Glued to Games: How Video Games Draw Us In and Hold Us Spellbound
Abstract
This book offers a practical yet powerful way to understand the psychological appeal and strong motivation to play video games.
With video game sales in the billions and anxious concerns about their long-term effects growing louder, Glued to Games: How Video Games Draw Us In and Hold Us Spellbound brings something new to the discussion. It is the first truly balanced research-based analysis on the games and gamers, addressing both the positive and negative aspects of habitual playing by drawing on significant recent studies and established motivational theory.
Filled with examples from popular games and the real experiences of gamers themselves, Glued to Games gets to the heart of gaming's powerful psychological and emotional allure—the benefits as well as the dangers. It gives everyone from researchers to parents to gamers themselves a clearer understanding the psychology of gaming, while offering prescriptions for healthier, more enjoyable games and gaming experiences.
... The need to motivate learners to stay engaged over long learning periods has been often used in the literature as the main and most important argument for the use of games in educational contexts (Plass, Homer, & Kinzer, 2015). A number of theorists (e.g., Malone & Lepper, 1987;Rigby & Ryan, 2011) have proposed explanations for why games should be motivating, mostly through the inherent game characteristics described above, which apply a range of existing motivational approaches. For instance, the interactive and competitive nature of games increases motivational constructs such as interest, intrinsic motivation, and what Csikszentmihalyi (e.g., 2008) has described as a state of flow, i.e., an extended time spent on a task with intense concentration in a way that perception of time and fatigue disappear. ...
... Ideally, the provision of challenge at the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978), i.e., the matching of challenge difficulty to student ability, satisfies the specific intrinsic needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. These three physiological needs comprise the major components of the Player Experience of Need Satisfaction model (Rigby & Ryan, 2011), which has been developed in order to identify game characteristics that are most satisfying. From the perspective of self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985;Ryan & Deci, 2002), the fulfillment of these learner needs is essential for intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy and leads to action-related behavior in terms of learning. ...
... However, there is a large discussion on how to design and how to integrate feedback and support in order to support students most effectively. Rigby and Ryan (2011) found that feedback that informs about progress during gameplay is more motivating than feedback that only indicates success and failure by the number of points and rewards. The meta-analysis of Clark et al. (2016) found feedback in games especially useful for learning outcomes when it was individually adaptive. ...
This chapter summarizes theory and empirical research concerned with the use of serious games and game-based learning in educational contexts. Relevant characteristics and theoretical foundations of the value of games are assessed. The reviewed empirical findings indicate a strong effect of serious games and game-based learning on learner motivation, affect, and cognitive outcomes. However, the direction of their impact is not always straightforward as it depends on the interplay of conditions including the game type, design features, learner characteristics, and learning activities. This chapter suggests that developers and educators take this interplay into account to ensure optimal learner experiences when developing or choosing serious games or game-based learning approaches for educational purposes.
... Games have much potential to satisfy individuals' basic psychological needs, with the degree of need satisfaction encountered within games in turn influencing game players' experiences (Adachi & Rigby, 2023;Ryan & Rigby, 2011). Studies have indeed shown that players reported greater enjoyment, less aggression, and better overall mental health when they experience more in-game psychological need satisfaction (Przybylski et al., 2014;Ryan et al., 2006). ...
... The fulfillment of the psychological needs can indeed differ between life domains (Milyavskaya et al., 2009) and when individuals' psychological need satisfaction in one life domain is severely out of balance with need satisfaction in other life domains, people may be more prone to problematic (e.g., addictive) behaviors. To understand the effects of an imbalance in need fulfillment between digital and offline contexts, the need density hypothesis was forwarded (Rigby & Ryan, 2011). This hypothesis states that people with strong experiences of in-game need satisfaction, yet who experience low need satisfaction, or even need frustration, outside the gaming context may be more prone to problematic gaming behaviors. ...
... Whereas video games are designed to include multiple and fast routes towards experiences of need satisfaction (Rigby & Ryan, 2011), school is often considered a more mixed blessing for need-based experiences, with school representing a need-thwarting effect for at least some adolescents (Vandenkerckhove et al., 2019). However, adolescents' mean level of need satisfaction in the video gaming domain was not significantly higher than their average need satisfaction in the school domain in this study, showing that school also has the potential to satisfy adolescents' basic psychological needs. ...
According to the need density hypothesis, adolescents are at risk for problematic gaming when they only experience satisfaction of their basic psychological needs within, but not outside, the gaming context. This cross-sectional study among daily gamers (N = 309, M age = 15.63, 94.8% boys) is the first to examine this hypothesis in adolescence, thereby comparing adolescents’ need fulfillment between the contexts of video games and school and examining the role of need fulfilment in both contexts in relation to problematic gaming and school outcomes. Response surface analysis showed that adolescents’ overall need satisfaction (across the two contexts) was related to lower problematic gaming and less maladaptive school outcomes. Consistent with the need density hypothesis, adolescents reported more problematic gaming, school disengagement and school burnout when high need satisfaction in the gaming context co-occurred with either low need satisfaction or high need frustration at school. Directions for future research are discussed.
... PENS measures of need satisfaction have been observed to predict game enjoyment, short-term wellbeing, and future play intentions [492]. This body of work was subsequently summarised in a "theory-based motivational model" [425, p. 154], which Rigby and Ryan also coin the "PENS model" [444,445,491]. We next examine the PENS and its components in more detail. ...
... Additionally, the model considers immersion and intuitive controls as defining aspects of the player experience [492]. The apparent utility of the PENS model is reflected in the high number of citations 4 that corresponding works [e.g., 425,445,492] have garnered. Moreover, the PENS is featured prominently in materials published by Immersyve [e.g., 444], a UX consulting and market research company co-founded by Rigby and Ryan. ...
... Ryan and Rigby posit that "the impact of nearly every element of game design can be seen as a function of its relations to basic needs" [491, p. 167-168]. The need for competence, for example, is said to be satisfied in scenes of optimal challenge, and by three types of feedback that operate at different temporal scales [445]: granular feedback, the immediate feedback players receive for each action, such as blood that appears in response to shooting an enemy; sustained feedback, which games use to recognise and reward "your skill and ability at being consistent" [445, p. 24], such as note streaks in Guitar Hero [229]; and cumulative feedback that "recognizes the player's skill and accomplishments in ways that persist" [445, p. 29] over the lifetime of the game, such as overall progress. Autonomy, in contrast, is said to be satisfied by games that allow players to enact aspects of their identity -or their avatar's -via self-expression; the degree of perceived choice in what to pursue in the game, as in RPG sidequest design; and the degree of volition games support through the provision of narrative meaning, structure, and rationales for player behaviour [445]. ...
Self-determination theory (SDT), a psychological theory of human motivation, is a prominent paradigm in human-computer interaction (HCI) research on games. However, our prior literature review observed a trend towards shallow applications of the theory. This follow-up work takes a broader view -- examining SDT scholarship on games, a wider corpus of SDT-based HCI games research (N=259), and perspectives from a games industry practitioner conference -- to help explain current applications of SDT. Our findings suggest that perfunctory applications of the theory in HCI games research originate in part from within SDT scholarship on games, which itself exhibits limited engagement with theoretical tenets. Against this backdrop, we unpack the popularity of SDT in HCI games research and identify conditions underlying the theory's current use as an oft-unquestioned paradigm. Finally, we outline avenues for more productive SDT-informed games research and consider ways towards more intentional practices of theory use in HCI.
... This is a theory of intrinsic motivation in which competence, relatedness and autonomy 225 are understood as base needs for self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Competence 226 need can be also be understood as the innate desire to expand abilities and master challenges, whereas 227 relatedness represents the need for meaningful connection (Rigby and Ryan, 2011). Finally, the need 228 for autonomy is constituted by the desire to act volitionally. ...
... competence (Rigby and Ryan, 2011). Furthermore, despite the perceived importance of these concepts, 262 ...
... This emotional connection enhances intrinsic motivation [103,104] by satisfying the psychological need for relatedness, as posited by the SDT. It achieves this by offering students meaningful roles within the story, emphasizing the importance of their actions for their group's performance [60], and fostering a shared goal within the gamified environment [104], thereby enhancing their sense of social connection [105]. Moreover, providing learning paths that resonate with students' preferences and interests allows them to influence the story or game outcomes, addressing the SDT need for autonomy [105] and increasing satisfaction [106]. ...
... It achieves this by offering students meaningful roles within the story, emphasizing the importance of their actions for their group's performance [60], and fostering a shared goal within the gamified environment [104], thereby enhancing their sense of social connection [105]. Moreover, providing learning paths that resonate with students' preferences and interests allows them to influence the story or game outcomes, addressing the SDT need for autonomy [105] and increasing satisfaction [106]. This approach also aligns with constructivist learning theory, emphasizing the importance of contextualizing learning to make it relevant for students [107,108]. ...
This study investigates the impact of structural gamification, using the digital platform FantasyClass, on the attitudes and motivation of preservice primary education teachers towards physics and chemistry. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research combined quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis involving 65 second-year university students over a 14-week course. The quantitative component was framed within a quasi-experimental pre-post design, allowing for the comparison of students’ attitudes and motivations before and after the gamified intervention. The qualitative component was designed to complement the quantitative findings. Quantitative analysis revealed significant improvements in students’ perceptions and motivation, with notable increases in positive attitudes towards these sciences. Qualitative data further highlighted enhanced interest and enjoyment, with students reporting greater engagement and a shift in their perception of physics and chemistry as accessible and enjoyable. The study also noted an increase in self-confidence among future teachers and improved teaching self-efficacy. The findings suggest that integrating gamification in initial primary science teacher education can effectively foster more favorable attitudes, enhance motivation towards science, and improve teaching confidence. Future research should explore long-term impacts, as well as personalized gamification approaches to cater to different types of learners and maximize educational effectiveness.
