Available via license: CC BY 4.0
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4/2023 (Vol. 28)
DOI: 10.2478/alfa-2023-0021
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© 2023 Authors. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-International License (https://creativecommons.org/li-
censes/by/4.0/). Published by the Faculty of Architecture and Design, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia
15
INTRODUCTION
A large part of public and residential interiors is not designed for
or adapted to the needs of older people. The trend of aging popu-
lation is a demographic phenomenon, but its consequences affect
the entire society. "According to European statistics, there are 127
million people in the European Union who have limited mobility,
orientation or are unable to perform normal activities. In the con-
text of projections of an aging population, the percentage of people
with mobility and orientation impairments is set to increase. Ac-
cording to the European Statistical Office, the number of people
over 65 in the EU countries is projected to rise from 17% today to
30% by 2050." (Rollová, Čerešňová, 2010) These facts prepare
challenges for designers to suggest solutions for appropriate in-
tegration and to create an environment for the growing tendency.
One of the priorities of the modern society is to address the issue
of social integration of people with disabilities. Many profes-
sional articles and publications have been published, which have
led to the development of guides and documents related to bar-
rier-free accessibility. It should be a new standard to level the
visiting opportunities for all types of people. Accessibility is an
essential part of new buildings, but also of the renovation of older
architecture. It is not only people with health, hearing, visual, or
other disabilities who encounter problems in the public environ-
ment but social inclusion also concerns other vulnerable groups
of the population – children, mothers with strollers, neglected
people, and older adults. The vision is to improve the quality of
life without discrimination. (Rollová, Čerešňová, 2010)
METHODOLOGY AND LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this study is to find the relationship between col-
ours and the perception of older adults, to understand the asso-
ciation and influence of colour choice in private and public set-
tings through multiple studies and literature reviewed. The com-
plexity of the situation required ongoing data collection. Firstly,
the problems most encountered by older adults were observed
and defined. Among health disadvantages, vision loss, visual im-
pairment, and the resulting disorientation in the environment
Monika Hencová1*
Veronika Kotradyová2
1,2 Slovak University of Technology, Faculty
of Architecture and Design, Institute of Interior
and Exhibition Design, Bratislava, Slovakia
*Corresponding author
E-mail: monika.hencova@stuba.sk
Article information
Sent: Oct 1, 2023
Accepted: Dec 4, 2023
Colour in the environment for older adults
Abstract: Demographic changes, the growing number of people with disabilities, and the
demands on architecture and design are posing new challenges for designers. The space
in which older adults live should be safe, not only from a legal point of view but especially
to facilitate their daily activities. Modern society prioritizes the integration of older
adults into everyday life so that as people grow older, they are not forced to abandon
their daily routines because of obstacles in the space. It is said that a person is not hand-
icapped because of their illness, but because society fails to prepare conditions for them
to be able to move and live without restrictions. Moving in space is a multisensory expe-
rience. People use most of their senses such as sight, hearing, smell, and touch in addition
to moving their bodies. How we feel indoors depends on the indoor climate, lighting, sur-
face colours, air quality, floor plan, and furniture layout. Studies show that the materials
and colour of products have an impact on how we navigate a space, how we feel and, in
some cases, they can even have healing effects. The aim of our study is to investigate the
association between colours in the environment and the orientation of people, especially
older adults, in the space they live in. Several studies, experiments, and observations of
foreign researchers serve as the basis of the paper. The analysis of case studies proved
that colours in the environment have a significant impact on orientation in space and can
be an effective tool for spatial orientation and drawing attention to a particular place. In
surveys that have been conducted with older adults, warm colour tones such as yellow,
orange, and red are preferred over cold ones. Red tones are some of the most easily rec-
ognizable for older adults who suffer from loss of colour recognition. They have lower
cognitive abilities as a result of aging. Therefore, the achromatic environment does not
sufficiently stimulate their brain function, leading to longer reaction times. Colour and
contrast indoors play a big role in the perception of space and can help in drawing atten-
tion to a particular place.
