(PDF) Programme Development and Evaluation in Counselling

International Journal of Research

(IJR)

e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

116

Programme Development and Evaluation in Counselling

John N. Odili (PhD)

jodili@delsu.edu.ng

Department of Guidance and Counselling, Delta State University, Abraka Nigeria

Morrison O. Jessa (PhD)

jessa.morrison@delsu.edu.ng

Department of Guidance and Counselling, Delta State University, Abraka Nigeria

Introduction

Programme development and evaluation in counselling is a crucial area of study with far-

reaching implications for the enhancement of mental health services and the well-being of individuals.

Counselling services cater to a diverse range of clients with unique needs and challenges. The

development of effective counselling programmes ensures that interventions are tailored to address

the specific issues faced by various populations, such as individuals with different cultural

backgrounds, age groups, or mental health conditions. By studying programme development,

researchers can identify gaps in existing services and work towards creating more inclusive and

responsive counselling programmes.

Programme development and evaluation play a crucial role in improving treatment outcomes.

Through rigorous assessment and refinement of counselling interventions, researchers can identify

evidence-based practices that yield positive results. This contributes to the overall effectiveness of

counselling services, helping clients achieve better mental health outcomes and facilitating the

continuous improvement of therapeutic approaches. The field of counselling is dynamic, with new

International Journal of Research

(IJR)

e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

117

challenges and issues emerging over time. The study of programme development allows counsellors

to stay ahead of these challenges by creating innovative and adaptable interventions. This is

particularly important in the context of evolving societal norms, technological advancements, and the

changing landscape of mental health. A well-established programme development framework enables

counselling professionals to respond proactively to emerging needs.

Programme evaluation serves as a quality assurance mechanism for counselling services.

Through systematic assessments, counsellors can determine the effectiveness, efficiency, and

relevance of counselling programmes. This ensures that resources are utilized optimally and that

clients receive high-quality, evidence-based care. The continuous evaluation of counselling

programmes contributes to maintaining standards and fostering a culture of excellence within the

counselling profession. Research in programme development and evaluation provides valuable

insights that can inform policy decisions and professional practices in the field of counselling. By

generating evidence-based findings, counsellors contribute to the development of guidelines,

standards, and ethical considerations that guide the delivery of counselling services. This, in turn, has

a positive impact on the overall advancement and credibility of the counselling profession.

The study of programme development encourages collaboration and interdisciplinary

approaches. Effective counselling programmes often involve input from psychologists, social workers,

educators, and other professionals. By understanding the collaborative nature of programme

development, researchers can explore interdisciplinary strategies that enrich the counselling field and

promote holistic approaches to mental health. Programme development and evaluation create a culture

of continuous improvement and innovation within the counselling profession. Through ongoing

assessment and feedback, practitioners can adapt their approaches to align with the evolving needs of

International Journal of Research

(IJR)

e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

118

clients. This not only fosters a culture of learning within the counselling community but also

encourages the development of cutting-edge interventions that push the boundaries of what is

achievable in mental health care.

Objectives of Establishing Guidance Programme

The National Policy on Education (Federal Ministry of Education FME, 2004) section 9,

subsection 89(i) identified G and C as an educational service that will facilitate the implementation of

educational policies, and at the same time aid the attainment of the policy goals as well as promote

effectiveness of educational system. According to the policy document, the objectives of the school

guidance and counselling programme include:

1. Providing information to school children about career prospects. Career simply refers

to one’s life’s work. According to section 4 subsection 20(b) the secondary education

shall offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities

and future roles. The policy document further provides that learners will be made to

pursue academic or vocational disciplines depending on their mate potentials. School

guidance programme is expected to identify the aptitude of the learners in order to

channel them adequately into their area of proficiency.

2. For effective implementation of the educational policy school guidance programme

should help to provide information on the cognitive and more importantly the affective

and psychomotor component of learners’ behaviour. According to Igbogbor (2006)

there is a gap on the effectiveness of Nigerian education on the heart of the learners.