... In MMORPGs, for example, autonomy is fostered through the freedom to explore virtual worlds and make choices within the game (Achterbosch et al., 2008), offering players a sense of control (Przybylski et al., 2010). Competence is realized through the pursuit of goals and the mastery of in-game challenges (Reis et al., 2000), satisfying players' intrinsic need for achievement (Rigby & Ryan, 2011). Relatedness flourishes as players connect in online communities, building thriving gaming communities (Przybylski et al., 2010). ...
... Imposing upon freedoms or controlling activities are detrimental to autonomy needs (Uysal & Yildirim, 2016). Statements three and four convey the griefed players' competence, as skill in desired tasks and mastering of challenges relates to competence (Reis et al., 2000;Rigby & Ryan, 2011). Statements five and six communicate the griefed players' relatedness, as social connectedness (Ryan & Deci, 2017;Ryan et al., 2006) and inclusion in gaming community activities (Przybylski et al., 2010) convey relatedness in video games. ...
Toxic behavior has been impacting players in online multiplayer environments since their inception. Griefing is a type of toxic behavior that focuses on player-to-player in-game disruption and is quite prevalent. However, research into the extent of the impact is still scarce. The present study investigated the impact on the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as defined by the self-determination theory, for players that perform griefing (the griefers) and those subjected to griefing (the griefed). A sample of 656 respondents from massively multiplayer online role-playing game communities participated in the study. The results discovered that for the majority of players there is no change to their wellbeing, but that when there was a change, the griefed players in general were impacted more negatively, and the perpetrators were impacted more positively. Significant associations also revealed that the magnitude of impacts increased as the player was subjected to or performed griefing more frequently.
... (2) Autonomy in the task and behavior sphere: The use of AI is particularly sensitive at the level of tasks and the sum of tasks, which is summarized under the term behavior. The specific behavior of a eudaimonic-oriented person is the need for struggle and challenge [51,66], reflectiveness and reasoning [54], or learning new things [51]. It remains one of the key challenges to stabilizing eudaimonic behavior quality under the consequences of cognitive offloading of processes to AI, the reduced need for memorization, and thus changing learning behavior. ...
... (2) Autonomy in the task and behavior sphere: The use of AI is particularly sensitive at the level of tasks and the sum of tasks, which is summarized under the term behavior. The specific behavior of a eudaimonic-oriented person is the need for struggle and challenge [51,66], reflectiveness and reasoning [54], or learning new things [51]. It remains one of the key challenges to stabilizing eudaimonic behavior quality under the consequences of cognitive offloading of processes to AI, the reduced need for memorization, and thus changing learning behavior. ...
Psychological-philosophical perspectives on well-being have recently reached the research field of human-centered artificial intelligence (HCAI). One of the challenges of HCAI is the analysis of the effects of AI on well-being or more specifically on eudaimonic well-being (EWB). We discuss the extent to which eudaimonic orientations can be mapped in AI interaction and how human-AI interaction generally affects EWB variables (autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, purpose in life, positive relationship with others, self-acceptance). In this position paper, we propose these variables as useful reflection dimensions for AI technology developments and at the same time discuss the challenges that the eudaimonic AI development community will have to face in the future.
... Theory predicts that relatedness experiences with both human players and non-player characters or worlds would similarly lead to greater engagement and enjoyment in games (Rigby and Ryan, 2011;Tyack and Wyeth, 2017). Measures of relatedness satisfaction and frustration should therefore carefully word items so as to allow players to report feelings of social connectedness either with other human players or non-player characters. ...
... Related to the BANGS' good match with SDT theory and the nuances of the gaming domain, we want to highlight the formulation of relatedness items that are able to capture feelings of social connectedness with both other human players and non-player-controlled characters or virtual settings. That these experiences could contribute to the overall sense of relatedness that players derive from games has been theorized for several years (Rigby and Ryan, 2011;Tyack and Wyeth, 2017) and is herein operationalized as a single factor that can be broadly applied. ...
... Rigby et al. emphasized the impact of social interactions on learning motivation and satisfaction [63]. Ryan and Deci also highlighted the potentially crucial influence of connections in interpersonal activities [33]. ...
... Destructive social interactions, where success is achieved by undermining others, can lead to a sense of oppression. On the other hand, if competition is friendly and encourages collaboration and support, it can foster constructive competition, potentially cultivating a sense of connection and enhancing learning motivation [63]. According to Xu et al., the social mechanisms in gamification can enhance participants' sense of engagement [64] Based on the above literature, the following hypotheses were formulated for this study: ...
In recent years, research and applications related to the metaverse have garnered widespread attention in the field of online education. However, enhancing user experiences in metaverse learning remains a challenging issue. This study aims to explore how gamification enhances the metaverse learning experience by boosting learning motivation. In the first phase of the research, the relationship between gamification, learning motivation, and user learning satisfaction was examined. The results indicated higher user satisfaction with gamified metaverse learning experiences, with intrinsic and external regulations serving as mediating factors between gamification and learning satisfaction. In the second phase of the study, the five elements of gamification (challenge, reward, feedback, PBL, social interaction) were further validated for their role in enhancing learning motivation and, consequently, improving learning satisfaction. Notably, the rewarding element emerged as the most significant factor. These research findings hold practical significance for providers of metaverse learning experiences and the application of gamification in metaverse learning. They provide valuable insights for future research and practical implementation in this evolving field.
... Games are interactive systems inherently designed to be enjoyable [27,38,98,109,116]. Hence, the primary goal of game design focuses on providing players with more enjoyable experiences, trying to capture them in the game for as long as possible [17,30,45,97,104]. ...
The games research community has developed substantial knowledge on designing engaging experiences that draw players in. Surprisingly, less is known about player disengagement, with existing work predominantly addressing disengagement from the perspective of problematic play, and research exploring player disengagement from a constructive designer perspective is lacking. In this paper, we address this gap and argue that disengagement from games should be constructively designed, allowing players to exit play sessions in a self-determined way. Following a two-phase research approach that combines an interview study ( n =16) with a follow-up online survey ( n =111), we systematically analyze player perspectives on exiting play sessions. Our work expands the existing notion of disengagement through a characterization of exit experiences, a lens on disengagement as a process, and points for reflection for the design of games that seek to address player disengagement in a constructive way.
... Games tend to include enabling mapping to game design components that support behavior changes, so deploying SDT in games can increase engagement and enjoyment. Research suggests that games that satisfy the need for competence through optimal challenges are the most important contributor to the enjoyment of games (Rigby and Ryan, 2011;Tamborini et al, 2010). Autonomy and competence are positively associated with enjoyment, engagement and well-being (Ryan, Rigby and Przybyski, 2006). ...
Serious games (SGs) must engage, be entertaining and have a serious purpose to be effective. A health behavior change game (HBCG) can help change poor health behaviors but are difficult to design. One problem is there are few design tools to support developers of these types of games. This paper describes a card-based design tool for use during the idea generation phase of game design. The research question is: To what extent does an idea generation card tool have perceived value for SG designers generating ideas for behavior change games? This paper reports on the deployment of the tool for an HBCG to help individuals improve their diet and levels of physical activity. An evaluation was undertaken using qualitative data gathered through interviews with serious game developers and a focus group conducted with student game designers. Emergent common themes across both data sets were that the tool had practical and emotional value. Practical value in using the cards was found in the card structure, card content and sorting process. Emotional value included the positive feelings of having physical cards in front of them to use, the presentation of ideas and support provided on a topic they knew little about which brought some relief, increasing confidence and allowing for a more creative environment by freeing up their imagination. Negative feelings were also experienced and included participants remaining anxious about the range, complexity and interrelatedness of the concepts they needed to consider.
... Compared to individual leaderboards, the competition provided by team leaderboards could be more constructive as they encourage cooperation, support, and skill development among members (Rigby and Ryan, 2011;Sailer and Sailer, 2021). ...
Background
Leaderboards are among the most popular gamification elements in education. Some studies have implemented leaderboards and reported their individual effects on students' learning. Despite the emergence of relevant empirical studies, most of the existing reviews have only investigated the holistic impact of gamification. No previous systematic reviews were identified examining the individual use of leaderboards.
Objective
To address this gap, this review aims to systematically synthesise the existing empirical evidence concerning leaderboard use in education, examine their designs and effectiveness, and propose leaderboard design recommendations in gamified educational settings.
Method
This systematic review drew upon 20 articles (22 studies; 29 interventions) published from 2014 to 2023.
Results
The results found that using leaderboards can have a beneficial influence on students' learning motivation, engagement, and performance, but their effectiveness largely depends on their designs. Thus, this review examined the effectiveness of specific leaderboard design practices on students' learning and proposed four corresponding leaderboard design recommendations based on well‐established educational and motivational theories as well as pertinent empirical studies.
Discussions and Conclusions
Notably, this review found that all included studies were undertaken in higher education and around half of them had short durations (less than or equal to 1 h). More longitudinal studies in other educational levels (e.g., primary and secondary schools) are thus called for to examine the validity and generalisability of the recommendations proposed.
... Effective implementation of gamification can increase student motivation, active learning, and enjoyable and immersive educational situation [14]. Specifically, in the area of education, gamification can be a tool with great affinity for teaching physical activity practice due to its highly playful component that can promote greater motivation of students [15,16]. Moreover, gamification strategies lead to setting specific objectives in PE classrooms, making a way to achieve problem solving, decision making, and strategic thinking, which are cognitive skills essential for sports practice [17]. ...
Citation:
Sotos-Martinez, V.J.; Baena-Morales, S.; Sanchez-De Miguel, M.; Ferriz-Valero, A. Playing towards Motivation: Gamification and University Students in Physical Activity! Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 965.