Keywords: social inclusion, older adults, health, interior, furniture, colours
ALFA 4/2023 (Vol. 28)
16
were nominated as the connecting factors. A literature review
was also conducted on this topic.
Secondly, a review of literature and scientific articles was con-
ducted on the topic of colour, colour in the environment for older
adults, colour in the environment in social service settings, colour
from the perspective of environmental gerontology, studies on
the impact of colour on humans, and the impact of colour and ma-
terials on humans in a broader spectrum. This basis for research
included resources dealing with the aging population, the chal-
lenges older adults face in the indoor environment, and the
adaptability of the indoor environment with respect to aging and
physical health. In addition, a literature review was conducted to
gather information on the role of colour and materials in influ-
encing the well-being and safety of older adults. The cited studies
were selected based on relevance to the topic. Preference was
given to studies that dealt directly with colour and material in
public and private settings in which the target group or the group
involved in the experiment was composed of older adults.
Next, two different experiments were examined to provide spe-
cific insights into the impact of colour on older adults. The first
experiment involved a survey of 150 older adults equally com-
posed of men and women living in different settings. The purpose
of the experiment was to assess their preferences and percep-
tions of colours and materials in interiors. The survey included a
variety of scenarios that allowed participants to choose colours
and materials that made them feel safe, comfortable, and inde-
pendent. The second experiment used eye-tracking technology to
investigate how colour affects older adults' visual attention and
safety. A sample of 75 older adults was observed interacting with
color-coded items within a simulated living environment. The
aim of the experiment was to measure the speed of focus on dif-
ferent elements and their effect on perceived safety. Other exper-
iments dealt with the topic of colour in conjunction with older
adults, art therapy, and the perception of wood as a colour in the
environment.
HUMAN-CENTRIC DESIGN
Inclusion of older adults and finding suitable accommodation and
care is a challenge, at the outset of which we need to determine
their needs, capacity, size, and standard of housing. At the same
time, older adults are encouraged to fend for themselves and pro-
vide for their basic needs. A model where older adults still have
responsibility for themselves but also professional help is availa-
ble to them should their health suddenly deteriorate or where
they have no relatives is an effective option that should be ex-
panded in the future. Unlike living in a standard hospice, the older
adult is still active, which also increases their prospects for men-
tal and physical health. Deinstitutionalization is the transfer of
citizens with disabilities or older adults from traditional social
service settings, where they are often physically and mentally
isolated from mainstream life, to services that create equal citi-
zenship conditions similar to mainstream society. (Rollová,
Čerešňová, 2015)
When designing nowadays, a designer has to be very careful
about the versatility of their design. Just as a furniture designer
is concerned with ergonomics and human anthropology, an ar-
chitect must also consider the broader context, in the sense of the
Design For All method – designing for all. In designing, the diver-
sity of people, their needs, and constraints must be considered so
that all users feel equal and have the same opportunities to be an
active part of the community. Approaches to designing environ-
ments that address the diversity of people's needs and require-
ments are called human-centred design, which encompasses uni-
versal design, design for all, inclusive design, user-friendly de-
sign, design for all ages, and accessible design. (Rollová,
Čerešňová, 2015) Living in their own home for as long as possible
is one of the most important requirements of aging people. Their
desire is to be as self-sufficient as possible. The living space for
older adults with mobility impairments needs to be adapted to
allow sufficient room to manoeuvre and change directions. Their
main need is for safety, functionality, and comfort. Furniture
doors should be easy to open and all items should be reachable at
arm's length. Fitting the bed, mattress, nightstand, or sofa is also
important. (Beer, Olenska, Zbiec, 2017)
Fig. 1. Wooden Lotte armchair designed by Sarah Hossli helps people with
age-related impairments rise and sit unassisted. (Photo: Severin Stark. Source:
Griffiths, 2022)
Materials and colours for the interior of older adults
We are now seeing the connection of human-centred design to
environmental psychology and neuroscience in architecture,
which draws attention to the psycho-social aspects of design, the
impact of the environment on people, their health, and their
sense of well-being. For a wide range of people, physical, sensory,
and informational accessibility, visitability, adaptability, and flex-
ibility of the environment is also linked to the human-centred de-
sign. Humanizing the environment means an overall universally
accessible design that manifests itself in kindness and can be lik-
ened to saying You are welcome here. (Čerešňová, 2017) People's
affection for natural materials stems from man's natural environ-
ment and his affection for nature. Natural materials and biophilic
elements are close to our nervous system. Thus, our body does
not have to expend additional energy in recognizing and perceiv-
ing them.
