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JURNAL TRANSFORMATIF (ISLAMIC STUDIES)
p-ISSN 2580-7056; e-ISSN 2580-7064
DOI. 10.23971/tf.v7i2.7481
195
Cultural Barriers of Islamic Higher Education Students in
Indonesia (Differences Between Gender, Ethnicity, Economy
Background, and Parental Education)
Ahmad Juhaidi
Universitas Islam Negeri Antasari Banjarmasin
ahmadjuhaidi@uin-antasari.ac.id
Abstract: Cultural barriers affect students' academic performance. Cultural barriers
reflect the cultural capital of education in the family. This study aims to verify the
influence of gender, ethnicity, family economic background, and parents' education
level on students' cultural barriers. The approach used is a quantitative approach
with t-test analysis, Kruskal Wallis H test, and descriptive statistics. The research
uses questionnaires and is distributed online with Google Forms. It uses convenience
and snowballing sampling techniques. The study participants amounted to 391
students of Antasari State Islamic University Banjarmasin. This study found that
gender, ethnicity, and education level of parents had a significant effect on the level
of cultural barriers of students. Economic level or family income did not affect the
level of cultural barriers of students. The study recommends future studies to verify
the influence of gender, ethnicity, family economic background, and parental
education level on student academic achievement by mediating student cultural
barriers. In addition, this study suggests that the study be conducted in one country
and a larger sample so that generalizations will be broader. Higher education
administrators are recommended to provide academic and non-academic support
services for ethnic minority students, underprivileged students, and other
disadvantaged groups.
Keywords: Cultural Barrier, Cultural Capital
Abstrak: Hambatan kultural mahasiswa berpengaruh terhadap prestasi akademik
mereka. Hambatan kultural mencerminkan modal kultural pendidikan dalam
keluarga. Penelitian ini bertujuan memverifikasi pengaruh gender, etnis, latar
belakang ekonomi keluarga, dan tingkat pendidikan orang tua terhadap hambatan
kultural mahasiswa. Pendekatan yang digunakan adalah pendekatan kuantitatif
dengan analisis t-tes dan uji Kruskal Wallis H, serta statistic deskriptif. Pengumpulan
data menggunakan angket yang disebar secara daring dengan Google Forms.
Partisipan penelitian berjumlah 391 mahasiswa Universitas Islam Negeri Antasari
Banjarmasin. Penetapan sample menggunakan teknik convenience dan snowballing
sampling. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa gender, etnis, dan tingkat pendidikan
orang tua berpengaruh signifikan terhadap tingkat hambatan kultural mahasiswa.
Sebaliknya, tingkat ekonomi atau pendapatan keluarga tidak berpengaruh terhadap
tingkat hambatan kultural mahasiswa. Penelitian ini merekomendasikan penelitian
berikutnya untuk memverifikasi pengaruh gender, etnis, latar belakang ekonomi
keluarga, dan tingkat pendidikan orang tua terhadap prestasi akademik mahasiswa
dengan mediator hambatan kultural mahasiswa. Selain itu, penelitian ini menyarankan
penelitian dilakukan pada satu negara dan sample yang lebih banyak sehingga
generalisasi akan lebih luas. Administratur perguruan tinggi direkomendasikan untuk
memberikan layanan dukungan akademik dan non-akademik bagi kelompok
mahasiswa etnis minoritas, mahasiswa tidak mampu, serta kelompok lain yang kurang
beruntung.
Kata kunci: Hambatan kultural, modal kultural
Copyrigt ©2023 Ahmad Juhaidi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Cultural Barriers of Islamic Higher Education Students in Indonesia
196
INTRODUCTION
The academic culture in college life that is different from the culture in the family
and community causes students to experience cultural barriers. Students who do not
spend time reading, cooperating, discussing, and being independent will experience
a mismatch in home-university culture. Children feel they are entering new
territory, and parents cannot convince them (Cushman, 2007). Cultural values in
the family that are not in line with university culture cause cultural barriers when
children enter university. Therefore, Kwangman Ko et al. concluded that cultural
barriers are incompatible with home-university culture (Ko et al., 2023). They argue
that cultural barriers are reflected in low child-parent interaction. In other words,
cultural barriers reflect the level of cultural capital the family provides.