Abstract:
There is currently concern about the decrease in physical activity participation among university students. To address this issue, different pedagogical approaches have been developed to improve participants' motivation, with gamification standing out among them. Gamification integrates game design elements into learning environments to increase responsibility, motivation, and engagement in physical activities in different educational stages through intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, although evidence is limited and diverse. Therefore, this study investigates how gamification affects the motivational profile of university students in the context of physical activity. The study was conducted with university students of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences (n = 72), using an experimental design that included a gamified group (GG) and a control group (CG) without gamification. A questionnaire was used to measure motivation before and after the intervention. The results showed a significant increase in intrinsic motivation and a decrease in amotivation in the gamified group, while no significant changes were observed in the control group. However, there were increases in extrinsic motivation in both groups. These findings suggest that gamification can be effective in improving intrinsic motivation and reducing amotivation in university students for physical activity as well as enhancing extrinsic motivation considering the rewards used.
... Building on this, how does play matter to the application of difference evaluation and management mindsets? We argue that games are particularly useful arenas for discovering and evaluating differences, as play pushes participants into novel forms of action requiring mutual reliance for solving complex tasks [21], [39], [42], which may reveal differences that would otherwise remain hidden. Play is also open and variable, shaped by the players with no unilaterally correct approach to interaction, allowing evaluations and interactions to emerge between people [21], [25]. ...
The use of collaboration as an approach to learning is pervasive both in work and education, and it is commonplace for serious games to employ collaboration. Collaboration in serious games may enhance learning and provide players with an engaging and enjoyable experience. However, collaboration is often taken for granted in research, neglecting to account for between-group variance and how collaboration emerges. This exploratory study aims to improve understanding of how collaboration emerges during play by investigating experiences and actions believed to foster collaboration. To achieve this, 69 students were studied across two separate sessions, one digital and one physical, in groups of 3-5. We observed both sessions and conducted 13 in-depth interviews. The findings of the study indicate that the emergence of collaboration relies on cognitive management of difference mindsets, individuals adapting to group strengths and weaknesses, and joint goal-directed play. We find that serious games can create unique ways for collaboration to emerge not found in non-game collaboration, which may positively influence learning under the right conditions. Our findings provide insight into some such conditions, but further research is needed to improve understanding of what these conditions are and how to reach them.
... Additionally, the process of achieving long-term goals may itself be motivating, as it allows players to track their progress and see their own improvement. This finding is consistent with the previous research on motivation and suggests that setting clear goals for oneself can be a powerful motivator for video game players (Rigby & Ryan, 2011;Ryan et al., 2006). The positive effect of Easter eggs and hidden content on player satisfaction is also consistent with prior research on the role of discovery in the enjoyment of video games (Lyons et al., 2011;Quick et al., 2012). ...
The focus of the article is the user motivation and satisfaction from playing video games. It covers the basic information on the video game player types and the video game market. The aim of this work is to assess the factors influencing the motivation and satisfaction from playing video games. The purpose of this study is to examine what elements influence motivation and satisfaction in the video game players and what aspects of playing video games are influenced by the gamers’ motivation. The study tested and applied a theoretical model in the context of video game players. To test the suggested research model, a structural equation modeling’s partial least squares approach was used. Data from the 1,400 video game players were gathered through an online survey. SmartPLS 4 was used to analyze the data set. The results indicated that the most accurate predictor of the players’ motivation is satisfaction, followed by openness of the world. Motivation predicted the users’ achievements, competitiveness, and long-term goals. The video game producers are especially interested in this research because the findings help better understand the motivation and satisfaction of video game players.
... The building blocks enable building a system which behavior builds a game characteristic via interaction. Interaction is key, as without interaction, no game characteristic can show up [24], [39]. Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between building blocks and game characteristics. ...
Repetitive tests on a learning material help schoolchildren to memorize and to learn this material. Psychologists call this phenomenon the testing effect. Skilled teachers use learning plays to embed routine tests in an engaging way. To widespread this practice, we propose a framework to digitize learning plays embedding routine tests into educational videogames. We have identified the smallest set of game design elements required to build an educational videogame out of a learning play. We have used the self-determination theory to group game design elements, and to define a breakdown structure for engagement engineering. This structure helps select the appropriate design elements for an engagement driver. We have applied the framework to digitize a learning play. We have tested the digital play with 238 schoolchildren who considered it as a video game. The video game tested a proposed pattern to create challenges allowing an engaging flow experience. The pattern increased responses (9%) and created time distortion (24%). Delivering rewards following variable schedules reduced errors (49%) and increased time distortion (16%). This research explores how to digitize learning plays into engaging educational video games and how to design engaging video games to remediate missed learning.
... Technology discontinuance is a common problem (Saeed & Abdinnour, 2013) that often arises when people perceive fun, enjoyment, and engagement at low levels (Salimon et al., 2017). To increase users' satisfaction with technological applications, scholars have attempted to use game designs to enhance user motivations through gamification (Rigby & Ryan, 2011;Yee, 2006). In the education context, scholars have extensively investigated gamified systems' effect on learning outcomes through enhanced social interaction and engagement (Cheong et al., 2019). ...
... When it comes to motivation, Rigby and Ryan outline several key motivators for effective game design, including autonomy, competence, and relevance [4]. Autonomy refers to feelings of control and choice, competence refers to feelings of mastery and effectiveness, and relevance refers to feelings of connection to others. ...
In the era of digital transformation, the integration of game design and interaction design has become an important trend, and its scope of application has gone beyond purely entertaining applications. This thesis investigates the principles of gamified interaction with a focus on how game design elements can be utilized to enhance the user experience in non-game applications. The research objective of this thesis is to investigate the effectiveness and limitations of gamification design in a variety of contexts when incorporating it into educational, business, health, and other types of applications. The study employs a mixed research methodology, which includes analysis and comparison of the literature, as well as a specific case study of the Chinese fitness app "Keep" to demonstrate real-world applications. The data for this study came from existing academic papers, app analysis, user feedback and design evaluation. This thesis finds that gamified interactions have a significant impact on user engagement and motivation, providing valuable insights for designers to create more engaging digital environments.
... With this provocation, we aim to utilize the insights from our scoping review to propose concrete design rules. Interactive systems promote eudaimonic experiences when they can contribute to fostering behaviors such as learning, critical refection, intrinsic motivation, cognitive loading, or fow experience [6,23,24,33]. At the same time, psychological well-being variables as already mentioned above have to be taken into account, because they highly infuence eudaimonic functioning. ...
The demand for a design for productivity and efficiency of technology is increasingly giving way to the demand for eudaimonic well-being (EWB) focusing on the support of user’s authenticity, excellence, meaning, and growth. Especially in human-computer interaction (HCI), the question is how EWB can be stimulated in its facets. In this provocative paper, we present the Eudaimonic User Experience (EUX) and its design rules and artifacts that we have derived based on previous work from HCI and psychology. The design rules are primarily intended to serve as a basis for discussing the possibility of focusing on alternative design beyond the current doctrines of simplicity, gradualism, and ease of use, which could be more human-centered than the aforementioned principles.
... For example, the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scales (BPNSFS) (Chen et al., 2015) is a set of questionnaires that assess the degree to which people feel satisfaction or frustration of the three basic psychological needs and can be an invaluable tool to study how well the gamification design meets individuals' basic psychological needs. The Player Experience of Need Satisfaction (PENS) scales (Rigby & Ryan, 2011;Ryan et al., 2006), originally designed for game research, could be adapted to evaluate not only the degree of needs satisfaction but also the levels of physical presence, emotional presence, narrative presence, and intuitive control in gamified systems. In addition to providing research tools, the ongoing SDT research suggests new research methods that could be adopted to inform gamification research. ...
Gamification possesses a great potential to shape human behaviors and performance. However, the mixed results in gamification research suggest the need to develop a thorough understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings of gamification. Although self-determination theory (SDT) provides a solid theoretical framework to achieve such purposes, it has been mostly applied superficially, limiting its potential to significantly impact gamification research and practice. This paper suggests that SDT, particularly three ideas in SDT – a continuum of motivation, the mutually supportive nature of basic psychological needs, and the functional significance of an event – have not been fully explored in gamification research and practice. Attention to the three ideas and relevant SDT literature will advance gamification research and practice in the following ways. First, the idea of continuum of motivation can serve as a powerful framework to conceptualize gamification. Second, the ideas of mutually supportive nature of basic psychological needs and the functional significance of an event can help us develop a nuanced instead of simplistic approach to gamification design. Finally, the three ideas suggest important research directions that have yet to be fully explored in current gamification research.
... Games are interactive systems inherently designed to be enjoyable [27,38,98,109,116]. Hence, the primary goal of game design focuses on providing players with more enjoyable experiences, trying to capture them in the game for as long as possible [17,30,45,97,104]. ...
The games research community has developed substantial knowledge on designing engaging experiences that draw players in. Surprisingly, less is known about player \textit{dis}engagement, with existing work predominantly addressing disengagement from the perspective of problematic play, and research exploring player disengagement from a constructive designer perspective is lacking. In this paper, we address this gap and argue that disengagement from games should be constructively designed, allowing players to exit play sessions in a self-determined way. Following a two-phase research approach that combines an interview study (n=16) with a follow-up online survey (n=111), we systematically analyze player perspectives on exiting play sessions. Our work expands the existing notion of disengagement through a characterization of exit experiences, a lens on disengagement as a process, and points for reflection for the design of games that seek to address player disengagement in a constructive way.
... Studies have shown video games to be a highly motivating activity [1][2][3]. Gamification adopts characteristic features of video games, also referred to as "game elements", to improve users' motivation and engagement towards certain activities and to promote learning or other positive behaviors, such as adopting environmentally friendly habits [4,5]. Game elements can be, for example, points, badges, leaderboards, levels, and many others [4]. ...