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

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Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

119

He posits that Nigeria education should be repositioned towards reconstruction ci the

Nigerian organism. School guidance programme is expected to provide services which

will touch the heart of Nigerians. The guidance counsellor should be able to develop

instruments that can evaluate the “heart” and “hand” of learners. This is supposed to

compliment the teacher’s evaluation of the cognitive domain for total development of

the learner.

3. School guidance programme is expected to play the role of rehabilitation. According

to Gidado (2002), UBE is expected to provide opportunities for individuals who had

withdrawn from the formal education system.

Thus, traders, craftsmen, technicians, drivers, even prostitutes motor-park and political

touts are expected to be rehabilitated into the school system at all levels of education.

School guidance programme is expected to have proper understanding of these

categories of people and thus help them to adjust in the school system.

4. School guidance should seek to achieve equal opportunity by discovering learners’

difficulties and making for individual differences. The philosophy of Nigerian

education as captioned in section 1, subsection 4(c) stipulates that there is need for

equality of educational opportunities to all Nigerian children irrespective of any real or

imagined disabilities, each according to his or her ability. School guidance and

counsellor should help to implement the principles of individualized instruction among

learners. This will greatly minimize dropout rates.

5. School guidance programme must maximize personality adjustment of learners. It

should be recalled that secondary school pupils are between the age of 11 years and l8

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Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

120

years. This age bracket marks the beginning and the height ci adolescence A kit of

personality maladjustment is evident in the life of the adolescent This ranges from sex

life and drug usage. It is the role of school guidance programme to monitor children at

this age so as to property address life pattern at this stage.

6. Guidance programmes are expected to address school-community life. The school

counsellor plays vital role in the school PTA programmes. The counsellor should

initiate programmes that will bring parents to witness the activities of their children and

wards. Programmes like open day, PTA meetings etc should be organized by the

counsellor for the achievement of the goal of education.

Purpose of Evaluation in Guidance and Counselling

Why does a guidance counsellor need to carry out evaluation? Evaluation is a process of

making informed decision concerning achievement of set objective. Guidance services like

educational programmes has set goals which they want to achieve. The purpose of evaluation in

guidance and counselling are discussed below:

1. To ascertain if the goal of guidance programme has been achieved. A guidance

counsellor initiates a programme with some set objectives in mind. These objectives

describe the kind of changes that he wants to achieve in the participant at the end of the

programme he uses the techniques c evaluation to ascertain if the goals cc observes of

the programme has been achieved.

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

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Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

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2. The guidance counsellor uses evaluation for the improvement of guidance programme.

In the process of implementation of a guidance programme the counsellor utilizes the

techniques of formative evaluation to ensure unity in the functioning of the elements

of the programme. In an orientation programme the counsellor should be concerned

with the level of participation of the beneficiaries. So, he could ask questions, consider

the volume of the public address system, watch the sitting arrangement to ensure full

participation.

3. For accountability in guidance services. Often time guidance services and programmes

are expensive to implement. Fund for such programme may be provided by the school

management, community, Parent Teachers Association or government. Naturally, these

funding agencies are interested in knowing the effect of the programme on the

participants. They want to know whether the programme is worth the amount of money

that they spent on it.

The counsellor uses the outcome of evaluation to convince them that the programme is

worth it. These bodies may also engage a counsellor as an external evaluator to

ascertain the worthwhileness of the money spent on a programme.

4. For placement of learners in programmes and vocation. The guidance counsellor

utilizes the outcome of evaluation to place individuals in programme and vocations.

Persons come into a programme with different abilities. Different vocations also

require different abilities. Using evaluation techniques, the counsellor is able to know

where an individual will fit in a programme. He also uses evaluation to guide the

individual into careers and vocations.

International Journal of Research

(IJR)

e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

122

5. Guidance and counsellor use evaluation for the prediction of client behaviour. A

scholastic aptitude test is used to predict clients’ ability to perform in academic

programme. A vocational aptitude test is used to predict an to perform in a vocation. A

counsellor can use test to predict who can be with training good soldier, policeman,

security service agent.

Principles of Evaluation

Evaluation is not an all-corners business, neither is it carried out in a haphazard manner. In this

section we shall consider some of the principles that guide evaluation. Note that some experts refer to

these principles as criteria for evaluation e.g., Asher (1976).

