Effects of Illegal Refineries On Aquatic Life in The Niger Delta, Nigeria: A Review

Abstract

The effects of illegal refineries (“kpo-fire”) and aquatic life in the Niger Delta are reviewed on fish species and ecological systems. The biodiversity of the region has seriously been damaged, killing fishes and aquatic wildlife. Illegal artisanal refining strongly pollutes the ecosystems (air, water, and land); resulting to human ill-health, food insecurities, fish massive mortalities, to mention a few. And, the Federal Government trying to curb the menace, succeeded in doubling the effects by using its military Joint Task Force (JTF) to blow up illegal refining stations (refineries), killing humans, animals, fishes, microbes and generating carbon in the atmosphere, which precipitates as acid rain and sleet to the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Illegal refining is practiced due to failure of the multi-national companies and the Federal Republic of Nigeria government on mitigation and compensation to the Niger Delta, especially engaging the youth on meaningful venture. Nevertheless, there is a ceaseless call by the Niger Delta region; to cushion the effects of illegal refineries. It is crystal clear that lives (humans, animals and fishes) are endangered in the Niger Delta and the illegal refineries needs to be stopped to save the region and its rich biodiversity of flora and fauna forthwith.

Full text

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Effects of Illegal Refineries On Aquatic Life in The Niger Delta, Nigeria: A
Review
Igbani Flourizel1; Ronald Winifred Ahulimen2 and Tatah Gideon Weapngong3
1&3Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences,
Federal University Wukari, KM 200 Katsina-Ala Road, PMB 1020 Wukari, Taraba State,
Nigeria.
2Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Federal
University Wukari, Orchid ID: 0009-0006-3670-4079.
1Email: igbani@fuwukari.edu.ng, +2347086003973.
2Email: abhulimen@fuwukari.edu.ng. Taraba State, Nigeria.
3Email: gideontatah105@gmail.com.
doi: https://doi.org/10.37745/ijepr.13/vol12n1117 Published December 09 2023
Flourizel I., Ahulimen R.W. and Weapngong T.G. (2024) Effects of Illegal Refineries On Aquatic Life in The
Niger Delta, Nigeria: A Review, International Journal of Environment and Pollution Research, 12(1),1-17
ABSTRACT: The effects of illegal refineries (“kpo-fire”) and aquatic life in the Niger Delta
are reviewed on fish species and ecological systems. The biodiversity of the region has
seriously been damaged, killing fishes and aquatic wildlife. Illegal artisanal refining strongly
pollutes the ecosystems (air, water, and land); resulting to human ill-health, food
insecurities, fish massive mortalities, to mention a few. And, the Federal Government trying
to curb the menace, succeeded in doubling the effects by using its military Joint Task Force
(JTF) to blow up illegal refining stations (refineries), killing humans, animals, fishes,
microbes and generating carbon in the atmosphere, which precipitates as acid rain and sleet
to the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Illegal refining is practiced due to failure of the
multi-national companies and the Federal Republic of Nigeria government on mitigation and
compensation to the Niger Delta, especially engaging the youth on meaningful venture.
Nevertheless, there is a ceaseless call by the Niger Delta region; to cushion the effects of
illegal refineries. It is crystal clear that lives (humans, animals and fishes) are endangered in
the Niger Delta and the illegal refineries needs to be stopped to save the region and its rich
biodiversity of flora and fauna forthwith.
KEYWORDS: fisheries, pollution, biodiversity, crude oil, aquatic resources, conservation.
INTRODUCTION
Illegal crude oil refining or artisanal refining or oil bunkering refers to activities or processes
that involve crude oil theft and locally refining them through the use of local resources, using
traditional knowledge and skills with little or no application of modern technology (Douglas,
2018). It is a local oil fractional distillation method that involves heating crude oil over a
specific range of boiling points in a fabricated oven to extract petroleum products, with the
residue being discharged into the environment without consideration of the impact and
consequences to the ecosystem (Barenboim et al., 2015; Douglas, 2018). The rudimentary
materials for this illegal refining involve drums and metal pipes welded together, in which