Gamification represents a solution to motivate and engage
users by introducing elements and characteristics of video games in non-playful activities. To help designers in the definition of these gamified systems, researchers are developing a consistent amount of gamification design frameworks. Through the current scientometric review, we analyzed a total of 1,751 results and 64,109 unique references and identified the most impactful publications in the domain of gamification design frameworks, the most relevant authors, and how research trends have changed over time. On the basis of the analysis, we also provide four
suggestions for the future agenda. As a pioneering scientometric examination of the gamification design frameworks literature, this study will appeal to a diverse audience including academic researchers at various stages of their careers, graduate students, and professors seeking to discern research trends, pertinent subjects, major publications, and key scholars within the field.
... The advantage of gamification has been examined in numerous studies. It was most linked with the self-determination theory which claims the satisfaction of psychological needs is fundamental for intrinsic motivation and learning (Rigby and Ryan 2011). With this theoretical foundation, effective gamification taps into key motivational triggers of human behaviour by a balanced mix of reinforcements (Patr� ıcio, Moreira, and Zurlo 2018). ...
... The integration of augmented reality and gamified learning can increase interaction in educational games and provide more learning guidance in higher education courses (Lin & Hou, 2022), and such simulations emphasize learners' participation in learning activities, prompting them to change from passive recipients of information to active constructors of knowledge with the support of technology (Cheng & Jin, 2013), gamified learning also has a facilitating role in stimulating learning, improving learning performance, and enhancing general competence (Bodnar et al., 2016), and by constructing games in specific knowledge domains such as foreign languages, learning experiences may be perceived as fun, meaningful, and useful (Pitura & Terlecka-Pacut, 2018). AR-GBL's combination of game functionality and physical environments can lead to a more seamless and fluid integration of games into the classroom environment, an integration that helps students to engage in their learning without having to put extra effort into focusing on the content, thus enhancing the learning experience (Chen & Mokmin, 2024).While there is also some controversy, such as whether competition mechanisms in gamification play a facilitating or negative role in learning engagement (De-Marcos et al., 2014), competition can induce pressure to promote active participation of learners and can have a constructive impact on engagement and learning (Burguillo, 2010), it can also undermine intrinsic motivation, and students may also experience frustration when competition fails or they fall behind, leading to reduced engagement (Rigby & Ryan, 2011). ...
The integration of Augmented Reality (AR) with game-based learning helps to create highly immersive, interactive, and stimulating mobile learning environments and has been shown to be effective in practical teaching and learning, but the moderating role of collaborative and competitive strategies in gamified augmented reality learning has not been studied in detail. To investigate the effectiveness of augmented reality-based gamified teaching and learning and the differences in effectiveness under different competitive strategies, this study developed a gamified learning course and the accompanying AR software, and conducted a systematic random sampling of 175 first-year university students to differentiate between different experimental groups, with those who used a team competitive strategy as the control group and those who used an individual competitive strategy as the experimental group, and used the Cultural Literacy, Computational Thinking, Cognitive Load and Game Experience questionnaire instruments to measure learning outcomes. Results showed that the use of augmented reality-based gamification learning strategies significantly improved students' cultural literacy and algorithmic thinking in computational thinking. The collaboration group had a significantly higher sense of positive game experience and cultural literacy than the individual group, while the individual group had significantly higher mental effort and cognitive load than the collaboration group. These finding shed light on the effect of AR–GBL promoting learning engagement, knowledge presentation and teamwork. It also verify potential impact of integrating AR technology and the use of motivational strategies of inter-group competition can be considered in sensory experience-based activities.
... Most interestingly, it is therefore not necessary to interact with a real interaction partner (as, for example, in multiplayer games): even interacting with nonplayer characters (NPCs) can provide a sense of relatedness (Rigby and Ryan, 2011). A qualitative survey among players of video games identified a variety of seven forms of emotional attachment, ranging from admiration to deep emotional concern for NPCs (Bopp et al., 2019). ...
Intergroup contact theory, as one of the most established research strands in social psychology, has mostly relied on overall measured averages of intergroup contact over larger time spans. Yet, in everyday life, intergroup contact experiences are far more complex: they are sequential and cumulative and may vary on a range of dimensions, such as, for example, their perceived valence. In this article, I introduce a new experimental paradigm, primarily developed as a research manipulation, to examine intergroup contact, manipulated on the unit of single interactions in a video-game setting, which can also be run from a web server, so that participants can join from their home computers. Depending on experimental condition, in a first study, participants rated the perceived quality of multiple positive or negative intergroup interactions with an alien species and intergroup attitudes in a storytelling questionnaire setting (Pilot Study, N = 242). Study 1 implemented these positive and negative interactions in a video game, which was played in the laboratory (N = 44), and examined their effects on the perceived contact quality and intergroup attitudes. Study 2 (N = 64) utilized a web-based version of the video game to test the effects on intergroup attitudes. In all three studies participants in the positive condition evaluated the interactions, as well as the overall outgroup, more positive than participants in the negative condition. Furthermore, Study 1 and 2 explored participants' perception of the virtual environment and previous experiences with video games. The results suggest that specifically developed video games offer new pathways to study intergroup interactions.
... That is, much if not most of human learning (both within and outside formal education) occurs because of our interest and curiosity in activities, from which we acquire knowledge and skills. Research in SDT suggests that sustained playful learning involves experiencing a sense of autonomy and competence, which are often richly afforded within game environments (Rigby & Ryan, 2011). ...
This perspective piece explores the transformative potential and associated challenges of large language models (LLMs) in education and how those challenges might be addressed utilizing playful and game-based learning. While providing many opportunities, the stochastic elements incorporated in how present LLMs process text, requires domain expertise for a critical evaluation and responsible use of the generated output. Yet, due to their low opportunity cost, LLMs in education may pose some risk of over-reliance, potentially and unintendedly limiting the development of such expertise. Education is thus faced with the challenge of preserving reliable expertise development while not losing out on emergent opportunities. To address this challenge, we first propose a playful approach focusing on skill practice and human judgment. Drawing from game-based learning research, we then go beyond this playful account by reflecting on the potential of well-designed games to foster a willingness to practice, and thus nurturing domain-specific expertise. We finally give some perspective on how a new pedagogy of learning with AI might utilize LLMs for learning by generating games and gamifying learning materials, leveraging the full potential of human-AI interaction in education.
... Although mechanisms such as compensation and dissociation have been extensively studied in previous literature on problematic gaming, to our knowledge they have not yet been linked to each other. Drawing from approaches such as the "compensatory theory of online involvement" (Kardefelt-Winther, 2014b), the "need-density hypothesis" (Rigby & Ryan, 2011, the "self-discrepancy hypothesis" (Klimmt, Hefner, & Vorderer, 2009), and the "dilution effect" (Cheng, Cheung, & Wang, 2018), the overall meaning of compensation in online gaming concerns the overreliance on the gaming environment to alleviate negative emotions and/or to meet thwarted needs, with negative consequences on the individual functioning that are proportional to the intensity of those emotions and needs. On the other hand, dissociation refers to "a disruption of and/or a discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior" (APA, 2013, p. 291). ...
In this article, we critically overview existing studies on compensatory and dissociative mechanisms associated with problematic gaming, with a focus on escapism. Thus, we present a theoretical model integrating current research. In the first section, we link compensatory and dissociative processes related to gaming on a continuum that corresponds to the degree of connection/rupture between physical and virtual environments of the individual. In the second section, we discuss the strengths and limitations of existing conceptualizations and measures of
escapism. We contend that escapism in gaming represents a key dimension of the compensation for difficulties in psychological needs satisfaction in the physical environment, differently from escape (avoidance) and from general immersion in video games. In the last section, we elaborate the Compensatory-Dissociative Online Gaming (C-DOG) model, which defines a set of interconnected psychological processes operationalizing the continuum between adaptive and pathological online gaming: relaxation, body-mind detachment, active escapism, escape,
and dissociation. This model provides an unprecedented way to consider meaningful processes for the clinical evaluation and treatment of problematic gaming, as well as the association of problematic gaming with emerging social withdrawal conditions, such as hikikomori.
... Technology discontinuance is a common problem (Saeed & Abdinnour, 2013), often due to low perceptions of fun, enjoyment, and engagement (Salimon et al., 2017). To increase users' satisfaction in technological applications, scholars have attempted to utilize the potential benefits of game designs in enhancing user motivations through gamification (Rigby & Ryan, 2011;Yee, 2006). In the context of education, scholars have extensively investigated the effect of gamified systems on learning outcomes in which gamification can be considered an effective tool to improve the learning environment due to enhanced social interaction and engagement (Cheong et al., 2019). ...
... A gamified IS can make a user's performance visible, for example, through points or badges received for completed work (Sailer et al., 2013). This reward mechanism provides the user with motivating feedback and immediate reinforcement and thereby reaffirms the user's abilities (Hamari & Eranti, 2011;Rigby & Ryan, 2011;Sailer et al., 2013). This way, users receive recognition and praise for their performance in the gamified IS (Antin & Churchill, 2011). ...
... Sustained engagement improves the educating potential of the game. (Rigby & Ryan, 2011) The optimal engagement can be achieved by following Ouariachi Framework, a framework for climate change engagement in games, which can be translated to other SDGs as well. (Ouariachi et al., 2019) Engagement as well as the quality of used engagement attributes depends on the player as well. ...
Games have developed quite far as a medium in the last decades. Games are
being created not only for entertainment but also for educational purposes.
Social topics are becoming more common for players to experience through
games.
This work reviews activism and its connection to games. It takes a closer look
at the development of games as an activism tactic by looking at established
terms like games for change, serious games, etc. Finally, it defines the term
‘activism game’ and describes use-case examples of it. The suggested term
offers a more concrete definition for games on social topics.