On the contrary, it could be said that natural materials recharge
us with energy. They are part of our traditional culture and it is
appropriate to use them as they are timeless. In addition to the
aforementioned advantages, wood also has haptic, olfactory, and
acoustic qualities. The preference for the textures of natural ma-
terials is also justified by the fact that people's perception of black
and white is better than that of colour. (Kotradyová, 2016) A
2022 study entitled Perception and Evaluation of (Modified)
Wood by Older Adults from Slovenia and Norway, authored by
Dean Lipovac, Solvi Wie, and Michael David Burnard confirmed
that older adults prefer wood to other materials. One hundred
older adults were involved in the workshop, and a number of
samples of treated and raw wood and other materials were col-
lected. The product tested was door handles. Wood was favoured
over other materials in both the blind and visual tests. The study
also showed that coated wood was preferred more than raw un-
treated wood. (Lipovac, Burnard, Wie, 2022)
"Environments created with natural materials, and wood in partic-
ular, have a regenerative effect on the nervous system, helping to
ALFA 4/2023 (Vol. 28)
17
create a supportive environment for reducing stress and accelerat-
ing the healing process in patients, as evidenced by several global
studies." (Kotradyová, 2016) The colour of the wood also plays an
important role in the interior. The environment can make its tex-
ture more noticeable, or suppress it and accept it as just one of
the shades. Different factors influence the wood colour, such as
the type of wood species, climate, age, and finish. Wood studies
show that the colour results of the forests studied are in the +a
and +b quadrants, which correspond to red and yellow. Based on
the results from the research, the colour corresponds to shades
ranging from beige to dark brown and brown with the presence
of saturation of yellow. (Ramírez, Fajardo, Escovar, Villamil,
2022) In addition to its visual qualities, wood is a quality and
long-lasting material suitable for interior and exterior furniture.
It is one of the most suitable materials for indoor use by older
adults.
Visual perception
As we age, our visual perception changes, but so does our sensi-
tivity to certain colours. Age-related changes in vision occur in all
layers of the eye and can have different effects. First of all, the
change in vision is caused by the tissues of the eyelids and the
muscles around the eyes becoming flaccid. The biggest changes
affect the lens of the eye, which hardens, thickens, and becomes
less flexible. Changes to the lens allow less light to enter the eye
and make it harder to recognize the environment a person is in.
(Loredan, Sašek, 2023) The most common problems associated
with vision loss are loss of central vision, which allows us to see
fine details and colours, blurring of the eye, reduced sensitivity to
contrast, reduced ability to see in low light or at night, difficulty
seeing objects up close, loss of normal vision, and also increased
sensitivity to glare. The most common eye diseases that affect
older adults include macular degeneration, cataracts, diabetic
retinopathy, dry eye, glaucoma, retinal detachment, and blind-
ness. (American Optometric Association, 2021) Visual acuity
alone is not the only indicator of a person's visual difficulties.
Even a person with good visual acuity may have difficulty func-
tioning and have trouble performing everyday tasks.
Adaptation of the interior
Whether it is adapting existing rooms in the home or designing
a public service space, colour plays an important role in the
space. When used purposefully, colour is a powerful tool that can
not only enhance design aesthetics but also greatly help older
adults feel independent and safe. Elements that can compromise
our safety should be designed in contrasting colours. Moving
through space is a multisensory experience. People use most of
their senses such as sight, hearing, smell, and touch in addition to
moving their bodies. Disorientation and unfamiliarity with the
environment can increase fear in people and have a negative im-
pact on their overall well-being. Flooring in areas designed for
older adults should be designed in contrast to the walls and
should be complemented with relief features such as artificial
guidelines of different textures and colours. Older adults may be
disoriented or feel unsafe if the space blends before their eyes
and they cannot determine where they are walking. Alternating
the colours of floor coverings, marking the purpose of rooms with
embossed signs, or other wayfinding signs are helpful in helping
older adults with orientation.