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crude oil is heated and the resultant distillate crude products (kerosene, fuel, and diesel) are
collected, cooled, and condensed in tanks for consumption (Barenboim et al., 2015; Douglas,
2018). These products are readily available at cheap prices for the average man, consequently
satisfying local energy demand. The artisanal refinery has created jobs for many youths in the
region at the detriment of the ecosystem (SDN, 2015). The production and Marketing system
is highly organized with some producing, while others are marketing and distributing these
products to communities within and outside the region (SDN, 2 015; Douglas, 2018). “Kpo-
fire” is a local slang used to describe the artisanal refinery process, which is coined from the
explosive sound heard when oil is used as the fuel for the refining purpose, and the term is
also used to describe kerosene, fuel, and diesel gotten from artisanal refining (Douglas,
2018).
Poverty and low standard of living despite the available resources in the Niger Delta is one of
the major causes of increasing illegal refineries. The artisanal refinery is a business that is fast
growing and has spread in all communities with oil fields in the Niger Delta region (SDN.
2015; Ikezam et al., 2021). The rapid development of artisanal oil refining camps across the
region has resulted in a semi-structured, informal, and highly entrepreneurial economic
system that is managed and operated in each local area along a discrete five-stage value
chain, which includes; tap installation, tapping point operation, supply of stolen crude for
export and local refining, local refining into products stage, and distribution and sale of
refined products (SDN. 2015). Oil theft is aided in Nigeria by pragmatic collaboration
between security authorities, militia organizations, the local populace, and oil company
employees (SDN. 2015; Bello and Amadi, 2019; Romsom, 2022). Hot-tapping and cold-
tapping are two ways used by artisanal refineries to undertake oil bunkering and steal
thousands of barrels of oil per day from existing oil pipelines (SDN. 2015). In an effort to
encourage private investors into the petroleum downstream sector, preliminary licenses were
issued to 26 private companies between year 2002 and 2004, to help build both refineries and
petrochemical companies, but up to date, little success story has been recorded. Although
some made effort to commence, the companies experienced difficulties at different phases of
the project and had to stop. The reasons given include: insufficient funds for capital project,
political issues, and government price regularization on products, un-conducive environment,
power and security challenges and the unwillingness of the Federal Government to support
local investors. The operational private refineries in Nigeria include the Ogbelle Topping
plant fully owned by the Niger Delta Petroleum Resources (NDPR) and the University of
Port Harcourt modular topping refinery where both atmospheric and vacuum analysis can be
carried out for the purpose of research and development.
Crude oil exploration and exploitation is very lucrative and it is the major source of revenue
in Nigeria (Anejionu et al., 2015; Romsom, 2022). Approximately 250,000 barrels of crude
oil are stolen daily in Nigeria with the majority sold internationally while about 25% stay in
the Niger Delta for Illegal oil refining and consumption (SDN. 2015; Romsom, 2022;
Ufuoma, 2022). The Sea Fisheries Act makes it illegal to take or harm fishes within Nigerian
waters by use of explosives, poisonous or noxious substances. Inland Fisheries Act focuses
on the protection of the water habitat and its species and prohibits the taking or destruction of
fish by harmful means.