Video games are an interesting example of technologies/media able to generate complex emotions. Indeed, part of the emotions commonly arising in the experience of video gamers are quite negative. On the one hand, video gamers may feel frustration and anger due to the difficulty of the gameplay. On the other hand, they may experience sadness, anxiety and fear due to the immersion into emotionally rich narratives. Yet, video gamers seem to appreciate gaming technologies generating negative emotions, and the research on media frequently highlights a counterintuitive positive relation between negative affect and enjoinment/well-being outcomes. Starting from these premises, the present chapter is aimed to review the negative emotions typical of video games, in order to understand in what ways they can concur in generating an overall positive experience. Then, the chapter discusses implications for research on video games as positive technologies, namely technologies able to promote well-being in their users.
Motivation and autonomy are fundamental concepts in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), yet in User Experience (UX) research they have remained surprisingly peripheral. We draw on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to analyse autonomous and non-autonomous patterns of motivation in 497 interaction experiences. Using latent profile analysis, we identify 5 distinct patterns of motivation in technology use -- "motivational profiles" -- associated with significant differences in need satisfaction, affect, and usability. Users' descriptions of these experiences also reveal qualitative differences between profiles: from intentional, purposive engagement, to compulsive use which users themselves consider unhealthy. Our results complicate exclusively positive notions of intrinsic motivation, and clarify how extrinsic motivation can contribute to positive UX. Based on these findings we identify open questions for UX and SDT, addressing "hedonic amotivation" -- negative experiences in activities which are intrinsically motivated but not otherwise valued -- and "design for internalisation" -- scaffolding healthy and sustainable patterns of engagement over time.
For decades, research on technology use and mental health has been based on the assumption that identifiable structures of ‘design’ are psychologically relevant for their users. This has been central especially for the nosological emergence of ‘behavioural addictions’, which currently include two formal diagnoses on technology use: problems related to playing gambling games (gambling disorder) and videogames (gaming disorder). Alas, the research on identifying ‘addictive’ design structures has suffered from major construct validity issues. To make progress over those issues, I draw from the history of ‘vitality affects’ in psychiatry and introduce vitality structures as a design-phenomenological framework that can help researchers conceptualise psychologically relevant ‘bonds’ between entities of game design and corresponding player phenomenology. Vitality structures are not natural kinds to be discovered but pragmatic constructs to be used—and useful as long as they communicate what is both identifiable and empirically prevalent. As a demonstration of practice, I propose working conceptualisations of three vitality structures, which surface in videogames played by gaming treatment-seekers. Systematic research programs for identifying relevant vitality structures can lead to construct-valid and replicable design effects.
Existing theories of how game use relates to mental health have important limitations: few account for both quantity and quality of use, differentiate components of mental health (hedonic wellbeing, eudaimonic wellbeing and illbeing), provide an explanation for both positive and negative outcomes or readily explain the well-evidenced absence of playtime effects on mental health. Many also lack the specificity to be readily falsifiable. In response, we present the Basic Needs in Games (BANG) model. Grounded in self-determination theory, BANG proposes that mental health outcomes of game use are in large part mediated by the motivational quality of play and the extent to which play quantity and quality lead to need satisfaction or frustration. We show how BANG addresses the limitations of current theories and aligns with emerging evidence on the etiologies of disordered play. Thus, BANG advances HCI theory on the impact of games and other interactive technologies on mental health.
Smartphone applications are one of the main delivery modalities in digital health. Many of these mHealth apps use gamification to engage users, improve user experience, and achieve better health outcomes. Yet, it remains unclear whether gamified approaches help to deliver effective, safe, and clinically beneficial products to users. This study examines the compliance of 69 gamified mHealth apps with the EU Medical Device Regulation and assesses the specific risks arising from the gamified nature of these apps. Of the identified apps, 32 (46.4%) were considered non-medical devices; seven (10.1%) were already cleared/approved by the regulatory authorities, and 31 (44.9%) apps were assessed as likely non-compliant or potentially non-compliant with regulatory requirements. These applications and one approved application were assessed as on the market without the required regulatory approvals. According to our analysis, a higher proportion of these apps would be classified as medical devices in the US. The level of risk posed by gamification remains ambiguous. While most apps showed only a weak link between the degree of gamification and potential risks, this link was stronger for those apps with a high degree of gamification or an immersive game experience.
Motivation and autonomy are fundamental concepts in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), yet in User Experience (UX) research they have remained surprisingly peripheral. We draw on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to analyse autonomous and non-autonomous patterns of motivation in 497 interaction experiences. Using latent profile analysis, we identify 5 distinct patterns of motivation in technology use — “motivational profiles” — associated with significant differences in need satisfaction, affect, and usability. Users’ descriptions of these experiences also reveal qualitative differences between profiles: from intentional, purposive engagement, to compulsive use which users themselves consider unhealthy. Our results complicate exclusively positive notions of intrinsic motivation, and clarify how extrinsic motivation can contribute to positive UX. Based on these findings we identify open questions for UX and SDT: addressing “hedonic amotivation” — negative experiences in activities which are intrinsically motivated but not otherwise valued — and “design for internalisation” — scaffolding healthy and sustainable patterns of engagement over time.
This chapter explores the innovative use of game elements and mechanics in event planning to enhance engagement, foster interaction, and create memorable experiences. Beginning with an introduction to gamification concepts and objectives, the chapter delves into the psychology of gamification and various types of gamification techniques. It provides insights into integrating gamification into event planning processes, including pre-event planning, execution, and post-event evaluation. Ethical considerations and challenges, such as ensuring fairness and inclusivity, addressing negative impacts, and mitigating over-competitiveness, are discussed. Additionally, the chapter explores future trends and innovations in event gamification, including emerging technologies, personalization trends, and integration with virtual and hybrid events. The chapter also highlights the power of gamification in transforming event experiences and offers practical insights for event planners and organizers to leverage gamification effectively.
Self-determination theory (SDT), a psychological theory of human motivation, is a prominent paradigm in human-computer interaction (HCI) research on games. However, our prior literature review observed a trend towards shallow applications of the theory. This follow-up work takes a broader view – examining SDT scholarship on games, a wider corpus of SDT-based HCI games research (N=259), and perspectives from a games industry practitioner conference – to help explain current applications of SDT. Our findings suggest that perfunctory applications of the theory in HCI games research originate in part from within SDT scholarship on games, which itself exhibits limited engagement with theoretical tenets. Against this backdrop, we unpack the popularity of SDT in HCI games research and identify conditions underlying the theory's current use as an oft-unquestioned paradigm. Finally, we outline avenues for more productive SDT-informed games research and consider ways towards more intentional practices of theory use in HCI.
In the era of globalization, organizations face the multifaceted challenge of maintaining high levels of employee engagement across diverse cultural contexts. As traditional motivational strategies encounter limitations in this complex landscape, the rise of digital solutions has paved the way for innovative approaches. Among these, gamification, which involves the integration of game-like elements into non-gaming contexts, has emerged as a particularly promising strategy to invigorate the modern workforce. With its blend of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational elements, gamification has the potential to bridge cultural gaps, cater to the digital-native demographic, and foster a deeper sense of connection and commitment among employees. This paper embarks on a comprehensive journey, providing a conceptual exploration of the intricate synergy between gamification and global employee engagement. Central to our discourse is the importance of cultural considerations. We delve deep into empirical insights, drawing from real-world case studies and research findings, to substantiate the tangible benefits and challenges of gamified engagement strategies. Furthermore, the paper underscores practical implications, offering organizations a roadmap to harness the power of gamification effectively. Through this, we aim to provide academics and practitioners alike with a holistic understanding of gamification's transformative potential in the realm of global employee engagement.
This chapter continues to outline the field of digital badges, stressing open badges, the context of gamification and the utilization of digital badges in the area of learning analytics.
Gamification in secondary mathematics learning is a strategy explored to motivate older people and improve school results. Various gamified strategies are being examined to achieve this effect. The theoretical foundations rest on the theory of flux and the theory of self-determination. The methods used include points and reward systems, récits and characters, challenges and competitions, progression and levels, as well as immediate feedback. The results indicate a positive impact on students' motivation and academic performance. Gamification has been shown to increase participation and engagement, leading to better math results. In conclusion, gamification offers effective strategies to promote second mathematics learning, although the need to adapt to the individual and dynamic desires of the class is reconnected. This approach can complement traditional pedagogical practices and improve the mathematics pedagogical experience of secondary students
This research study examines the relationship between school climate, perceived parental support, life satisfaction, and Internet gaming disorder in adolescents. A total of 719 respondents aged 16-19 years participated in the study (M=17.8; SD=1.11). The questionnaire battery consisted of the following research methodologies: the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form (IGDS9-SF; Pontes, Griffiths, 2015), the Delaware School Climate Survey-Student Questionnaire (Bear et al, 2011), Perceived Parental Support Scale (PPS, Thorlindsson et al., 1998), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS, Diener, et. al., 1985). Results demonstrated that parental support acted as a mediator in the relationship between perceived life satisfaction and Internet gaming disorder in adolescents.
Examines the Dollard et al. (1939) frustration–aggression hypothesis. The original formulation's main proposition is limited to interference with an expected attainment of a desired goal on hostile (emotional) aggression. Although some studies have yielded negative results, others support the core proposition. Frustrations can create aggressive inclinations even when they are not arbitrary or aimed at the subject personally. Interpretations and attributions can be understood partly in terms of the original analysis but they can also influence the unpleasantness of the thwarting. A proposed revision of the 1939 model holds that frustrations generate aggressive inclinations to the degree that they arouse negative affect. Evidence regarding the aggressive consequences of aversive events is reviewed, and Berkowitz's cognitive–neoassociationistic model is summarized.
Over the last 30 years, the video game industry has grown into a multi-billion dollar business. More children and adults are spending time playing computer games, consoles games, and online games than ever before. Violence is a dominant theme in most of the popular video games. This article reviews the current literature on effects of violent video game exposure on aggression-related variables. Exposure to violent video games causes increases in aggressive behavior, cognitions, and affect. Violent video game exposure also causes increases in physiological desensitization to real-life violence and decreases in helping behavior. The current video game literature is interpreted in terms of the general aggression model (GAM). Differences between violent video game exposure and violent television are also discussed.