1. Ascertain the purpose of the evaluation process. Evaluation could serve different

purposes depending on the need of the user. Evaluation could be made to clarify the

goal of the programme, to ascertain the suitability of the operations-actions or activities

needed to achieve the set goals-or the output, the extent at which the beneficiaries have

gained from the programme and the level at which decision will be based on the

evaluation outcome. The purpose of evaluation influences the technique aid precision

of data collected as well as the variety of techniques to be used in data collection.

2. Ascertain the goal of the programme to be evaluated. Every guidance programme

has set goals or objectives that it is supposed to achieve. These objectives are the

compelling force behind time and money spent on it. These goats will inform the kind

of data and instruments to be used in aiming at decisions about the programme.

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

123

3. Decide on the technique of data collection. Evaluation as a scientific procedure

involves collection and analysis of data for decision making. The evaluator must decide

on the technique most suitable for the kind of data needed. Decision on the kind of data

should be guided by knowledge of technique, cost, validity of data collected as well as

its reliability.

4. Principle of multiple technique in evaluation. This means that more than one

technique can be applied in the process of data collection. For instance, in one

evaluation study, an evaluator can decide to use test, observation and sell-report

technique in data collection. An evaluation report manly requires information on the

level of cognitive, affective and psychomotor changes in individuals that are involved

in a programme. Such report will involve multiple data collection technique.

5. The principle of proper utilization of evaluation techniques. This principle demands

that an evaluator should be aware that there are problems inherent in any evaluation

technique. Sources of such problems includes: Sampling error, problems that can affect

reaction to the items in the instrument e.g., ambiguity, response set, liability to faking

and uninformed guessing. A third source of problem is bias conclusion arising from

evaluator’s predilection. Problems that cannot be checked are reported as limitations in

evaluation report.

6. The principle that evaluation is a means to an end, and not an end in itself. This

principle demands that evaluation result must not arrive too late, but at a time it can

help to move the programme forward. The result should be such that it can lend itself

to interpretation by varying audiences.

International Journal of Research

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e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

124

The Nature of Decision Making in Evaluation of Guidance Programme

When we engage in the process of evaluation, we are ultimately involved in decision making.

In evaluation of guidance programme three kinds of decision are involved. The first is the decision on

the best alternative for achieving a set objective. The second is a decision that concerns the operation

of the programme in terms of suitability of materials. The third is a decision on the causal effect of the

programme on the beneficiaries. Austin and Panos (1971) reorganized two conditions that predicates

educational decision Viz: some reorganized educational objectives and at least two alternative means

for accomplishing these objectives.

These are two or more alternative approaches in achieving a set of guidance and counselling

goals. Consider for example, a guidance counsellor who has the objective or goal of acquainting

secondary school students with career information. He or she can achieve this either through a career

conference or by taking them on excursion to a place where such career is in practice. Development

of good study habit could be achieved by group or individual counselling approach.

The second level of decision has to do with those elements that will affect the smooth rolling

of the wheel of the programme. He or she takes decision on what can increase or enhance interaction

between the resource persons and the best way to motivate and reinforce participants to engage and

complete the programme etc.

At the third level he takes decision on the effect at the programme on the beneficiaries. He or

she wants to ascertain that the goals of the programme have been achieved, and if not, what could be

responsible.

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

125

At any level what are the factors that affected decision following factors- relevance, cost and

availability. Relevance has to do with how such decision is capable of achieving set objectives, how

it fits the prevailing social and cultural milieux. A guidance counsellor must confirm literature that a

chosen approach is capable of achieving he/her set goal. He must support his points with valid

philosophical and psychological theoretical background. Methods which discriminate on the basis of

gender, ethnic belonging, race etc. cannot be said to be relevant Chosen method must rule out

tendencies to indoctrinate as well as religious bias.

Decision in guidance and counselling programmes must be guided by cost. In this era of UBE

which is free and compulsory the counsellor must be careful in deciding to levy students for a guidance

programme. School authority and government may also be reluctant to fund guidance. Considering

these issues, a counsellor must decide on programmes that are not financially expensive to get the co-

operation of stakeholders.