In circulation areas, there should be no obstacles on the ground
that restrict the movement and safety of older adults. Safe floors
should be solid, uniform, and protected against abrasion and slip-
ping. The choice of solid floor coverings or tiles that do not shim-
mer is appropriate so as not to impair spatial orientation. If a car-
pet is used, it is advisable that it is low pile and passable by
wheels. Carpeted floors have several major advantages. Carpets
transmit fewer pathogens to the hands than vinyl or rubber
floors, and some serious pathogens survive for a shorter time.
They reduce noise and glare, make walking easier, reduce the
likelihood of falls and subsequent injuries, and prolong visits
with family and friends (increasing social support). (Kotradyová,
Lipovac, Hencová, 2023)
Fig. 2. Home for dependent elderly people and nursing home in Orbec, France.
The red colour de-structures the space and adds dynamics. Architects
Dominique Coulon & associés avoided using the conventional colours of the
hospital environment. (Photo: Eugeni Pons. Source: Orbec, 2017)
Contrast and colours
The interior design of the apartment should be based on the con-
trasting design of the apartment's spaces or furniture elements.
The colour scheme of the individual zones in the apartment can
be a good aid to spatial orientation. Furniture elements or doors,
for example, should have a contrasting colour to the wall on
which they are mounted. Contrasting or different colours should
also be used for elements or objects that may pose a safety risk to
users. Warm and pleasant to the touch colours are preferred for
furnishings. The interior should create a pleasant and welcoming
atmosphere. Users should be able to furnish the interior with
their own furniture; they can choose the wall colours so that their
space receives a distinctive character. Several studies have
shown the disadvantages of all-white architectural spaces. The
monotony and lack of sensory stimuli in interiors can hinder us-
ers' orientation as they lack the visual cues needed to identify ar-
chitectural elements. Colour contrasts in interiors need not be
limited to walls and floors; the contrast between stair arms and
walls, and colour-coded highlighting of important points and
zones is also appropriate.
ALFA 4/2023 (Vol. 28)
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Other vital elements are switches and electrical plugs, which can
be distinguished by graphic elements. Room entrances should be
colour-coded, ideally at eye level. Aging eyes lose the ability to
distinguish bright colours, making yellows and other pastel col-
ours appear white. Shades of blue, green, and purple are classed
as cool colours and can be seen as grey. People with colour defi-
ciency are best able to perceive bright colours at the warm end of
the spectrum, such as red and orange. (Moore, 2018) For cogni-
tive reasons, colour is an essential cue for discriminating visual
information. (Sloan, 1980) Equipment and furniture in the home
designed in warm tones of the colour spectrum is more pleasant
to the touch. The interior for older adults should have an open,
welcoming feel. Older adults who live in facilities outside their
homes should also be able to make their own living arrangements
and adapt them to their own character. (Kotradyová, Lipovac,
Hencová, 2023) A large number of colours can overstimulate our
sensory perception. It is therefore important to review the choice
of elements in our environment as we age.
Fig. 3. Farbenkugel in 7 Lichtstufen und 12 Tönen (Colour sphere in 7 light val-
ues and 12 tones). (Source: Itten, 1921)
MATERIALS, DATA, AND METHODS
Colour in association with older adults was addressed by re-
searcher Roswiyani in her dissertation. In her publication Older
Adult's Well-being, Art Activity and Qigong Exercise in a Nursing
Home in Indonesia, she writes about active aging and maintain-
ing well-being. In her study, she mainly focuses on art therapy,
which is also a form of self-presentation and expressing one's
feelings. Art activities and working with colours present an op-
portunity for social communication with other people, establish-
ing interpersonal relationships, and actively suppressing depres-
sion and feelings of loneliness. (Roswiyani, 2019) The topic of
anxiety in older adults has become a widespread health problem.