Cultural capital is an invisible resource reflected in knowledge, qualifications,
tastes, and choices seen in parents' education level and societal involvement
(Pagulayan et al., 2021). Cultural capital can be seen in parental education,
academic encouragement, parental expectations, home support, and parental
supervision (Tan et al., 2019). Cultural barriers or low cultural capital can be seen
from parents' low support, interaction, and education (Johnson & Reed, 2023).
Material cultural capital in the form of ownership of books, paintings, computers,
and the internet affects expectations in education (Ding & Wu, 2023). Families that
cannot provide material cultural capital will have an impact on cultural gaps and
low cultural capital when children are in college. The ability to seek family support
and assistance to solve problems in the educational process is a form of cultural
capital (Richards, 2022).
The family's cultural capital affects cultural barriers and academic achievement.
The unavailability of family cultural capital causes an increase in cultural barriers,
which decreases student academic achievement. Research has proven the effect of
cultural capital on academic performance. Yang et al, for example, concluded that
cultural capital built up in families will significantly impact students' PISA test
scores when culture and art are not an essential part of the education system (Yang
et al., 2022). Other studies have shown that cultural capital determines students'
academic aspirations (Özdemir et al., 2021) and student achievement (Bojczyk et
al., 2019). In addition, students who have cognitive competence are also related to
cultural capital (Kai, 2023). Cultural capital in the form of parental support is
significant and has an effect on increasing student achievement (Greene & Anyon,
2014; Roksa & Kinsley, 2019).
Previous studies have shown that cultural barriers are due to gender, ethnicity,
family economic background, and parental education level. According to Lok-Wah
Li et al. Latino and Afro-American ethnic teachers/caregivers experience more
significant cultural barriers than white teachers/caregivers(Li et al., 2023).
Immigrant students experience cultural barriers due to cultural misalignment with
university culture and structure (Harvey & Mallman, 2019). Students from low-
income families tend to experience cultural mismatches that affect academic
achievement(Stephens et al., 2012) and language learning(Hossain, 2016). Students
Ahmad Juhaidi
197
from low-income families feel a sense of cultural incongruity and feel that their
dignity differs from their upper-middle-class peers (Schudde, 2018).
The level of cultural barriers of students is also related to the educational level of
their parents. H. Harju-Luukkainen et al. explained that low levels of parental
education have low awareness in providing a supporting environment for the
learning process, such as books and attitudes, thus impacting children's learning
outcomes(Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2020). The parental education level affects the
family's cultural capital (Pagulayan et al., 2021). The level of education of parents
determines the provision of a supportive environment at home and the environment
has an effect on student motivation and achievement (Havidz & Mujakiah, 2023).
Father's education level affects students' education at the high school level and in
college (Ahmed & Nauriyal, 2023). These studies have provided evidence that low
parental education impacts their level of support for children's education.
Studies of students' cultural barriers, especially ethnicity-related ones, are rare.
Habibi and Fajarianingtyas' research concluded that students on the coast of Madura
experienced cultural barriers because they followed their parents' work rhythms, so
their learning habits were still low (Habibi & Fajarianingtyas, 2013). At the
university level, Wangid and Sugiyanto conduct research on cultural barriers. He
concluded that the main inhibiting factors for completing students' final projects are
knowledge, compiling thesis, and external factors of supervisors (Wangid &
Sugiyanto, 2013). Other research on cultural barriers focuses more on students'
efforts to adapt to their social environment (Andi Winata et al., 2014) and
adaptation strategies for Papuan students to overcome sociocultural differences
when studying on Java Island (Ariani, 2015). They do not explicitly mention
student cultural barriers in the viewpoint of the family-university cultural gap. On
the other hand, these studies do not verify cultural barriers based on differences in
gender, ethnicity, family economics, and parental education level from the point of
view of cultural capital in the context of Islamic education. Thus, there is a
theoretical void about cultural barriers in Islamic Higher Education or Islamic
Religious College (PTKI).
Therefore, this study will examine the effect of gender, ethnicity, economic
background, and parental education on cultural barriers faced by Islamic higher
education students in Kalimantan. The purpose of this study is to verify the
influence of gender on the level of cultural obstacles to student education (RP_1),
the impact of ethnicity on the level of cultural barriers to student education (RP_2),
verify the effect of parents' economic background on the level of the cultural barrier
to education (RP_3); and verifying the impact of parents' education levels on
students' level of cultural barriers to education (RP_4).