Human survival is directly tied to our relationship with the natural environment. Achieving a sustainable lifestyle depends on establishing a balance between the consumption of individuals, and the capacity of the natural environment for renewal. Yet, we often act as ifwe are separate from nature — as if we can get along without nature. Indeed, built environments serve as barriers between individuals and the natural environments in which they live. Offices, schools, homes, cars, restaurants, shopping malls, and many other built environments segregate people from nature. This chapter examines the implicit connection that individuals make between self and nature, and the impact of built environments on these implicit cognitions. A psychological model for inclusion with nature is presented, containing cognitive (connectedness), affective (caring), and behavioral (commitment) components. Implicationsfor theory, design, and sustainability are discussed.
In this study, we examined gender differences in video game use by focusing on interpersonal needs for inclusion, affection, and control, as well as socially constructed perceptions of gendered game play. Results of a large-scale survey (n = 534) of young adults’ reasons for video game use, preferred game genres, and amount of game play are reported. Female respondents report less frequent play, less motivation to play in social situations, and less orientation to game genres featuring competition and three-dimensional rotation. Implications for game design are discussed.
Research on violent video games suggests that play leads to aggressive behavior. A longitudinal study of an online violent video game with a control group tested for changes in aggressive cognitions and behaviors. The findings did not support the assertion that a violent game will cause substantial increases in real-world aggression. The findings are presented and discussed, along with their implications for research and policy.
Three experimental studies, one correlational study, and a meta-analysis tested key hypotheses concerning the short-term and long-term impact of exposure to violent video games. Experiment 1 found that violent video games in general increase the accessibility of aggressive thoughts. Experiments 2 and 3 found that playing violent video games increased aggression, even when arousal and affect were controlled. Experiments 2 and 3 also found that trait hostility and trait aggression were positively related to laboratory aggression. Furthermore, there was correlational evidence of a link between repeated exposure to violent video games and trait aggressiveness. Mediational analyses suggested that the trait effects and the violent video game effects on laboratory aggression were partially mediated by revenge motivation. The correlational study uncovered links between habitual exposure to violent video games, persistent aggressive cognitions, and self-reported aggressive behavior. A destructive testing regression approach found that the video game violence/aggression link remained significant even after stressing the link by partialling out sex, narcissism, emotional susceptibility, and Big Five personality factors. However, consistent with prior empirical and theoretical work emphasizing the importance of media violence in the creation of habitual aggressive patterns of thought, partialling out aggressive attitudes reduced the video game violent/aggression link to nonsignificance. The meta-analyses revealed significant effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, affect, and cognition; on cardiovascular arousal; and on prosocial behavior. A best-practices meta-analytic approach revealed that contrary to media industry claims, better conducted studies tend to yield stronger effects of violent video games on aggression and aggression-related variables than do more poorly conducted studies.
Recognizing recent criticisms concerning the cross-cultural generalizability of self-determination theory (SDT), the authors tested the SDT view that high school students in collectivistically oriented South Korea benefit from classroom experiences of autonomy support and psychological need satisfaction. In Study 1, experiences of autonomy, competence, and relatedness underlaid Korean students’ most satisfying learning experiences, and experiences of low autonomy and low competence underlaid their least satisfying learning experiences. In Study 2, psychological need satisfaction experiences were associated with productive (achievement and engagement) and satisfying (intrinsic motivation and proneness to negative affect) student outcomes. Study 3 replicated and extended Study 2’s structural equation modeling findings by showing that the hypothesized model explained students’ positive outcomes even after controlling for cultural and parental influences, including the collectivistic value orientation. Study 4 replicated the earlier cross-sectional findings with a semester-long prospective 3-wave design. The authors discuss how the findings support the motivation theory’s cross-cultural generalizability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
distinguishing among intentional acts: the "why" of behavior [intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, internalization and integration, the consequences of different regulatory styles, the social context and motivational orientations] / the "what" of goals: considering content [goal content and mental health, why do some people focus on extrinsic goals, goals and needs: are some goals better than others] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies examined the significance of children's perceptions of their classroom environment along autonomy vs external control dimensions. Study 1 related a self-report measure of the perceived classroom climate—R. deCharms's (1976) origin climate questionnaire—to other self-related constructs. Among 140 4th–6th graders, the more "origin" the Ss perceived in their classroom, the higher their perceived self-worth, cognitive competence, internal control, and mastery motivation, and the lower their perceived control by unknown sources or powerful others. These relationships were primarily due to individual differences within classrooms rather than average classroom differences. Ss also wrote projective stories about an ambiguous classroom scene. Ratings of these stories indicated that originlike behavior in Ss' fantasy was associated with autonomy-oriented teachers and low aggression. Self-report and projective methods converged, particularly for Ss whose self-reported perceptions were extreme. In Study 2, with 578 Ss, relative contributions of classroom and individual difference effects were further examined. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of perceived autonomy and issues in assessment strategies. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of the present paper is to present a new conceptualisation on passion for activities, the Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al., 2003) and an overview of related research. Passion is defined as a strong inclination toward an activity that people like, find important, and in which they invest time and energy. This model further posits the existence of two types of passion each associated with different outcomes and experiences. Harmonious passion originates from an autonomous internalisation of the activity in identity and leads people to choose to engage in the activity that they love. It is expected to mainly lead to more adaptive outcomes. Conversely, obsessive passion originates from a controlled internalisation in identity and leads people to experience an uncontrollable urge to engage in the activity. It is hypothesised to predict less adaptive outcomes. Results of several studies conducted with a variety of participants, activities, and outcomes provide support for the model. The development of passion was also addressed. These studies clearly support the significant role of passion in people's lives.
Four studies apply self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) in investigating motivation for computer game play,
and the effects of game play on well-being. Studies 1–3 examine individuals playing 1, 2 and 4 games, respectively and show
that perceived in-game autonomy and competence are associated with game enjoyment, preferences, and changes in well-being
pre- to post-play. Competence and autonomy perceptions are also related to the intuitive nature of game controls, and the
sense of presence or immersion in participants’ game play experiences. Study 4 surveys an on-line community with experience
in multi-player games. Results show that SDT’s theorized needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness independently predict
enjoyment and future game play. The SDT model is also compared with Yee’s (2005) motivation taxonomy of game play motivations.
Results are discussed in terms of the relatively unexplored landscape of human motivation within virtual worlds.
Violent video games are increasingly popular, raising concerns by parents, researchers, policy makers, and informed citizens about potential harmful effects. Chapter 1 describes the history of violent games and their explosive growth. Chapter 2 discusses research methodologies, how one establishes causality in science, and prior research on violent television, film, and video games. Chapter 3 presents the General Aggression Model, focusing on how media violence increases aggression and violence in both short and long-term contexts. Important scientific questions are answered by three new studies. Chapter 4 reports findings from a laboratory experiment: even children's games with cartoonish violence increased aggression in children and college students. Chapter 5 reports findings from a survey study of high school students: frequent violent game play leads to an angry and hostile personality and to frequent aggression and violence. Chapter 6 reports findings from the first longitudinal study video game effects: elementary school children who frequently played violent games early in the school year became more verbally and physically aggressive, and less helpful. Chapters 7 and 8 compare a host of risk factors for development of aggression, and find video game effects to be quite important. Chapter 9 describes the role of scientific findings in public policy, industry responses to scientific findings, and public policy options. Chapter 10 recommends that public policy debates acknowledge the harmful effects of violent video games on youth, and urges a more productive debate about whether and how modern societies should act.
A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d = -0.40, -0.36, and -0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completion-contingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d = -0.15, and -0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. The authors review 4 previous meta-analyses of this literature and detail how this study's methods, analyses, and results differed from the previous ones.
Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness--which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy.
Research on exposure to television and movie violence suggests that playing violent video games will increase aggressive behavior. A metaanalytic review of the video-game research literature reveals that violent video games increase aggressive behavior in children and young adults. Experimental and nonexperimental studies with males and females in laboratory and field settings support this conclusion. Analyses also reveal that exposure to violent video games increases physiological arousal and aggression-related thoughts and feelings. Playing violent video games also decreases prosocial behavior.
Physicians used either an autonomy-supportive or a controlling interpersonal style to counsel smokers based on National Cancer Institute guidelines. Physician autonomy support was rated from audiotapes, and patients' perceived competence and autonomous motivation for quitting were self-reported on questionnaires. Validated point prevalences for 6, 12, and 30 months and for continuous cessation were examined. The intervention did not have a direct effect on quit rates; however, structural equation modeling supported the self-determination process model of smoking cessation. The model indicated that the autonomy-supportive intervention was rated as more autonomy supportive, that rated autonomy support predicted autonomous motivation, and that autonomous motivation predicted cessation at all points in time. Perceived competence contributed independent variance to cessation only at 6 months.
To compare the video and computer game play patterns of young adolescent boys and girls, including factors correlated with playing violent games.
Data collected in November/December, 2004 from children in grades 7 and 8 at two demographically diverse schools in Pennsylvania and South Carolina, using a detailed written self-reported survey.
Of 1254 participants (53% female, 47% male), only 80 reported playing no electronic games in the previous 6 months. Of 1126 children who listed frequently played game titles, almost half (48.8%) played at least one violent (mature-rated) game regularly (67.9% of boys and 29.2% of girls). One third of boys and 10.7% of girls play games nearly every day; only 1 in 20 plays often or always with a parent. Playing M-rated games is positively correlated (p < .001) with being male, frequent game play, playing with strangers over the Internet, having a game system and computer in one's bedroom, and using games to manage anger.
Most young adolescent boys and many girls routinely play M-rated games. Implications for identifying atypical and potentially harmful patterns of electronic game use are discussed, as well as the need for greater media literacy among parents.