Health institutes have estimated that the global prevalence of
anxiety disorders in older adults occurs in up to 28.3% of the
population. (Balsamo, Cataldi, Carlucci, Farfield, 2018) Other re-
search conducted at a centre for older adults in Taiwan also in-
vestigated the effect of art therapy. The experiment involved ran-
domly assigning four art activities to older adults and measuring
their anxiety levels. At the end of a set amount of time, they were
asked to write their most recent negative experience on an A4
sheet. Significantly lowest levels of anxiety were measured in the
group that worked with paint and painted a pre-drawn mandala.
Members of this group felt calm, safe, relaxed, and satisfied. (Koo,
Chen, Yeh, 2020) Based on this study, it can be deduced that un-
controlled handling of colour can be disturbing for older adults.
On the contrary, tidy, precise colour assignment within a defined
framework improves their psychological and physical well-being.
This important aspect can be regarded by the designer when de-
signing their housing.
Colour can significantly help with spatial orientation, but it is the
architect who addresses the core principles. Spaces for the el-
derly should be organized, clear, and allow natural movement.
Orientation in space is also closely related to the navigation sys-
tem integrated in it. A wayfinding system in spaces for older
adults helps with spatial orientation and navigation. A good nav-
igation system is clear, understandable, intuitive, and non-verbal.
(Čerešňová, Filová, 2023) Many studies can now be found that
examine the impact of physical elements on well-being in health
care settings for older adults, but few are concerned with colour.
These homes often have neutral to hospital-style facilities. In-
stead of institutional aesthetics, one should begin to think about
adding more of a sense of home, and colour may be one of the
most useful elements for this purpose. In addition, colour can be
used to emphasize the difference between rooms designed for re-
laxation and those designed for activities. (Torres, Serra, Llopis,
Delcampo, 2020)
Fig. 4. Farbenstudien (Studies of colours). (Source: Willers, ca. 1922–1925)
Spanish researchers Ana Torres, Juan Serra, Jorge Llopis, and
Anna Delcampo conducted two experiments with 134 older
adults aged between 75 and 97 years in different activity rooms,
during which they measured the level of arousal elicited by dif-
ferent colours. They conducted the first experiment in a nursing
home and the second one in a laboratory using virtual reality. In
both cases, they evaluated 6 colours in two groups: warm (red,
orange, yellow) and cool (purple, blue, green). The conclusions of
their study show that preferences depend on the type of room. In
rooms used for social activities, people preferred warm to cool
colours, with yellow – the shade in the middle of the colour spec-
trum – being the most preferred. For bedrooms and rooms de-
signed for relaxation, older adults chose colours from the cool
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visual spectrum, with green being the most preferred colour. The
level of arousal by each colour was measured by the HRV instru-
ment to measure the state of the autonomic nervous system.
(Torres, Serra, Llopis, Delcampo, 2020) In publications and arti-
cles devoted to colours and emotions, the blue colour is usually
cited for relaxation, peace, and tranquillity, while red tends to
symbolize fire, activity, and excitement. Colour preferences may
also differ between men and women, or between ethnic groups,
but this was not confirmed in this study. The authors suggested
that gender differences in colour preferences may also be due to
biological differences in colour vision. However, this conjecture
is also not confirmed.
The second experiment examined was conducted by researchers
Ze-Yu Wang and Ji Young Cho from Korea using eye-tracking
technology. In their study, they investigated whether the use of
colour in residential environments affects the visual attention of
older adults. In the first experiment, they observed the gaze
behaviour of older adults when viewing images consisting of nine
colour arrangements of door frames. Based on the results of the
first part of the experiment, images of simulated environments
with two door colours were created in the second experiment.