Cultural barriers in this study do not look at the obstacles experienced by students,
as in previous studies. However, cultural barriers in this study stem from the level
of family cultural capital reflected in parental interaction/support. Children who do
not interact with their parents when facing problems are indicators of cultural
barriers and low cultural capital of students.
Cultural Barriers of Islamic Higher Education Students in Indonesia
198
This study will make a conceptual contribution to the factors influencing family
cultural barriers in the form of the level of home-university cultural incompatibility
in the context of Islamic higher education in Indonesia. The effect of ethnic factors
is a factor that is still rarely verified in the context of higher education in Indonesia.
The Central Bureau of Statistics did not publish population data by ethnicity after
the 2010 Census. Therefore, the theoretical contribution of this research becomes
essential. In addition, this research will practically contribute to university
managers regarding university-family relationships.
METHOD
Research Type and Approach
The present study adopts a quantitative methodology and is a field research
endeavor. Analytical procedures involved the utilization of both the t-test and
Kruskal-Wallis H difference test, applied to ascertain variances in cultural
impediments across gender, ethnicity, economic backgrounds, and parental
educational levels. In other words, this research employed statistical tests to
demonstrate disparities in cultural barriers within distinct variables such as gender,
ethnicity, economic status, and parental education.
Participant
The participants of this study were students of Antasari State Islamic University
Banjarmasin. The university was designated as a sample because it had the most
students among PTKI on the island of Kalimantan. This study utilized
questionnaires distributed online to Antasari State Islamic University Banjarmasin
students. Students who responded to the questionnaire were 391 people from a total
population of 11615 Antasari State Islamic University students. The number of
samples that qualified a population of 20,000 with a confidence level of 95% and
an interval of 5% was 377 people Thus, the number of participants has met the
minimum number of sample requirements and can be representative of the
population.
The sampling technique uses convenience and snowballing sampling. Convenience
sampling determines samples based on the desire/voluntariness to be involved as
research participants (Stratton, 2021). Researchers distributed questionnaires to
students online, and all could participate as respondents. The advantage of
convenience samples is that they are faster and cheaper. This technique allows
research findings to be generalized only in these colleges and similar universities in
the same regional area (Andra de, 2021). In other words, the generalization of the
findings of this study only applies to the State Islamic University of Antasari
Banjarmasin. It may also apply to PTKI in the Kalimantan region.
In addition, this study also used snowballing techniques. Researchers use snowball
sampling because populations are challenging to reach (Berg, 2006). With this
technique, participants are involved in recruiting the next participant (TenHouten,
2017). The Researcher sent questionnaires to students online and asked them to
send them to their friends.
Ahmad Juhaidi
199
Data Collection and Analysis Process
The research data was collected by questionnaires distributed online. The
questionnaire link was sent privately via WhatsApp text messages and through
student WhatsApp groups. Data collection will be conducted from July 24 to
August 4, 2023. The questionnaire consists of four parts: participant identity, family
profile, family culture, and as many as three items. The researcher adopted an
instrument used by Ko et al to measure cultural barriers seen from the point of
parental support(Ko et al., 2023) which is an indicator of family cultural capital
(Johnson & Reed, 2023; Tan et al., 2019). The items of the cultural barriers
questionnaire are
Item_1:
I talk to my mom/dad when I need advice on coursework:
Item_2:
I follow my mom/dad's advice about daily campus life;
Item_3:
I think my mom/dad doesn't understand everyday campus life.
Participants' answers in items 1 and 2 consisted of four scales from 1 strongly agree
to 4 strongly disagree. In contrast, item 3 answers from 1 strongly disagree to 4
strongly agree. Thus, the highest score indicates that students do not have family
cultural capital support, which is reflected in parents' inability to support their
children.
Three students reviewed the draft questionnaire to determine their understanding of
the redaction of the item in question. After they well understood the items, the
questionnaire was tested by 32 students. The trial results were valid (sig.<0.05) and
reliable (Cronbach's Alpha >0.06). Thus, the questionnaire is worthy of being used
to collect data for this study.