Decision in guidance and counselling programmes must be guided by availability. This has to

do with practical problem of implementation. Some programmes no matter how robust they may seem

may not be practicable. This might be as a result of restriction placed by tradition, administration or

legal consideration. Imagine a behaviour modification programme that involves making participants

to live in the prison yard to enable them have an idea of what it takes to be in prison; or using guidance

and counselling techniques to correct behaviour disorder that is “considered” to have spiritual

undertone. These procedures do not seem to be practicable. Occur in a learner having gone through

are educational programme. Objectives defined clearly help to shape and guide the instruction and

evaluation processes.

International Journal of Research

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e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

126

Meaning of Educational Evaluation

In any goal seeking activity it is natural to pause and consider the extent at which the set goals

are being achieved visa-vis the material input. For instance, when you set to make a dress, you have a

style in mind. As you put things. together to arrive at your proposed style sometimes you pause to

assess or evaluate the extent to which you are meeting your proposed style. Evaluation is making value

judgement about the worth of a set of data obtained in respect of an attribute. Such value judgements

are made within some frame of reference such as norm or criterion.

On a wider perspective, evaluation could be regarded as the sum total processes involved in

gathering qualitative or quantitative data and making value judgement about them. For example,

evaluation could be the entire processes of constructing and validating an achievement test and using

same to obtain data on the achievement of students and then judging whether the students are low or

high achievers in the test. Seen from this perspective evaluation embraces measurement. This is what

is implied when such terms as educational evaluation is used.

According to Asher (1976) educational is obtaining and using information for judging which

alternative should be selected in making educational decision. This definition derives from innovative

perspective. Perceived better alternative of achieving educational goals should be evaluated to see if

they are worth the huge amount of financial investment in them. It is from this stand point that

American congress insisted in an Act that evaluation procedures be adopted for every innovative

programmes.

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Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

127

Bloom, Hastings and Madaus (1971) and Gronlund (1976) define education evaluation is the

systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional objectives are being achieved by

pupils. Being systematic evaluation, it involves controlled observation of pupils. It assumes that

objectives have been previously determined.

Purpose of Evaluation

Evaluation plays important role in educational system. Some of these are presented below;

1. It contributes to teaching learning process. Teaching, learning and evaluation are

interdependent. The teacher must prepare instructional objectives in terms of the kind

of behaviour change he wants to harness in the learner. In so doing, he ascertains the

needs of the learner and provides relevant instruction. He evaluates the learning

outcomes and uses the evaluation outcome to adjust the other stages in the teaching and

learning process.

2. Evaluation is very vital in programme Instruction. This is an instructional system

in which learning is broken down into several steps, each step being made up of set

objectives. Evaluation helps to ascertain if a given set of objectives have been achieved

to enable progress be made.

3. Evaluation allows for curriculum development. In trying to achieve this it gathers

information about the various aspects of the curriculum like the objective, content,

process and output. Such data when analysed provide useful input for decision making.

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

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Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

128

4. Evaluation provides data for school accountability programmes. In this, decision about

the learner’s achievement is made based on the outcome of evaluation using such

devices as test and observation schedules.

Types of Evaluation

Different types of evaluation are used in school or educational system. They include:

1. Placement Evaluation: This type of evaluation is carried out in order to place

individuals into educational programmes. Examples include joint some aptitude test to

place persons in vocation or career etc.

2. Diagnostic Evaluation: This type of evaluation is carried out to find out the problems

or needs of programme. For instance, diagnostic evaluation is carried out to know the

needs of Junior Secondary School one students. It is also used to identify the problem

that confronts the implementation of a programme.

3. Formative Evaluation is used during the process of a programme implementation to

know where the participants are not doing well in order to direct them adequately

towards the objectives. When we ask questions during teaching and learning in order

to improve the achievement of educational goals, we are using formative.

4. Summative Evaluation is one used at the end of the programme to determine how

much we have achieved the objective of the programme. Examples are end of term

examination, West African Examination Council GCE and SSCE.