Eye-tracking technology can conveniently capture eye behaviour
without the participant being aware of it, so it does not cause any
psychological or physical discomfort. The results show that par-
ticipants paid more attention to pictures in which red or the red-
black colour combination was used. In the experiment, the reac-
tion time required to focus on a particular door was measured,
with focusing on the white door being the slowest overall. (Wang,
Cho, 2020) The results of this study confirm that colour can im-
prove the visibility of features that can affect safety and improve
their quality of life in older adults' living environments. Con-
trasting colours used in the environment makes the environment
easier for older adults to remember. Older adults have lower cog-
nitive abilities as a result of aging. Therefore, achromatic envi-
ronments do not sufficiently stimulate their brain function, lead-
ing to longer reaction times.
Fig. 5. Experiment using virtual reality. Measuring stimuli and excitement while projecting three warm tones and three cold tones into the living space. (Source:
Torres, Serra, Llopis, Delcampo, 2020, CC BY-NC-ND)
Fig. 6. Stimuli shown for (a) the bedroom and (b) the activity room, with the colours arranged from top to bottom and from left to right: red, blue, green, yellow,
orange and purple. (Source: Torres, Serra, Llopis, Delcampo, 2020, CC BY-NC-ND)
ALFA 4/2023 (Vol. 28)
20
Fig. 7. Simulation of living environment and examining the older adults’ gaze behaviour at the door colour with high visibility and with low visibility. In addition, it
was intended to explore the differences in gaze behaviour between older adults with normal and low cognitive states. (Source: Wang, Cho, 2020, CC BY)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The trend of aging population poses a major challenge to the
modern society, requiring innovative solutions to address the
needs and well-being of older people. The demographic shift is
affecting various aspects of society, making social integration and
accessibility essential priorities. In this context, human-centred
design, which encompasses inclusive design, universal design,
and user-friendly design, is crucial. It emphasizes the importance
of considering the diverse needs and constraints of older adults
and of promoting their active participation in society. People
spend most of their free time indoors, the amount of which in-
creases with age, making it even more necessary to be mindful of
the environment in which we live. Sensory simulations in living
spaces encourage the senses and motivate people to move and
explore their surroundings. The choice of materials and colours
plays an important role in creating an environment that supports
the well-being of older adults. Natural materials, especially wood,
are preferred for their restorative effect on the nervous system
and timeless appeal. They play a role in cognitive stimulation, ori-
entation, and emotional well-being, while warm colours promote
relaxation.
Visual perception changes with age and sensitivity to certain col-
ours may decrease. Common age-related visual problems, such as
reduced sensitivity to contrast and difficulty distinguishing fine
detail and colour, have important implications for design. Older
people often face health problems, including various eye condi-
tions, which need to be considered when planning accessible and
inclusive environments. Adapting interior spaces is a critical fac-
tor in supporting the needs of older adults, and promoting their
independence, safety, and comfort. Contrast and colour are es-
sential tools to help orientation, enhance safety, and create an
inclusive atmosphere. Designing spaces that are easy to navigate
and that use contrasting colours where appropriate can reduce
disorientation and improve overall well-being. Although the ben-
efits of using colour when designing environments for older
adults are obvious, there are some subtleties to consider.
Colour preferences may vary depending on the type of room and
the activities being performed. Individual reactions to colour are
complex and include emotional, cultural, and even gender fac-
tors. However, the use of colour can help older adults feel more
relaxed, secure, and happy in their living environment. Despite
the valuable insights gained from previous research, the impact
of colour on older adults' well-being is still a developing area of
study. Researchers continue to explore the complex relationships
between colour, environment, and the mental and physical health
of older adults. More research is needed to improve our under-
standing of the nuances of colour use in different settings and
among different populations of older adults. Integrating the col-
our theory into the design process remains an important avenue
for future research as it may lead to better-designed, safer, and
more inclusive environments. Ultimately, the goal is to create liv-
ing spaces that meet the specific needs and promote the well-be-
ing of the aging population, supporting their desire for self-suffi-
ciency and continued active participation in society.