To determine if a patient-centered, computer-assisted diabetes care intervention increased perceived autonomy support, perceived competence (from self-determination theory), and if these constructs mediated the effect of the intervention on ADA/NCQA recommended diabetes care outcomes.
A randomized controlled trial of 866 adult type 2 diabetes patients in heterogeneous primary care settings in Colorado.
Perceived autonomy support, perceived competence, patient satisfaction, glycemic control (HbA1c), ratio of total to HDL cholesterol, diabetes distress, and depressive symptoms.
The computer-assisted intervention increased patient perception of autonomy support relative to a computer-based control condition ( p = .05). Change in perceived competence partially mediated the effects of increased autonomy support on the change in lipids, diabetes distress, and depressive symptoms. The construct of autonomy support was found to be separate from that of patient satisfaction.
A patient-centered, computer-assisted intervention was effective in improving diabetes self-management outcomes, in part, because it increased patients' perception that their autonomy was supported which changed perceived competence. These findings support the self-determination model for health behavior change and the chronic care model and support the further study of the use of these technologies to motivate patients to improve their health outcomes.
Video games provide extensive player involvement for large numbers of children and adults, and thereby provide a channel for delivering health behavior change experiences and messages in an engaging and entertaining format.
Twenty-seven articles were identified on 25 video games that promoted health-related behavior change through December 2006.
Most of the articles demonstrated positive health-related changes from playing the video games. Variability in what was reported about the games and measures employed precluded systematically relating characteristics of the games to outcomes. Many of these games merged the immersive, attention-maintaining properties of stories and fantasy, the engaging properties of interactivity, and behavior-change technology (e.g., tailored messages, goal setting). Stories in video games allow for modeling, vicarious identifying experiences, and learning a story's "moral," among other change possibilities.
Research is needed on the optimal use of game-based stories, fantasy, interactivity, and behavior change technology in promoting health-related behavior change.
America is fascinated by violence—where it comes from in ourselves, how it spreads through society, what effect it has on younger generations, and how it looks, in all its chilling and sanguine detail. This arresting collection of essays examines numerous facets of violence in contemporary American culture, ranging across literature, film, philosophy, religion, fairy tales, video games, children’s toys, photojournalism, and sports. Lively and jargon-free, Why We Watch is the first book to offer a careful look at why we are drawn to depictions of violence and why there is so large a market for violent entertainment. The distinguished contributors, hailing from fields such as anthropology, history, literary theory, psychology, communications, and film criticism, include Allen Guttmann, Vicki Goldberg, Maria Tatar, Joanne Cantor, J. Hoberman, Clark McCauley, Maurice Bloch, Dolf Zillmann, and the volume’s editor, Jeffery Goldstein. Together, while acknowledging that violent imagery has saturated western cultures for millennia, they aim to define what is distinctive about America’s contemporary culture of violence. Clear, accessible and timely, this is a book for all concerned with the multiple points of access to violent representation in 1990s America.
The world of exercise and sport is fascinated by motivation and the factors that drive it. It's no wonder researchers both in and out of the sport domain will enthusiastically welcome Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Exercise and Sport. Motivation is central to many social psychological theories that aim to explain behavior, including self-determination theory, one of the most influential theories of human motivation developed in the last three decades. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Exercise and Sport examines the contribution of this theory to the understanding of motivation and behavior in the domains of exercise and sport. This is the first book to synthesize key research of self-determination theory as it relates to sport and exercise into one convenient volume. Written by a broad range of leading researchers, this reference will be a trend setter in the understanding of internal motivation and how to maximize performance and adherence. Furthermore, this volume will fill in research gaps, improve existing research, and set new directions for research in this vibrant area. Self-determination theory is based on the premise that individuals pursue self-determined goals to satisfy their basic psychological needs to independently solve problems, interact socially, and master tasks. The book begins with an introductory chapter in which the founding fathers of self-determination theory, Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan, provide an overview of the theory and its constituent subtheories and chart its history with respect to exercise and sport, highlighting classic studies and seminal works along the way. This introduction masterfully provides sufficient theoretical grounding and serves as an excellent prologue to subsequent chapters.
Self-determination theory (SDT) assumes that inherent in human nature is the propensity to be curious about one's environment and interested in learning and developing one's knowledge. All too often, however, educators introduce external controls into learning climates, which can undermine the sense of relatedness between teachers and students, and stifle the natural, volitional processes involved in high-quality learning. This article presents an overview of SDT and reviews its applications to educational practice. A large corpus of empirical evidence based on SDT suggests that both intrinsic motivation and autonomous types of extrinsic motivation are conducive to engagement and optimal learning in educational contexts. In addition, evidence suggests that teachers' support of students' basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness facilitates students' autonomous self-regulation for learning, academic performance, and well-being. Accordingly, SDT has strong implications for both classroom practice and educational reform policies.
Participation in expansive video games called `virtual worlds' has become a mainstream leisure activity for tens of millions of people around the world. The growth of this industry and the strong motivational appeal of these digital worlds invite a closer examination as to how educators can learn from today's virtual worlds in the development of next generation learning environments. Self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan and Deci, 2000) has shown value in explaining both the motivational dynamics of learning (Deci et al., 1994), as well as the strong motivational pull of video games and virtual worlds (Ryan et al., 2006). As such, SDT provides a framework that can bridge the gap between education and consumer virtual worlds and be applied to new research and development in how to best build virtual worlds for learning. The concept of the `learner hero' is introduced as a potentially useful unifying concept in considering how to leverage the high motivational appeal of commercial virtual worlds in building digital learning environments.
Using both self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and Dweck's (1991) entity versus incremental personality distinction, we examined the role of motivation as a predictor of treatment success in a methadone maintenance program. Specifically, it was predicted that internal motivation and perceived autonomy support would be associated with better treatment adherence as indicated by negative urine tests, attendance, and the attainment of take-home methadone dosages, whereas external motivation was not expected to enhance these outcomes. Results generally supported these hypotheses, yet also indicated that high levels of external motivation coupled with low levels of internal motivation predicted particularly poor treatment outcomes. In addition, patients embracing an entity belief that their addiction was a fixed aspect of self also attained better outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of the dynamics of motivation in addiction treatments.
The proposition, derived from self-determination theory (SDT), that autonomy-support has a positive effect on self-motivation and well-being, is examined in two distinct cultural settings. Participants were 264 high school students from Russia and the United States who completed measures of perceived parental- and teacher-autonomy-support, academic motivation, and well-being. Means and covariance structure analyses were used to examine the cultural comparability of measured constructs. Results supported the hypotheses that Russian adolescents would perceive parents and teachers as more controlling than U.S. students; and in both samples, perceived autonomy-support would predict greater academic self-motivation and well-being. Results are discussed in terms of SDT’s postulate of a basic human need for autonomy in the context of cultural variations.
Although positive effects of children playing video games have been found, recent research suggests that exposure to violent video games may lead to an increase in aggressive behavior. This study investigated the effects of playing violent versus nonviolent video games on the interpretation of ambiguous provocation situations. Participants were 52 third- and fourth-grade children. Children played with either a very violent video game, "Mortal Kombat II," or a relatively nonviolent video game, "NBA Jam: TE," for 13 minutes. Following the video game play, children were read five stories in which a same-sex peer caused a clearly negative event to happen but the intent of the peer causing this negative event was ambiguous. After each story, children were asked a series of questions about the peer's intent, subsequent actions, and whether the peer should be punished and how much. Responses were coded in terms of amount of negative and violent content. Results indicated that children playing the violent video game responded more negatively on three of the six ambiguous provocation story questions than children playing the nonviolent video game. These data suggest that playing violent video games leads to the development of a short-term hostile attribution bias. (Author/HTH)
Based on a motivational perspective of passion, we investigated the associations between passion for the Internet and level of self-determined motivation toward the couple's relationship. Our results show that an obsessive passion toward the Internet was associated with lower self-determination in the couple, greater conflict in the relationship, and low levels of dyadic adjustment. In contrast, harmonious passion toward the Internet was associated with greater self-determination in the couple, less conflict, and greater dyadic adjustment. Results suggest that use of the Internet is not necessarily associated with negative interpersonal outcomes. Rather, it appears that the way the activity has been internalized is associated with how individuals internalize their reasons for behaving in other domains.
Violent content video games such as Mortal Kombat and Doom have become very popular among children and adolescents, causing great concern for parents, teachers, and policy makers. This study cumulates findings across existing empirical research on the effects of violent video games to estimate overall effect size and discern important trends and moderating variables. Results suggest there is a smaller effect of violent video games on aggression than has been found with television violence on aggression. This effect is positively associated with type of game violence and negatively related to time spent playing the games. Directions for future programmatic research on video games are outlined.
Digital gaming is fast becoming a favorite activity all over the world. Yet very few studies have examined the underlying motivational processes involved in digital gaming. One motivational force that receives little attention in psychology is passion, which could help us understand the motivation of gamers. The purpose of the present study was to identify subgroups of young people with distinctive passion profiles on self-determined regulations, flow dispositions, affect, and engagement time in gaming. One hundred fifty-five students from two secondary schools in Singapore participated in the survey. There were 134 males and 8 females (13 unspecified). The participants completed a questionnaire to measure harmonious passion (HP), obsessive passion (OP), perceived locus of causality, disposition flow, positive and negative affects, and engagement time in gaming. Cluster analysis found three clusters with distinct passion profiles. The first cluster had an average HP/OP profile, the second cluster had a low HP/OP profile, and the third cluster had a high HP/OP profile. The three clusters displayed different levels of cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes. Cluster analysis, as this study shows, is useful in identifying groups of gamers with different passion profiles. It has helped us gain a deeper understanding of motivation in digital gaming.