Data Analysis Process
Before the data analysis process, test the normality of the data. The test is a
requirement for the parametric statistical test stage. After the test, homogeneity
testing is performed. The two tests were performed with the parametric t-test to
ensure the data was eligible for analysis. All parametric and non-parametric
statistical analyses use SPSS version 27 for Mac. In addition, descriptive statistical
analysis uses Microsoft Excel for Mac version 16.56.
The results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov One-Sample normality test data on gender
variables (X1) and cultural barriers (Y) showed normal distributed data with
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.1380.05. In addition, the data is also homogeneous with
a sig value based on mean 0.9380.05. Thus, the test used is a parametric t-test.
Data normality tests of ethnic (X2), family economics (X3), parental education
(X4), and Y variables showed that the data were not normally distributed.
Therefore, the test cannot use a parametric test. The researcher uses the Kruskal
Wallis Test to determine differences in cultural barriers between ethnicity, family
economics, and parental education levels. The process of processing research data
can be seen in Figure 1 below.
Cultural Barriers of Islamic Higher Education Students in Indonesia
200
Gambar 1. Research Process
Framework and Hypothesis
The disparity in cultural barriers among students at PTKI is influenced by several
factors, including gender, ethnicity, family economic status, and individuals'
educational attainment, as illustrated in the depicted Figure 2. These variables are
recognized as contributors to the variations observed in the levels of cultural
barriers experienced by students within the PTKI context, as evidenced in the
graphical representation presented below in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Framework
Based on this framework, the hypotheses to be verified in this study are
Ahmad Juhaidi
201
H_1:
Gender affects students' cultural barriers at PTKI in Kalimantan;
H_2:
Ethnicity affects the cultural barriers of students at PTKI in Kalimantan;
H_3:
The economic level of the family affects the cultural barriers of students
at PTKI in Kalimantan;
H_4:
Parental education level affects the cultural barriers of students at PTKI
in Kalimantan.
RESULT
Descriptive Statistics
Statistical descriptions describe the variation in mean (𝑥), and standard deviation
() of cultural barriers (Y). With these results, the difference in mean Y based on
gender (X1), ethnicity (X2), family economic background (X3), and parental
education level (X4) can be compared. In addition, the results of statistical
descriptions also describe the profile of participants in the form of the number of
samples (n) and percentage (%) of each characteristic. The results of calculating
statistical descriptions can be seen in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics
Factor
n
%
𝑥Y
Y
Gender
6,49/12
2,058
Female
271
69.3
6,29
Male
120
30.7
6,96
Ethnicity
8,18
2,487
Banjar
264
67.5
7,48
Javanese
58
14.8
8,35
Dayak
32
8.2
9,56
Bugis
16
4.1
10,88
Mandar
4
1.0
11
Other (Sunda,
Madura, Batak, etc)
17
4.3
6,35
Economic background
6,49
2,0579
400.000
20
5.1
5,95
800.000
32
8.2
6,5
900.000
15
3.8
6,33
1.000.000
15
3.8
6,27
1.100.000
3
0.8
9,33
1.200.000
27
6.9
6,27
1.300.000
13
3.3
6,54
1.400.000
24
6.1
6,5
1.500.000
24
6.1
6,33
1.600.000
7
1.8
6.14
1.700.000
10
2.6
5,9
1.800.000
28
7.2
6,93
1.900.000
8
2.0
6,5
2.000.000
28
7.2
6,25
2.100.000
15
3.8
7,27
2.200.000
27
6.9
5,22
2.300.000
7
1.8
6,71
2.400.000
75
19.2
6,88
3.000.000
13
3.3
7,31
Parental education level
6,49
2,058
Cultural Barriers of Islamic Higher Education Students in Indonesia
202
Factor
n
%
𝑥Y
Y
D/S-1/S-2/S-3
77
19,7
5,92
SMA/MA
164
41,9
6,34
SMP/MTs
58
14.8
7,12
SD/MI
79
20,2
6,67
Did not pass SD/MI
13
3,3
7,85
Source: Results of descriptive statistical processing with SPSS version 27 and Microsoft Excel for
Mac version 16.56
The above descriptive statistical data show that all standard deviations ()of all
levels of cultural barriers are below the mean (𝑥). That suggests that distributed data
is consistently close to or around the mean. On the other hand, the standard
deviation values of all Y variables guarantee that the measurement is accurate.