Changing Role of Evaluation

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

129

Evaluation traditionally serves as procedure for making critical and often irreversible decisions

about each student’s worth and his future in the education system. Little concern is paid on the welfare

of the learner by teachers and administrators. This is what was in operation before the advent of

continuous assessment mode of evaluating learning outcome. Evaluation in

Principles of Educational Evaluation

Educational evaluation is obtaining and using information for judging which alternative should

be selected in making an educational decision. Such decisions have far-reaching effect on learners,

teachers, administrators and the society at large. This far-reaching effect demands that educational

evaluation should be guided by principles that make for effectiveness. Existing literature presents these

guides as principles (Gronlund, 1976) or Criteria (Asher, 1976): In either case, these principles or

criteria provide yardstick that must be observed if an evaluation process must be credible and goal

oriented. The principles of educational evaluation are discussed below.

1. Ascertain the goal of the programme to be evaluated.

Every evaluation procedure targets a programme. A programme can be unit of instruction, e.g.,

a lesson; an innovation such as a new programme that is aimed at reducing the spread of Acquired

Immune Deficiency Syndrome; an intervention such as introduction of midday meals in primary

schools; an extension of basic education period from six years to nine years; the introduction of Post

University Matriculation Examination Screening etc. These programmes involve huge government

financial expenditure.

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

130

Government and funding agencies have certain objectives in mind which they want to achieve

using such programmes. The evaluator provides information that guides funding agencies in taking

decisions concerning aspects of the programme that will enable it to achieve its objective. Thus, the

first step an evaluator takes is to ascertain the goals or objectives of the programme. These goals will

inform the kind of data and instruments to be used in arriving at decisions about the programme Some

literature refers to the goal of educational programme as outputs, criteria, outcomes, achievement and

dependent variables (Austin and Panos, 1971).

Outcomes or goals are usually expressed at high levels of abstraction. E.g., the development

of capacity for critical thinking (also sees NPE). Most educational programmes are designed to affect

concrete and measurable aspects of behaviour. These include students’ achievements, skills, aptitude,

values, personality etc.

2. Decision on Techniques of Data Collection: Educational evaluation should be guided by a

decision of techniques of data collection for the purpose of arriving at a decision. This must be

preceded by a proper clarification of the goal or objective of the programme. Evaluation

techniques are selected on the basis of how valid and reliable the data collected is in arriving

at a decision alternative. Validity requires that the data collected should provide information

that sustains the decision that is to be taken. Reliability demands that the data collected must

be stable so that decision based on the data can be dependable. Guided by this principle an

evaluator should know when a given technique should be used instead of another. Decision on

technique should be guided by level of precision needed as well as the cost of collecting these

data.

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

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Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

131

3. The objective of evaluation process is another guiding principle in evaluation. Evaluation

could serve different purposes depending on the need of the user. Evaluation could be made to

clarify the goal of the programme, to ascertain the suitability of the operations- actions or

activities needed to achieve the set goals - or the output, the extent at which the beneficiaries

have gained from the programme and the level at which decision will be based on the

evaluation outcome. The objective of evaluation influences the technique and precision of data

collected as well as the variety of techniques to be used in data collection.

4. Principle of multiple techniques Evaluation: The principle of multiple techniques in

evaluation means that more than one technique can be applied in the process of data collection.

For instance, in one evaluation study, an evaluator can decide to use test, observation and self-

report technique in data collection such decision is anchored by the goal or objective of

evaluation. An evaluation report may involve information on the level of cognitive, affective

and psychomotor changes in individuals that are involved in a programme. Such report will,

require the use of test technique, observation and self-report techniques for the purpose of data

collection.

5. The principle of proper utilization of evaluation techniques: This principle demands that

an evaluator should be aware that there are problems inherent in any evaluation technique. This

is responsible for the strength and weaknesses of an evaluation technique. Sources of such

weaknesses include; sampling error. This weakness arises from the fact that in behaviour

measurement only a sample of the behaviour is measured. How much the sample is

representative of the universe of behaviour is indicative of how much this error is taken care

of. An adequate content and process sampling can help to minimize this weakness in the use

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

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Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

132

of technique. Another source of problem that can affect utilization of evaluation technique is

the problem that can affect reaction to the items in the instrument. This including wording in

terms of extent of ambiguity, response set, liability to faking and uninformed guessing. The

third source of weakness is improper interpretation of evaluation results arising people from

evaluator’s predilection and bias. Some of these weaknesses can be checked in the process of

data collection, while others may be stated as limitations.