Incorporating colour sensations and natural materials in living
spaces improves physiological and psychological indicators of
human well-being. Human-centred design is also currently focus-
ing on psychology and neuroscience in architecture, psycho-so-
cial aspects of design, and the impact of the environment on peo-
ple, their health, and their sense of well-being. Creating a suitable
environment for people to live in their housing from birth to old
age is a transformation that the residential interior designer,
ALFA 4/2023 (Vol. 28)
21
especially the designer, must grasp. Adaptability of space is a
clear requirement of older adults. When designing, designers
must be familiar with guidelines for adapting design and archi-
tecture for people with special needs and older adults. This in-
cludes interdisciplinary training with a focus on ergonomics, an-
thropology, gerontology, and sociology. Analyses show that ar-
chitecture and design for people with disabilities and older adults
is a market that will expand in the coming years to meet their
needs. Whether it is adapting existing rooms in the home or de-
signing public service spaces, colour plays an important role in
space.
Colour contrasts do not have to be limited to floors and walls;
they can draw attention to any important point of interest. When
used purposefully, colour is a powerful tool that can not only en-
hance the aesthetics of a design but can greatly help older adults
feel independent and safe. Vision impairment is not the only ail-
ment of aging adults, but it can limit them in performing common
tasks. Elements that can compromise our safety should be de-
signed in contrasting colours. Shades of cool tones such as blue
and green may be perceived as grey by the aging eye. Monotony
and lack of sensory cues in interiors can hinder users' orientation
as they lack the visual cues needed to identify architectural fea-
tures. Warm tones at the warm end of the colour spectrum can
still be seen even by people with colour deficiencies. In addition,
these warm tones have a positive effect on their bodies, and feel
warm and energizing. Studies show that furniture designed in
warm tones is more pleasant to the touch. It can also be inferred
from some studies that people perceive wood as a colour on the
warm side of the colour spectrum. Shades of wood from beige to
dark brown are mainly composed of a combination of shades of
red and yellow. This may be one of the reasons why even older
adults prefer wood in interiors over other different materials.
Tab. 1. Implications of Colour in Relation to Demographic Factors. (Source: Authors, 2023)
Demographic Factor
Implications of Colour in Interior Design for Older Adults
Age
Older adults may have reduced ability to perceive certain colours,
making warm tones more preferable for improved visibility
Sex
Preferences for specific colours may vary between men and women,
but further research is needed to confirm this variation
Type and Degree of Disability
Individuals with higher degree of disability may benefit from colours
that enhance cognitive stimulation and orientation, such as contrasting colours
Health and Dependency
Colour choices can affect the mental state and well-being of individuals with health issues or dependencies,
with warm colours promoting relaxation and cool colours aiding in a calming environment
Socioeconomic Level
Colour preferences may be influenced by socioeconomic factors,
with further research required to understand the specific correlations
Other Environmental Factors
Colour choices should be adapted to the specific environmental conditions, taking into account lighting, noise levels,
and the type of residence (urban or rural) to create a harmonious and visually appealing living environment
Tab. 2. Implications of Colour in Interior Design for Older Adults. (Source: Authors, 2023)
Aspect Analysed
Implications of Colour in Interior Design for Older Adults
Cognitive Well-Being
Use of warm colours can promote a calming and reassuring atmosphere
Colour contrast can improve memory and orientation
Cool colours can enhance relaxation spaces
Emotional Well-Being
Colours can influence emotions and mood
Warm colours can promote a sense of warmth and energy
Cool colours can create a soothing and tranquil environment
Physical Comfort and Safety
Contrasting colours on important elements enhance visibility
Colour choices should consider potential safety risks
Orientation and Navigation
Colour aids in wayfinding and helps older adults in their orientation
Colour coding can designate the purpose of rooms
Personalization and Adaptation
Colour choices should allow residents to personalize their living spaces
Residents can choose colours that make their space distinctive
As our society continues to age, the design of living spaces for
older adults is becoming an increasingly important aspect of so-
cial integration and well-being. The role of colour in this context
is both an art and a science and if designers, architects, and re-
searchers delve deeper into its potential, it can contribute to a
brighter and more accessible future for older adults. By embrac-
ing the principles of human-centred design and harnessing the
psychological and aesthetic power of colour, we can create living
environments that are not only functional but also beautiful and
supportive, enhancing the quality of life for older adults. Promot-
ing inclusivity and ensuring that these environments are accessi-
ble to older adults is an important step towards a more equitable
society. It is our shared responsibility to design with empathy,
creativity, and a deep understanding of the needs and prefer-
ences of older adults. By embracing these principles, we can cre-
ate living spaces in which every person, regardless of age, can feel
truly welcome and thrive. Any biases identified in this research
need to be further explored and addressed to ensure the findings
are as objective and reliable as possible. In addition, the limita-
tions of the study should be acknowledged. These may include
factors such as sample size, demographic characteristics, or cul-
tural aspects that could affect the generalisability of the results.