Female students face a lower average level of cultural barriers (Y) than male
students. In other words, male students feel a gap exists between the culture at home
and university culture. They are not likely to ask parents they perceive cannot
provide support.
In addition, the difference in the level of cultural barriers (Y) faced by students from
one ethnicity to another can be seen from the mean score of each ethnicity. As the
majority ethnicity, Banjar students face the lowest cultural barriers compared to
other ethnicities. In contrast, ethnic minorities, such as Batak, face higher barriers
than Banjar and Javanese. The level of cultural barriers based on ethnicity is very
consistent with the number of ethnic majorities or minorities.
In contrast to ethnic factors, the mean cultural barriers of students (Y) do not
consistently increase or decrease as the amount of Single Tuition Fee (UKT) they
pay increases or decreases. Descriptive statistical data shows that the mean Y of
students with low economic backgrounds seen from paid UKT can be higher or
lower than students with better economic backgrounds. A student who pays UKT
of Rp. 3,000,000 experience cultural barriers with a mean (𝑥) of 7.31, which is
higher than one who pays UKT of Rp. 1,700,000 (𝑥 = 5.9). The UKT score and
mean score are inconsistent with students who pay Rp. 2,200,000 have a mean
cultural barrier of 5.22, lower than students who pay UKT Rp. 400,000 (𝑥 = 5.95).
Descriptive statistics of parental education levels show a relatively consistent mean
with cultural barriers. Mean cultural barriers will decrease often with increased
parental education. Students with undergraduate parents faced lower cultural
barriers (𝑥 = 5.92) than students whose parents had a high school education (𝑥 =
6.34).
Hypothesis Verification
The Effect of Gender on Cultural Barriers
The effect of gender on cultural barriers was tested with a t-test. The test showed
that the value of Sig. (2-tailed) 0,003 0,05. These statistical tests can be interpreted
as significant differences between females and males in the level of cultural
barriers. Therefore, H_1 has been verified and accepted.
Ahmad Juhaidi
203
These results prove that gender affects the level of cultural barriers of students in
higher education. Males tend to show higher cultural barriers than female students.
On the other hand, the findings also show that families provide more cultural capital
in the form of support to female students than male students. Test results can be
seen in Table 2 below.
Table 2. Gender t-test Result
t
df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
Gender
Equal variances
assumed
-2.964
389
0.003
-0.662
0.223
Equal variances
not assumed
-2.893
215.741
0.004
-0.662
0.229
Source: Statistical test results with SPSS version 27
The Effect of Ethnicity on Cultural Barriers
The test of differences in cultural barriers between ethnicities, economic
background, and parental education levels used the non-parametric test Kruskal
Wallis H. The test was used because the data was not normally distributed. Test
results can be seen in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Kruskal Wallis H Test Result
X2-Y
X3-Y
X4-Y
Kruskal-Wallis H
96.071
27.139
19.299
df
5
18
4
Asymp. Sig.
0.000
0.076
0.001
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Etnis (X2-Y); Ekonomi keluarga (X3-Y); Pendidikan Ortu
(X3-Y)
Source: Statistical test results with SPSS version 27
The test results proved significant differences in cultural barriers between
ethnicities (Asymp. Sig. 0,000 0,05). The results of statistical tests show that the
support of parents from ethnic minorities for children's education at universities
tends to be lower than that of ethnic majorities. When compared to the majority
ethnicity (Ethnic Banjar), ethnic minority students have not been supported by
parents when facing problems in campus life. They have higher levels of cultural
barriers than majority ethnic students. Thus, H_2 is proven and accepted.
The Effect of Economic Background on Cultural Barriers
The study found that students' cultural barriers did not differ between family
economic levels. The findings based on the results of the Kruskal Wallis Test show
that the Asymp score. Sig. is 0.076 (sig.>0.05). In other words, these findings
indicate that the high and low economic level of families does not affect the severity
Cultural Barriers of Islamic Higher Education Students in Indonesia
204
or lightness of cultural barriers faced by students. Based on that, H_3 was not
proven and rejected.
The above findings are surprising. Their economic level or income does not
influence the ability of parents to provide cultural capital for education. In other
words, wealthy families will predictably provide cultural support to their children's
education. Conversely, families who cannot afford it cannot be predicted will not
support their child's education. In other words, the economic level of students
cannot be used as a variable to see the high and low cultural barriers of students or
family cultural capital.