6. The principle that evaluation is a means to an end, and not an end in itself is an important

principle in evaluation. Awareness of this will remove the problems of wearying subjects

with data collection that may not serve any end. Thus, an evaluator must have a proper focus

of the end of his effort. This will guide every other step in the process of evaluation. Evaluation

result must not arrive too late such that it cannot help in decisions that can help the programme.

The result should be such that it can lend itself to interpretation by varying audiences.

Nature of Educational Decisions

Decision which is literally judgement concerning which way to go is often taken at a cross

road. The teacher, school administrators and government are frequently faced with the task of taking

decisions that will enhance the achievement of educational goals and objectives. According to Austin

and Panos (1971) “the need for rendering an educational decision implies the existence of two

fundamental conditions; some recognized educational objective or set of objectives and at least two

alternative means for accomplishing these objectives”. Page 733.

International Journal of Research

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Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

133

The teacher is faced with the decision of the best instructional materials to achieve his stated

objectives. Such decision is influenced by relevance, cost and availability. The teacher is faced with

decision of curriculum and curriculum organization, method of teaching etc which will likely optimize

the achievement of educational or instructional objectives.

The school administrator is faced with the decision of how to utilize the school subvention

either in physical development or procurement of science, home economics, books and other

instructional materials for the school.

Government is also faced with the decision of which intervention programme that should be

funded to achieve the national goals which are achievable using education as a tool. Each educational

decision alternative is born out of the belief that there is a casual relationship between educational

objective and particular means available for achieving it. In each case, the decision maker believes

that there is a best alternative for achieving set goal or goals of education. There are different theories

of decision making viz; Stochastic theory of decision making (Wald, 1947), game theory of decision

making (Neumann and Morgenstern, 1947) and inductive logic theory of decision making (Carnap,

1950) (Students should read about them in some details)

Austin and Panos (1971) identified the following distinct components of an educational

programme outputs, inputs and operations.

1. Outputs: Educational outputs refer to the ends or objectives of the educational

programme. They can also be referred to as criteria, goals, outcomes, achievements and

dependent variables examples of UBE, Adedu, Med,

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2. Inputs: Educational inputs are talents, skills, aspirations, and other potentials for

growth and learning that the student brings with him into the educational programme.

They can also be referred to as pre-tests, selection criteria, control variables, antecedent

variables, interacting variables, motivations and aptitudes. Inputs are the human raw

materials with which the educational. programme has to deal. Inputs include personal

characteristics of the students, family and community, and culture. Inputs could vary

according to educational programme inputs affect student ultimate goal achievement

in programme as well as the environment of the school.

3. Operations: Educational operations refer to those characteristics of the educational

programme that are capable of affecting the student outputs. They include

environmental experiences, means, independent variables, educational interventions

experimental treatments, learning experience, learning strategies, curriculum, teaching

style, instructional techniques. They are the means for the achievement of educational

outputs or ends.

Evaluation Models

Evaluation models are procedures that are followed in carrying out programme evaluation.

These are discussed below:

1. CIPP Model

CIPP is the acronym for Context, Input, Process, Product model of evaluation. This model is

creditable to Stuffle Beam (1968). Context evaluation provides the broad basis for stating the

International Journal of Research

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p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

135

objectives of the evaluation and the surrounding conditions of a possible programme. Input evaluation

provides the specific data and considerations for the assessment of staffing, time, budget requirements,

procedural barriers, operationally stated objectives, and educational and administrative strategies prior

to the start of an educational programme.

Process evaluation takes place during the implementation of an educational activity or

programme. It is concerned with the actual implementation of the programme, its description, and the

facilitating and impeding factors as the programme proceeds. Product evaluation is a concerned with

the end result of the educational programme on the students or participants. In other words, it has to

do with programme accomplishment.