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Since 2012, the Nigeria military Joint Task Force (JTF) had tried to curtail illegal oil mining
activities across the region, destroying thousands of illegal crude oil refining centre sand
seizing over 500 boats conveying stolen crude oil. In 2012, over 2000 crude oil suspected
thieves were arrested, and over 5,000 illegal refineries were destroyed. Despite the efforts by
the Nigeria military in combating illegal refineries, they continue to soar; and it seems almost
impossible to be stamped out (Relief WEB. 2013). Illegal refineries use crude/local materials
and methods to distil the crude oil into its various components (Balogun, 2015). During the
illegal refining process of crude oil, only sub-standard kerosene, petrol and diesel are
obtained by the refiners; while the remaining crude oil components are discarded untreated as
waste products into the environment. In most cases, when these illegal refineries are
destroyed by the Nigeria military, further harm is being done to the environment. This is
because more petroleum products are discharged indiscriminately into the environment. This
had been found to contaminate the environment mostly swampy areas with petroleum
hydrocarbons and heavy metals.
The operations of artisanal refineries are carried out in the creeks where the environmentally
dangerous hydrocarbons are discharged directly into the atmosphere and waterways thereby
constituting severe degradation and pollution to the surrounding environment (Odubo and
Onyige, 2019).
However, the activities of artisanal refineries have truncated conservation measures and
rapidly promote extinction in the oil-rich region of the Niger Delta. The region is regarded
globally as a biodiversity hot spot with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWFN) and
Global 200 Ecoregion classifying it as a critically endangered ecosystem, while the World
Bank (1995) posited that the region is the second most sensitive environment in Africa. The
Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) Act acknowledges DPR as the principal
authority charged with the responsibility for the removal of oil-related pollution discharged
into the environment but polluted sites are increasing daily. Other agencies include the
NOSDRA which was established in 2004 by the Ministry of Environment charged with the
National Oil Spill Contingency Plan (NOSCP) in compliance with the International
Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response, and Cooperation, of which Nigeria is a
signatory. NOSDRA seeks to achieve zero tolerance for oil spill incidences in Nigeria, while
advocating for the restoration and preservation of the environment by ensuring good practices
in oil exploration, storage, and production, to achieve sustainable development. National
Environmental Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency (NESREA) an agency
administered by the Ministry of Environment with the embodiment of laws and regulations
focused on the protection and sustainable development of the environment and its natural
resources and prohibits the discharge of hazardous substances into the environment. While
some of the laws and regulations put in place by the Nigerian government for environmental
protection, planning, pollution prevention and control, and the conservation of Nigeria’s
biodiversity include: the Endangered Species (Control of International Trade and Traffic) Act
was enacted to fulfill the obligation assumed under the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species that focuses on the protection and management of Nigeria’s wildlife and
some of their species in danger of extinction due to overexploitation (NOSDRA. 2021).

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Aim and Objectives of the Review
The aim is to review the effects of illegal refineries on aquatic life (fish) in the Niger Delta.
The specific objectives are to review the:
i. Effects of illegal refineries on fish species.
ii. Effects of illegal refineries on Niger Delta aquatic ecosystems.
Effects of Illegal Refineries in the Aquatic Ecosystems
Impacts of Illegal Refineries on Fish species
Approximately 112 illegal refineries were discovered in a particular community located along
the OML 17 trunk lines in Ikwerre Local Government Area of Rivers State which amount to
99% of the discoveries on the heels of the recent efforts by the state government to bring to
an end the economic sabotage brought as a result of the illegal refineries, as well as the health
implications resulting from black soot pollution (Channels, 2022). Loss of biodiversity and
destruction of habitats, largely due to topsoil degradation is a major adverse effect of artisanal
refineries and oil pollution. Soil pollution by crude oil and its bye products as a result of
“Kpo-fire” is one of the most common environmental challenges in the Niger Delta. Oil
pollution results in the destruction of the region's traditional local economic support systems
of farming and fishing lands. Polluted soils by artisanal refining activities do not only deprive
the soil of aerations by forming a coat on the topsoil but also kill soil microbes, fungi (micro
and macro), and soil organisms that help in soil improvement (Douglas, 2018). Some of these
wastes contain toxic components such as the PAHs, which have been reported to be the real
contaminants of oil and the most abundant of the main hydrocarbons found in the crude oil
mixture (Ndidi et al., 2020).
The impact of artisanal oil refining in the Niger delta is tremendous and widespread covering
biological, social (militancy, migration, and the rise of environmental refugees), and
economic (nutritional deficiency and food shortages, destruction of traditional means of
livelihood) aspects of both humans and the entire ecosystem.(Efenakpo et al., 2018)
Environmental effects of artisanal refineries include pollution of air, water, soil,
contamination of plants, fishes, and animals with attendant health consequences following
human consumption. However, the scope of impact was limited to; flora and fauna, air, soil,
aquatic ecosystems, and the mangroves (Efenakpo et al., 2022). The research results have
shown that petroleum and its refined products have the ability of increasing the soil heavy
metal concentrations above the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended
permissible maximum limits (Vwioko et al., 2016 and Akpokodje et al., 2019). They
observed drastic in some highly poisonous heavy metals (Ni, Cd, Co, etc). Concentrations,
after soils samples were contaminated with petroleum products. Heavy metals are those
metals with high relative density (greater than 5g/cm3), when compared with water
(Fergusson, 1990; Akpomrere and Uguru, 2020). Heavy metals are persistence and non-
biodegradable; therefore, they continue to accumulate in the ecosystems. This implies that
plants and animals are continuously exposed to them throughout their life cycle, leading to
increased toxicity if accumulated in high dosage (Espin et al., 2014). Heavy metals pollution
has become a global environmental problem whose concentrations in the soils have increased
recently due to anthropogenic activities. Many researchers have been carried out on the effect