ObjectivesBased on self-determination theory [SDT; Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The “what” and the “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268], the present study examines whether the negative effect of framing an exercise activity in terms of an extrinsic, relative to an intrinsic, goal attainment on performance occurs because extrinsic, relative to intrinsic, goal framing detracts individuals’ attention from the exercise activity, thereby undermining a task involvement, while simultaneously activating the tendency to prove one's ability by outperforming others, thus promoting ego involvement.DesignTwo experimental studies among 10th, 11th, and 12th grade students during their physical education classes were conducted.MethodsT-testing, one-way ANOVA analyses and regression analyses were performed to examine main effects and mediatonal effects, respectively.ResultsResults confirmed the hypotheses and further showed that being ego involved when being taught a new exercise activity is antithetical to the development of a task involvement, indicating that goal involvement (in contrast to goal orientations) is a bipolar construct.DiscussionFindings are discussed in terms of the processes that link goal framing to exercise performance and in terms of the ongoing controversy among achievement goal theorists whether being ego involved in the activity or adopting an ego-approach orientation is facilitative or maladaptive for optimal performance. Regarding the latter issue, a new multiple goal perspective, that is the regulatory goal perspective, is introduced.
Considerable research has demonstrated that playing violent video games can increase aggression. The theoretical framework upon which a good deal of this research has rested is known as the General Aggression Model (GAM; [Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51]). The current study tested an assumption of the GAM by examining if the dispositional trait of anger moderated the relation between violent video games and aggression. A total of 167 undergraduate students (79 females, 88 males) first completed a measure of anger and were then randomly assigned to play either a non-violent or violent video game. After the video game play period, participants completed ambiguous story stems in order to assess aggression. Consistent with predictions of the GAM, anger significantly moderated the effect of video game violence on aggression. Specifically, participants who were angry were more affected by violent video games than participants who were not angry.
Online survey data were collected from 30,000 users of Massively Multi-User On- line Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) over a three year period to explore users' demographics, motivations, and derived experiences. Not only do MMORPGs ap- peal to a broad age range (Mage 26.57, range 11- 68), but the appeal is strong (on average 22 hours of usage per week) across users of all ages (r -.04). An exploratory factor analysis revealed a five factor model of user motivations— Achievement, Relationship, Immersion, Escapism, and Manipulation—illustrating the multifaceted appeal of these online environments. Male players were significantly more likely to be driven by the Achievement and Manipulation factors, while female players were significantly more likely to be driven by the Relationship factor. Also, the data indicated that users derived meaningful relationships and salient emotional experiences, as well as real-life leadership skills from these virtual environments. MMORPGs are not simply a pastime for teenagers, but a valuable research venue and platform where millions of users interact and collaborate using real-time 3D avatars on a daily basis.
Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.
A number of emerging technologies including virtual reality, simulation rides, video conferencing, home theater, and high definition television are designed to provide media users with an illusion that a mediated experience is not mediated, a perception defined here as presence. Traditional media such as the telephone, radio, television, film, and many others offer a lesser degree of presence as well. This article examines the key concept of presence. It begins by noting practical and theoretical reasons for studying this concept. Six conceptualizations of presence found in a diverse set of literatures are identified and a detailed explication of the concept that incorporates these conceptualizations is presented. Existing research and speculation about the factors that encourage or discourage a sense of presence in media users as well as the physiological and psychological effects of presence are then outlined. Finally, suggestions concerning future systematic research about presence are presented.
The present research examined the background and consequences of different styles of engagement in video game play. Based on self-determination theory(1) and the dualistic model of passion,(2) the authors hypothesized that high levels of basic psychological need satisfaction would foster harmonious passion for video play, supporting the subjective sense that play is something one wants to do. It was also predicted that low levels of need satisfaction would promote obsessive passion for games and contribute to the feeling that game play is something one feels compelled to or has to do. It was expected, in turn, that passion for play would directly influence player outcomes closely tied to games, moderate links between play and well-being, and relate to overall levels of well-being as a function of basic need satisfaction. As expected, results showed that low levels of basic need satisfaction were associated with more obsessive passion, higher amounts of play, greater tension following play, and low game enjoyment, whereas high levels of need satisfaction did not predict hours of play but were associated with more harmonious passion, game enjoyment, and energy following play. Moderation analyses showed that high amounts of play related negatively to well-being only to the extent that players reported an obsessive passion and that the unique relations between passion and overall levels of player well-being were quite small once controlling for their basic need satisfaction in daily life. Discussion of the current findings focuses on their significance for understanding disordered play and the value of applying a theory-based approach to study motivation for virtual contexts.
Four studies examined the effects of nature on valuing intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations. Intrinsic aspirations reflected prosocial and other-focused value orientations, and extrinsic aspirations predicted self-focused value orientations. Participants immersed in natural environments reported higher valuing of intrinsic aspirations and lower valuing of extrinsic aspirations, whereas those immersed in non-natural environments reported increased valuing of extrinsic aspirations and no change of intrinsic aspirations. Three studies explored experiences of nature relatedness and autonomy as underlying mechanisms of these effects, showing that nature immersion elicited these processes whereas non-nature immersion thwarted them and that they in turn predicted higher intrinsic and lower extrinsic aspirations. Studies 3 and 4 also extended the paradigm by testing these effects on generous decision making indicative of valuing intrinsic versus extrinsic aspirations.
Six studies, two survey based and four experimental, explored the relations between violent content and people's motivation and enjoyment of video game play. Based on self-determination theory, the authors hypothesized that violence adds little to enjoyment or motivation for typical players once autonomy and competence need satisfactions are considered. As predicted, results from all studies showed that enjoyment, value, and desire for future play were robustly associated with the experience of autonomy and competence in gameplay. Violent content added little unique variance in accounting for these outcomes and was also largely unrelated to need satisfactions. The studies also showed that players high in trait aggression were more likely to prefer or value games with violent contents, even though violent contents did not reliably enhance their game enjoyment or immersion. Discussion focuses on the significance of the current findings for individuals and the understanding of motivation in virtual environments.
Parents' use of conditional regard as a socializing practice was hypothesized to predict their children's introjected internalization (indexed by a sense of internal compulsion), resentment toward parents, and ill-being. In Study 1, involving three generations, mothers' reports of their parents' having used conditional regard to promote academic achievement predicted (a) the mothers' poor well-being and controlling parenting attitudes, and (b) their college-aged daughters' viewing them as having used conditional regard, thus showing both negative affective consequences from and intergenerational transmission of conditional regard. Study 2 expanded on the first by using four domains, including both genders, and examining mediating processes. College students' perceptions of their mothers' and fathers' having used conditional regard in four domains (emotion control, prosocial, academic, sport) were found to relate to introjected internalization, behavioral enactment, fluctuations in self-esteem, perceived parental disapproval, and resentment of parents. Introjection mediated the link from conditional regard to behavioral enactment. The results suggest that use of conditional regard as a socializing practice can promote enactment of the desired behaviors but does so with significant affective costs.
An empirical model of player motivations in online games provides the foundation to understand and assess how players differ from one another and how motivations of play relate to age, gender, usage patterns, and in-game behaviors. In the current study, a factor analytic approach was used to create an empirical model of player motivations. The analysis revealed 10 motivation subcomponents that grouped into three overarching components (achievement, social, and immersion). Relationships between motivations and demographic variables (age, gender, and usage patterns) are also presented.
Computer games have become an ever-increasing part of many adolescents' day-to-day lives. Coupled with this phenomenon, reports of excessive gaming (computer game playing) denominated as "computer/video game addiction" have been discussed in the popular press as well as in recent scientific research. The aim of the present study was the investigation of the addictive potential of gaming as well as the relationship between excessive gaming and aggressive attitudes and behavior. A sample comprising of 7069 gamers answered two questionnaires online. Data revealed that 11.9% of participants (840 gamers) fulfilled diagnostic criteria of addiction concerning their gaming behavior, while there is only weak evidence for the assumption that aggressive behavior is interrelated with excessive gaming in general. Results of this study contribute to the assumption that also playing games without monetary reward meets criteria of addiction. Hence, an addictive potential of gaming should be taken into consideration regarding prevention and intervention.
Self-report correlational data support self-determination theory's (SDT's) postulate that there are three basic psychological needs, for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which combine additively to predict well-being and thriving. However, experimental research in the SDT tradition has focused only on autonomy support, not relatedness and competence support. To fill this gap, we employed a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design within a game-learning experience to predict rated need satisfaction, mood, and motivation, and also objective game performance. Manipulated competence and relatedness support had main effects on most outcomes. Rated competence, relatedness, and autonomy need satisfaction also predicted the outcomes, and the significant experimental main effects were all mediated by the corresponding rated variables. Neutral control group data showed that thwarting participants' needs is more impactful than enhancing them. These findings offer new support for key postulates of SDT, while integrating the correlational and experimental traditions in this area.
Video game violence has become a highly politicized issue for scientists and the general public. There is continuing concern that playing violent video games may increase the risk of aggression in players. Less often discussed is the possibility that playing violent video games may promote certain positive developments, particularly related to visuospatial cognition. The objective of the current article was to conduct a meta-analytic review of studies that examine the impact of violent video games on both aggressive behavior and visuospatial cognition in order to understand the full impact of such games.
A detailed literature search was used to identify peer-reviewed articles addressing violent video game effects. Effect sizes r (a common measure of effect size based on the correlational coefficient) were calculated for all included studies. Effect sizes were adjusted for observed publication bias.
Results indicated that publication bias was a problem for studies of both aggressive behavior and visuospatial cognition. Once corrected for publication bias, studies of video game violence provided no support for the hypothesis that violent video game playing is associated with higher aggression. However playing violent video games remained related to higher visuospatial cognition (r (x) = 0.36).
Results from the current analysis did not support the conclusion that violent video game playing leads to aggressive behavior. However, violent video game playing was associated with higher visuospatial cognition. It may be advisable to reframe the violent video game debate in reference to potential costs and benefits of this medium.
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