Identified biases and their impact on the results
A study may experience cultural bias in its results. Colour prefer-
ences, perceptions, and their impact on well-being may be influ-
enced by cultural factors. The study does not explicitly address
the diversity of cultural backgrounds and how this may affect the
relationship between colour and well-being in older adults. This
bias could lead to results that are not generally applicable.
ALFA 4/2023 (Vol. 28)
22
Sampling bias: The study may not adequately represent the en-
tire population of older adults. The impact of skin colour on well-
being could vary based on factors such as age, gender, socioeco-
nomic status, and health status. If the sample used for the study
is not sufficiently diverse, the results may not be generalizable to
all older adults.
Confirmation bias: There may be a bias in favour of positive find-
ings. If researchers or designers have a preconceived notion that
certain colours are beneficial to older adults, they may subcon-
sciously interpret or present the results in a manner that con-
firms this belief. This could lead to overemphasizing the positive
aspects of colour use and neglecting the potential drawbacks.
Publication bias: A study may be affected by publication bias
when only studies with positive or significant results are pub-
lished. This may lead to an overrepresentation of studies sup-
porting the positive impact of colour on well-being, while studies
with neutral or negative results may remain unpublished.
Cognitive bias: older adults' responses to colour stimuli may be
affected by recall bias. Due to limited memory or other cognitive
factors, they may not accurately recall or indicate their emotional
or well-being responses to specific colours.
Future research could look at the intersection of colour psychol-
ogy, neuroscience, and design for older adults to provide more
comprehensive guidelines on and insights into how to use colour
effectively. Studying the impact of colour in different cultural
contexts and environments could also provide valuable insights
into tailoring design approaches to different populations. In con-
clusion, the journey towards creating better living spaces for
older people continues, and understanding the complex relation-
ship between colour and design in this context is an important
part of this process. It is an area ripe for exploration, innovation,
and continuous improvement, with the ultimate goal of improv-
ing the well-being and quality of life of older adults worldwide.
Possible research directions
Longitudinal studies: Conducting a longitudinal study to under-
stand how colour preferences and their impact on older adults'
well-being evolve over time. This could provide insights into the
changing needs of this demographic as they age in place.
Cross-cultural research: Exploring how colour preferences and
their impact on wellbeing vary in different cultural contexts as
this may inform more inclusive design practices.
Health-focused design: Focusing on designing living spaces that
accommodate older people with specific health issues including
dementia, visual impairment, and mobility problems.
Gender-focused studies: Exploring whether gender plays a role in
older adults' colour preferences and responses, leading to gen-
der-specific design recommendations.
Cognitive and psychological aspects: explore in more depth the
cognitive and psychological aspects of colour perception and its
relationship to well-being, possibly integrating findings from
psychology and neuroscience.
Technology integration: Exploring how modern technologies,
such as intelligent lighting systems, can be incorporated into the
design to optimize the wellbeing of older adults.
As society continues to age, addressing the well-being of older
adults through design remains a dynamic and evolving area. By
expanding research along these lines, designers and researchers
can contribute to more holistic and effective approaches to creat-
ing living spaces that truly enhance the quality of life for older
adults.
Acknowledgements
This paper is a part of the Erasmus+ project 2020-1-SK01-
KA202-078245 “DESIRE – DESIgn for all methods to cREate age-
friendly housing”, supported by the European Commission
(https://projectdesire.eu/).
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