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of heavy metals in plants morphological and physiological development; due to their
phytotoxic effects, which varies from plants growth inhibition, chlorosis wilting and death in
severe cases, this shows that a run off could poison the aquatic systems of oil (Ikhajiagbe et
al., 2018; Akpokodje and Uguru, 2019).
Osuagwu and Olaifa (2018) researched on the effects of oil spill on fish production in the
Niger Delta. They stated that crude oil spill endanger fish hatcheries in coastal water and also
contaminates commercially valuable fish flesh. They also examined the effects of oil spill on
fish production in the Niger Delta of Nigeria from 1981-2015, using an estimable model
based on Cobb Douglas production function. They stressed that oil activities depresses fish
production in the long run because of the unwholesome environmental degradation that
accompany exploration of crude oil region. They reported that the nature of operating
equipment used by the oil companies including pipeline vandalization by errant youth of the
region are contributory factors to the number of oil spills on the environment, which
constitute a setback to fish production and agricultural productivity, resulting from the
destruction of the aquatic ecosystem.
Impacts of Illegal Refineries on Flora and Fauna
The Niger Delta is where most of these oil refining are carried out, the third largest wetland
ecosystem in the world covering approximately 75000km2; the region consists of nine states
and is endowed with crude oil deposits and a lot of biodiversities that have been immensely
exploited, as well as abundant natural resources (Efenakpo et al., 2018). It has the richest
wildlife resources (flora and fauna) found in the country’s rainforest ecosystem and harbours
many locally and globally endangered species and approximately 60-80% of all plant and
animal species found in Nigeria (Efenakpo et al., 2018). Five distinct ecological zones
namely: mangrove forest and coastal vegetation, freshwater swamp forest, lowland rain
forest, derived savannah, and montane zone can be observed in the region (Efenakpo et al.,
2018). The region’s wetlands and its rich biodiversity repository are changing rapidly due to
several anthropogenic activities namely: oil spillage and gas pollution, urbanization and
deforestation, invasive alien species, annual bush burning practice, and land clearing for
agricultural purposes (Adekola and Mitchell, 2011; Efenakpo et al., 2018). Consequently,
raising concerns for the wetlands’ health and biodiversity and communities relying upon its
ecosystem services, they posited that the region which is the main seat of oil and gas
production in Nigeria, is suffering from the destructive effects of oil and gas exploration and
production in terms of enormous oil pollution, biological diversity degradation, and
extinction (Bello and Amadi, 2019). Oil pollution from illegal crude oil venture distorts
aquatic life which not only destroys the source of livelihood of fishers but also causes a
shortage of supply of seafood (Albert et al., 2018); it destroys the fertile soil as well as crop
yields (Nwankwoala et al., 2017; Ogbuagu et al., 2011; Douglas, 2018); which makes it
difficult for the farmer to farm as a means of livelihood. It also causes air pollution through
the rapid spread of black soot (Onakpohor et al., 2020; Simbi-Wellington and Ideriah, 2020).
The impact of illegal refineries on the aquatic environment in the Niger Delta has raised
questions of great concern in the minds of the inhabitants in the region who have suffered
polluted air, contaminated environment, degraded forests, biodiversity loss, and high
atmospheric temperatures (Anejionu et al., 2015). Although, the economic impact of oil theft
associated with these operations of the illegal refineries and on their host communities are

