G Singh
Hafez, Y. S., Mohamed, A. I., Hewedt, F. M., & Singh, G. (1985). Effects of microwave
heating on solubility, digestibility and metabolism of soy protein. Journal of Food
Science, 50(2), 415-417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1985.tb13415.x
Physicochemical properties and digestion of the lotus seed starch-green tea polyphenol complex under ultrasound-microwave synergistic interaction
- B Zhao
- S Sun
- H Lin
- L Chen
- S Qin
- W Wu
Zhao, B., Sun, S., Lin, H., Chen, L., Qin, S., Wu, W., et al. (2019). Physicochemical
properties and digestion of the lotus seed starch-green tea polyphenol complex under
ultrasound-microwave synergistic interaction. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 52, 50-61.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ULTSONCH.2018.11.001