2. The Discrepancy Evaluation Model

This model of evaluation is Credited to Previous (1971). It is the procedure whereby

differences (discrepancies) between a standard of performance and the performance itself in an

educational programme are found and corrected. Discrepancy analysis is very much process oriented

but also is concerned ultimately with educational products. It is concerned with what should be

produced as well as how the product is to be produced. The what and how are defined in terms of

discrepancies between developed standards (bench mark) and actual performance in implementation.

These standards (bench mark) are compared for discrepancies. There are five stages of evaluation:

1. Design

2. Installation

3. Process,

International Journal of Research

(IJR)

e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

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4. Product and

5. Cost

Any differences found at any of these stages in the evaluation are given to the programme staff

by the administrator (or the evaluator) so that the staff has a sound basis to make programme changes.

Stage one activities are programme design and redefinition much like context evaluation in the CIPP

model. Stage two, installation, and stage three, process is concerned with the implementation and

continuation of programme as it was designed. Stage four, product, uses traditional classical evaluation

and applied education research procedures to determine where the programme processes and

conceptualization indeed have produced the product or achieved the objectives of the programme stage

five, cost, is concerned with cost and benefits of the programme.

3. The Accreditation Model

Accreditation model is the procedure followed by programme accrediting bodies to ensure that

educational programmes are achieving the objectives which they are set to achieve. In countries like

United States of America there are accrediting bodies which carry out this function. In Nigeria, bodies

like National commission, for Colleges of Education, Nigerian University Commission, Ministries of

Education carry out accreditation functions for colleges of education, universities, secondary/primary

schools respectively.

The accreditation process usually involves the collection of descriptive information concerning

institutional characteristics such as faculty student ratios, teaching loads, size of the library, physical

plant, required and elective courses, available teaching facilities and equipment’s inputs like JAMB

International Journal of Research

(IJR)

e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

137

scores for students’ school certificate results of students, percentage of student going on to graduate

etc. These yardsticks are determined ahead of the accreditation process members of the accreditation

team only give a description of facilities on ground students can also be interviewed to get information

from them on the implementation of the programme. Through this method in Nigeria, many

departments in Nigeria University have been denied accreditation because their programme failed to

meet the minimum requirement.

Evaluation Design

Evaluation designs are methods applied in collecting data about inputs, operations and output

of a programme with the hope of taking decisions that will guide improvement or modification of the

educational programme. There are different a types of evaluation design viz; historical, descriptive

and experimental, descriptive designs include survey, case study, correlational and causal comparative

or ex-post (ex-post) facto design. Experimental design includes pure experimental design and quasi-

experimental design.

Validity of Evaluation Design

Validity of evaluation design means that the method used in collecting data actually collected

data that provide relevant information for decision making in respect of an educational programme.

Conclusion

The study of programme development and evaluation in counselling is integral to the

advancement of the profession. It ensures that counselling services are responsive to diverse client

International Journal of Research

(IJR)

e-ISSN: 2348-6848

p-ISSN: 2348-795X

Vol. 10 Issue 12

December 2023

Received: 22 November 2023

Revised: 1 December 2023

Final Accepted 9 December 2023

138

needs, enhances treatment outcomes, addresses emerging challenges, maintains quality standards,

informs policy and practice, encourages collaboration, and fosters a culture of continuous

improvement. As counselling continues to play a vital role in promoting mental health, investing in

the systematic study of programme development and evaluation is essential for the ongoing success

and relevance of counselling services.

References

Asher, J. W. (1976). Educational Research and Evaluation Methods. Boston. little, Brown and

Company.

Cronbach, L. J., & Glesser, G. C. (1965). Psychological tests and Personnel decisions. Urbana:

University of Illinois Press.

Nworgu, B. G. (2003). Educational Measurement and Evaluation. Nsukka: University Trust

Publishers.

Thorndike, R. I. (1971). Educational Measurement. American Council on Educ. Washington D.C.

Programme Development and Evaluation in Counselling

Abstract

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