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widely reported. Illegal refining of stolen oil is one of the major causes of oil spills in the
Niger Delta while other causes include sabotage of oil installations, corrosion of pipe lines;
storage tanks, and accidents in oil production operations (Efenakpo et al., 2018; Bello and
Amadi, 2019). These illegal refineries operators used local materials and methods in refining
some petroleum products from the crude oil. The activities of the illegal refineries operators
have become a menace in the region, and the Nigeria government is trying its best to curtail
it.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN),
posited from the evaluation of coastal regions of eleven West African countries, that Niger
Delta is unprotected due to the loss of substantial portions of their area which translates to the
loss of biodiversity despite having over 70 Protected Areas (PAs) (Phil-Eze and Okoro, 2009;
Bello and Amadi, 2019). There are over 119 mammal species, 201 bird species, 248 fish
species, 30 reptile species, and over 850 vulnerable tree species in the Niger Delta region
(Phil-Eze and Okoro, 2009). With a total coastline of 400 km, it accounts for about 50% of
the Nigerian coastline and over 80% of the coastal fisheries production. Local modular
refining of crude oil in the region causes pollution which is traumatic to the environment and
biodiversity. Mankind cannot possibly exist alone without other important components of
biodiversity (Bello and Amadi, 2019). All components have a symbiotic relationship and they
work together to ensure continued existence (Lang and Benbow, 2013; Gross et al., 2021).
Several components of the region’s biodiversity are important because they provide food,
medicine, and raw materials for the production of other essential goods. The life of a man is
indirectly threatened when there is a failure to control activities that destroy biodiversity and
promote oil pollution. The common practice of certain contractors as well as security officers
burning recovered stolen crude is not environmentally friendly and further damages the Niger
Delta’s ecosystem. These activities cause serious soil, and water contamination, as well as the
loss of mangroves (Akinjide-Balogun, 2001). Although, the Nigerian government has taken
steps to control and mitigate oil pollution and the conservation of her biodiversity to improve
and protect the air, land, water, forest, and wildlife by using the instrumentality of agencies,
laws, and policies nothing much has changed in the region as its still plague with oil and gas
pollution. There are regional and international instruments in place for the mitigation of oil
pollution and the conservation of biodiversity. Institutions created by law for the control and
mitigation of oil pollution such as the DP saddled with the responsibility of the development
of the nation’s oil and gas resources, influence and achieve the optimum exploitation,
conversion, and utilization of petroleum and its derivatives for the maximum benefit of
Nigerians while ensuring minimal damage to the environment (Akinjide-Balogun, 2001).
Nearly 1,000 species of fishes are found in Nigeria (Okafor et al., 2010, FRN. 2010). Several
species of fish have been reported in several part of the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. For
instance, (FRN. 2010) reported the presence of 648 fish species in Cross River State.
Artisanal petroleum refining technology in the Niger Delta is a source of air pollution, hence
impacting air quality (Onakpohor et al., 2020). Artisanal refining is also responsible for the
inputs of gaseous, solid, and liquid wastes into the environment (Avwiri and Ononugbo,
2012). The air quality of artisanal refining areas and their surrounding communities are poor
as pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and
ammonia (NH3) which are usually above the recommended limits by the World Health