The Effect of Parents' Education Level on Cultural Barriers
Statistical tests show that students' cultural barriers differ significantly between
parents' education levels (Asymp. Sig. 0,001 0,05). Based on this, the level of
education of parents affects the level of cultural barriers of students. The findings
verify that H_4 proven and acceptable.
Other findings regarding the effect of parental education levels on decreasing
cultural barriers are not surprising. The higher the level of education of parents, the
higher the cultural capital of education they provide to children. More educated
parents have an awareness to support their child's education than parents with less
education. Conversely, not-educated parents tend not to care and do not provide
academic and non-academic support.
DISCUSSION
This research has proven that students' cultural barriers differ between gender,
ethnicity, and education level of parents. In other words, gender, ethnicity, and
parental education level affect the cultural obstacles students face. These findings
support previous research proving that cultural barriers are influenced by gender,
ethnicity, and parental education level(Johnson & Reed, 2023; Pagulayan et al.,
2021; Tan et al., 2019). Ethnic minorities tend to be poorly educated, so health
literacy is also low(Zeh et al., 2014).
Although cultural barriers differ significantly between ethnicities, interethnic
interactions do not experience cultural barriers. Cultural barriers are limited to the
incompatibility of the academic culture of the home with the university and the
family's low cultural capital of education. Rahardjo and Rahmiaji proved this. They
concluded that students from different ethnicities did not experience obstacles in
interacting or making friendships. Only a few want to avoid marrying women or
men of other ethnicities(Turnomo Rahardjo et al., 2021). In Malaysia, most students
(60%) feel happy to befriend students from various ethnicities(Agus Masrukhin &
H. Sriyanto, 2022).
In contrast to the first findings, the study found that the effect of family economic
background on cultural barriers was fragile. The findings are not in line with
Mishra's opinion. She suggests that low-income families do not adequately support
their children's education (Mishra, 2020). Therefore, they need higher retention to
complete university education(Thayer, 2000). We suspect that the absence of
Ahmad Juhaidi
205
influence of family income levels on cultural barriers is due to families' ability to
adjust household expenses. It was also influenced by the low cost of education at
PTKI. The expenditure adjustment shows parents' support for their child's
education. The contribution of underprivileged families to their children's education
is in the form of sacrifices with their lifestyle adjustments (Sledge, 2012).
Although indirect, the level of cultural barriers affects the student learning
process(Bojczyk et al., 2019; Johnson & Reed, 2023; Kai, 2023; Roksa & Kinsley,
2019; S. Michael Gaddis, 2018; Yang et al., 2022). The higher the cultural barriers
students face, the harder it is for them to improve their academic performance.
Therefore, cultural barriers can be referred to as mediator variables of the influence
of gender, ethnicity, and parental education levels on student academic
achievement.
The findings of this study have several limitations. Namely, the research context is
limited to one PTKI, so generalization is still limited to similar PKTI at the regional
level. Second, statistical tests do not use multiple linear regression that can predict
the level of influence of all variables X. Third, the variables tested do not pay
attention to the presence of mediator variables or other variables, such as student
academic achievement.
The study recommends future research verifies the influence of gender, ethnicity,
and parental education, as well as other variables on student academic achievement
with cultural barriers as mediators. In addition, this study suggests research in the
context of Indonesia, all types of universities, and with a more representative
number of samples so that generalizations are broader.
In practical terms, this study recommends that college administrators provide
cultural support to groups of students who have cultural weaknesses. The support
is in the form of exceptional services to ethnic minorities, underprivileged students,
and student groups facing academic problems. In line with the recommendations of
Juhaidi et al., (2022) support to students is not only in the form of financial support
(scholarships) or counseling on psychiatric problems (stress and depression) and
careers but support that can fill the gap in their academic culture.
CONCLUSION
This study concluded that students' cultural barriers are influenced by people's
gender, ethnicity, and education level. This study found significant differences in
cultural barriers between genders (male and female), ethnicities, and parental
education levels. However, the study did not find significant differences in cultural
barriers between family economic levels. Thus, the family's economic level has no
effect on the cultural barriers of students.
Cultural Barriers of Islamic Higher Education Students in Indonesia
206
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