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Organization (Simbi-Wellington and Ideriah, 2020). Oil pollution gives rise to the occurrence
of certain ailments such as respiratory tract irritation, (cough, catarrh, tearing), allergies,
irritation of the eyes, irritation of the skin, exacerbation of asthma, lung cancer, chronic
bronchitis, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and several other chronic lung
diseases as some of the health effects in areas that have suffered from oil pollution in Nigeria
(Oyadongha, 2021). This is often a result of inhalation of contaminated air, intake of oil-
polluted contaminated food, and also as a result of the consumption of contaminated water.
Hydrocarbon and black soot air pollution-related illnesses could assume an epidemic
proportion and thus overwhelm the health facilities and health manpower resulting in the
sudden collapse of the health sector (Oyadongha, 2021). Consequently, the health,
environmental, economic, and social effects of hydrocarbon and black soot-related air
pollution are dangerous to humans and the environment and must be given keen attention and
speedy solution in stopping this looming epidemic from exploding and getting out of
proportion and control.
Fishes have been widely studied in surface water resources in several water resources in the
Niger Delta (Abowei and Hart, 2008; Abowei and Ogamba, 2013; Abowei et al., 2007;
Abowei et al., 2008 and Aghoghouwia et al., 2016). Fish composition frequently found in
surface water includes both shelled and fin fish depending on the habitat. In the present
situation the fish composition, diversity and abundance is on the decreasing trend especially
in surface water resources with high level of human interference (Izah et al., 2018). The
widespread artisanal oil refinery contributes to the growing decline of biodiversity such as
wild flora and fauna in the Niger Delta. Flora and fauna in the region are severely impacted
as these refineries pollute the air, water, soil, and the entire ecosystem. Faunas absorb heavy
metals from polluted ecosystems which harm them. For animals such as birds that rely on
beautiful plumage coloration for courtship, gaseous pollution (black soot) from artisanal
refineries may also indirectly affects their reproduction. Flora absorbs hazardous substances
such as the Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), from the residual waste deposited
on the soil, water, and atmosphere. This affects plant growth and results in the reduction of
the abundance and diversity of plant species. Yabrade and Tanee (2016) compared the Total
Hydrocarbon Content (THC) and the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) in affected sites to total
hydrocarbon and total organic carbon in the unaffected controlled site and observed that there
was a significant increase in THC and TOC in refinery sites compared to the controlled sites.
Thus, artisanal oil refineries can be disastrous to the ecosystem. More also, the process of
photosynthesis is also impaired as a result of the collected. This could be attributed to the
volume of petroleum products received by these points during the crude oil refining process.
Similar results on the effects of petroleum products on the heavy metals concentrations in
soils samples were reported by Iwegbue (2011) and Akpomrere and Uguru (2020). According
to the Iwegbue (2011), the Ni, Cd and Zn concentration of crude oil impacted soils increased
from 7.0 to 31 mg/kg, 0.02 to 1.12 mg/kg and 23 to 29.3 mg/kg respectively. High heavy
metals concentrations in the soil have a lot of adverse effects on living things; therefore, it
has become a great concern to agricultural production and environmental health (Ferguson,
1990; Goyer, 1997). The aesthetic scenery of the forest and the presence of fauna species that
enhance ecotourism in the region can be affected as a result of the fragmentation of the
wildlife habitat. Important ecosystem services such as recycling of water, air purification, and
the amelioration of climate change can be disrupted. In addition, the production of crops and

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fishing activities are also affected. Crops on farmlands will either die or have stunted growth.
Oil spills on the river can as well affect the survival of aquatic organisms by blocking the
flow of oxygen needed in the water. Shortage in the production of crops and the aquatic
organism can result in a shortage in the food supply which can affect society. One very
important effect of the discharge of illegal refineries waste is the loss of vegetation which
provide food and shelter for both vertebrates and invertebrates, this leads to fragmentation of
wildlife habitat, alteration of the local water cycle since trees play important role in water
cycling and disruption of air purification role of trees due to reduced carbon sequestration and
aggravation of climate change (Umechuruba, 2005).
Plate 1: Illegal refinery set on fire by the JTF (Oyadongha, 2013)
Impacts of Illegal Refineries on Mangrove Ecology
Severe damage has been done to the aquatic environment as a result of artisanal refining
which has led to the loss of the mangrove plants in the region. Mangroves are a shelter for
biological diversity consisting of diverse aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna which include
mammals (monkeys, antelopes, and manatees), mollusks (bivalves, oysters), crustaceans,
fish, reptiles, and avian species (Onyena and Sam, 2020). Duke (2016) noted that a review of
crude oil impact on mangroves shows that 37% of the global impact had occurred in the
Niger Delta. Artisanal refining has caused pollution in many intertidal creeks which have left
the mangroves denuded of leaves and stems, leaving roots coated in a bitumen like substance
sometimes 1cm or thicker. The mangrove forest are spawning areas for fish and nurseries for
juvenile fish and the extensive pollution of these areas is impacting the fish life-cycle (Albert
et al., 2018). The magnitude of the damage experienced on mangrove vegetation depends on
the sensitivity of its pneumatic roots to petroleum waste (Asimiea, 2011). Dominic (2016)
and Ikezam et al. (2021) reported that wastes from artisanal refining sites released into the
river spread along the up and downstream river course due to tidal effects consequently
leading to the death of mangrove plants, especially those close to the sites showing heavy

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mortality of merchantable trees as a result of the wastes discharged from illegal refineries. As
the mangrove plants die and decay, the soil stabilization properties of the roots are lost,
leading to coastal erosion and breeding grounds for fish. The loss of vegetation drastically
hampered the regeneration of species in the mangrove forest due to contamination of seeds
and saplings on the forest floor (Asimiea and Omokhua, 2013). Onuh et al. (2021) noted that
the continual failure of the clean-up programme in the Niger Delta is responsible for the
increasing numbers of the artisanal crude oil-refining economy in the region. However, the
government through the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) has disbursed
$180m as a take-off fee for the 21 selected companies for the cleanup of Ogoni land which is
part of the Niger Delta. The need for the project to be successful must be a priority for the
government while creating synergy was security outfits to curb the oil refineries menace. The
mangrove vegetation in the Niger Delta brackish water area includes five species namely
Rhizophora racemose, Rhizophora harrisonii, and Rhizophora mangle (Red Mangroves),
Avicennia Africana (White Mangrove), and Laguncularia racemosa (Black Mangrove).
Other species of plants observed are the marine grass Paspalum vaginatum,and fern
Acrostichum aureum which are all affected by waste from artisanal refineries (Balogun,
2015).
Plate 2: Mangroves degraded by illegal refineries (CEHRD. 2019)
Impacts of Illegal Refineries on Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems oil spills pollution is the single most important threat to freshwater,
coastal, and marine ecosystems of the Niger Delta, and such impacts in the drinking water
quality, testudines species (aquatic turtles), fisheries, and other aquatic organisms (IUCN
Niger Delta Panel, 2018). Fishes have been driven away from shallow waters into the deep-
sea as a result of pollution in the region. Oil attenuates oxygen in the water column and coats
the breathing apparatus of aquatic organisms. The refining processes often lead to two drums
of crude oil amounting to one drum of the product once refined, leading to a significant
quantity of waste being released into the aquatic environment (Anifowose et al., 2014; Albert

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et al., 2018). Artisanal refineries like most industrial activities produce environmental hazards
that are slow poisons (Asimiea and Omokhua, 2013). Specifically, it starves mangroves of
oxygen by coating the breathing roots of the mangroves and scotches the tender structures of
aquatic macrophytes of tidal freshwater vegetation. Untreated crude oil waste discharged
indiscriminately into aquatic systems destroys the medicinal plant. There are growing
concerns about the quality of fish and other seafood due to the accumulation of hydrocarbons
with a serious health issue in the region. More also, the fisheries sector is suffering due to the
destruction of fish habitat in the mangroves and highly persistent contamination of many of
the creeks due to heavy metals transported during artisanal refining, making them unsuitable
for fishing (Davies and Ekperusi, 2021). The contents of the effluents have serious
toxicological effects on aquatic life, the environment, and humans. When industrial effluent
and oil waste is discharged into a water body, it can cause depletion of dissolved oxygen due
to transformation of organic components into inorganic compounds, loss of biodiversity
through a decrease in amphipod population that is important in the food chain,
eutrophication, and short-term toxicity in fish (Decker, 1981). Environmental pollution
resulting from artisanal refining activity has altered the natural quality of the aquatic
ecosystem thereby posing an adverse effect on the food chain.
Nwankwoala et al. (2017) analyzed soil samples from artisanal refining sites and recorded
high levels of crude content from 1m, with concentration reducing with depth up to 3m. Once
introduced in the environment, PAHs could be stable in soils and sediments thus, resist
degradation and when absorb by organisms, could accumulate in adipose tissues and further
transferred up in the trophic chain or web with lethal effects (Martens and Frankenberger,
1995; Ogbuagu et al., 2011).
CONCLUSION
Oil pollution has for so long a time perpetrated the Niger Delta environment and biodiversity
with little or nothing being done to alleviate the menace. The impacts of these illegal artisanal
refineries on the aquatic ecosystems; the mangrove ecology, soil, farms, air, flora and fauna
of the Niger Delta region. This in return has affected the general economy of the region
negatively by reducing the number of persons involved in agriculture and fishing activities, it
has also impacted negatively on the health of the people due to the improper refining methods
employed. Total shutdown of all illegal refineries and appropriate improvement in the
production and exploration process of crude oil and its products may mitigate its effects on
the environment. To bring to a stop the seemingly unstoppable situation which has constantly
harmed the biodiversity (fish and aquatic wild life) of the region, a call of stakeholders (oil
companies, government, and host communities) in oil exploration and exploitation should
work together in mapping out measures to deal with possible oil pollution and biodiversity
loss. Nevertheless, oil exploration and production companies should sign agreements with the
host communities and provide guarantors up-front to cover the cost of clean-ups and possible
relocation of host communities in the event of oil pollution. Environmental Impact
Assessment should be taken seriously and activities of oil companies should be properly
scrutinized to ensure that they carry out due diligence and abide by best practices to prevent
possible oil pollution and subsequent mishap to the environment. Furthermore, areas
identified as having endangered species should be completely closed for oil production

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activity. Environmental education and justice, youth empowerment through vocational
training should be carried out, as well as cleaning, afforestation, and reforestation of degraded
sites.
In an attempt to provide solutions to the above unfavorable scenario, the country is left with
the following options: the establishment of more conventional refineries, legalization of
illegal refineries, swapping of crude oil with refined products from other countries and setting
up of modular refineries around the country. The establishment of more conventional
refineries by both the government and private investors seems to be moving on a snail speed.
Large capital requirement and un-conducive environment serve as major hindrances. The full
deregulation of the downstream petroleum sector and government assistance in raising funds
will help in tackling this problem. The further establishment of more conventional refineries
if these factors are not fully looked into might not yield significant output.
The legalization of illegal refineries brings mixed feelings among citizens as while some
individuals fully support the idea, the others see it as a means of encouraging theft. Refineries
can be characterized as illegal when the source of raw material (crude oil) is gotten through
unofficial means or the mode of operations is sub-standard. Currently, it is observed that the
“bigger boys” now operate on sophisticated skid mounted automated refinery. Generally,
problems associated with illegal refinery includes: pollution (air, land and water), production
of yield cuts with bad specifications, fires and explosion scenario, loss of capital
infrastructures and profits for the government, poor reputation of the country, community
dispute and death of plants and animals (mostly fish). Although, the government should not
legalize the illegal refinery operation, operational adjustments can be made to have a WIN-
WIN situation.
Swapping of crude oil for refined products from other countries may serve as a temporary
solution but definitely not a permanent one. There is also no direct measure of calculating the
exact refined products for raw crude oil. It will also eventually lead to low employment rate
within the citizens, bad reputation and more redundancy from the other established ones. This
leaves the country with the most feasible option the establishment of modular refineries at
strategic locations within the country.
The Federal Government’s failure to intervene and bring sustainable development to the
region has also led to the initiation of militancy activities which is also a contributing factor
to the growing numbers of these illegal refineries. The artisanal refinery is a major challenge
to the petroleum industries, man, and its environment through its process of sourcing the raw
material, mode of production, and after-use effect. These refineries carry out operations
without putting in place measures of ameliorating the environmental impact. Signs of areas
with illegal refinery activities are dirty water and sheen of oil visibly floating on the surface
of the river, littering of river banks with lumps of oil, and dying vegetation along the
riverbank and within the vicinity of the camp. The illegal refinery is the major source of
pollution and the activities of artisanal refineries degrade the ecosystem which is the source
of livelihood for rural people. The relatively low cost of sourcing the rudimentary materials
for these illegal refineries also allows for quick setup of these operations and increases the
numbers of “kpo-fire” refineries which poison aquatic life (fish and wildlife).

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Recommendations
Phytoremediation can be used to detoxify and repair oil spilled systems plants such as
Eupatorium capillifolium (dog fennel), Hibscus cannabinus (herbaceous West African plant
species) has been used to repair oil spilled ecosystem. The need for the project to be
successful must be a priority for the government while creating synergy with security outfits
to curb the oil refineries menace. Oil exploration and production companies should sign
agreements with the host communities and provide guarantors for possible relocation of host
communities in the event of oil pollution. Activities of oil companies should be properly
scrutinized to ensure that they carry out due diligence and abide by best practices to prevent
oil pollution and subsequent to the environment. Areas identified as having endangered
species should be completely closed for oil production activity. Environmental education and
youth empowerment through vocational training should be carried out such as cleaning,
afforestation, and reforestation of degraded environment/aquatic ecosystem. Regardless of
the multi-complex situation of artisanal refineries in Niger Delta, regional cleanup sites along
problem areas could help contain spills more quickly, speeding up the cleaning process. The
Nigerian military JTF should use better ways to deal with illegal crude oil refiners not to
damage the aquatic ecosystems the more.
The continuation of empowering able bodied youths on crude oil pipe line surveillance and
the establishment of modular refineries in the region will reduce bunkering, illegal refineries,
vandalism; safe lives and biodiversity.
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