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Introducing Originality and Innovation in Engineering Teaching: The Hydraulic Design of Culverts
Abstract
Recently the teaching of engineering design has become a presentation of standards and codes rather than the learning of sound design practices. Too many students request formulae and equations to solve a design exercise and they fail to develop any design originality. The present student attitude leads to young graduate engineers without critical ability and innovative flair. The writer has developed an innovative hydraulic design exercise based upon culvert design. Each design exercise could lead to more than one correct design per student in the class. Students have to learn basic design calculations based upon lecture material, notes, field visits and laboratory experiment. The practical component (laboratory, field visit) contributes significantly to their understanding of the complete system, including some basic safety and professional issues.
... The design of a culvert requires a local hydrological study to obtain the design discharge (Chanson, 2000). Typically, storm-produced runoff is assumed to have a return time of 25 to 50 years (Alonso, 2005). ...
... Likewise, on secondary roads the diameter should not be less than 0.61 m (24 in), nor less than 0.46 m (18 in) on roads or access routes according to the Nicaraguan Ministerio de Transporte e Infraestructura (MTI, 2008), which mainly considers maintenance. The conduit's cross section depends on the height of the embankment, construction cost, material and type of inlet (Chanson, 2000;Clark & Kehler, 2011;Schall et al., 2012). ...
... El diseño de una alcantarilla requiere un estudio hidrológico local para obtener el caudal de diseño (Chanson, 2000). Normalmente, se adopta un escurrimiento producido por una tormenta con un tiempo de retorno de 25 a 50 años (Alonso, 2005). ...
Introduction:
Due to the hypotheses set out in the equations for the design of hydraulic structures, the flow does not follow a real behavior; therefore, it is necessary to build physical and numerical models to obtain adequate results.
Objective:
To obtain the characteristic curve of the real behavior of the transition zone of a culvert with inlet control, as well as the mathematical models of the hydraulic operation.
Methodology:
The experiment was carried out in a physical model built and instrumented with two sensors: an HC-SR04 for measuring the water level and an FS400a for the discharge. The inlet discharge was varied with a gate valve to obtain the characteristic curve. By means of least-squares fitting, the mathematical models for the weir, transition, orifice and overall operation zones were obtained.
Results:
The characteristic curve of the system was fitted to a third degree polynomial. The global model Q = f(H) ranged from 0.066 to 0.286 m, where 25 % of the water surface heights (0.066 < H ≤ 0.117 m) behaved as a weir, 23.53 % (0.117 < H ≤ 0.165 m) as a transition zone and 51.47 % (0.165 < H ≤ 0.286 m) as an orifice, obtaining in all cases an R² > 0.98.
Study limitations:
The models obtained can only be scaled in culverts with geometry similar to the physical model studied.
Originality:
We worked with experimental data and the weir-orifice transition model.
Conclusions:
The transition zone presented a curved trend, although the linear model, found in the literature, only loses 0.2 % accuracy.
... Thus, consideration of hydrologic conditions is essential in culvert design. There are many methods for culvert design and these methods are, equations (Chanson, 2000), nomographs and computer programs. A computer program is developed to handle the hydraulic and structural design of culverts under field conditions (Abdul-Hadi, et al., 2008). ...
... tc=0.02L 0.77 /S 0.385 (5) The duration (tr) was estimated. ...
In Iraq, the infrastructures are developing rapidly, so it is necessary to consider the hydrology of the developed catchment before constructing any drainage facilities such as culvert to prevent traffic disruption during rain. In this study, sizing of box culvert for highways in Iraq is proposed using rational method for determination of peak runoff from small catchment (less than 3 km2). Rainfall depth was used to derive the intensity duration frequency curve, and then the rainfall intensity was found. However, soil conservation service curve number (SCS-CN) was used in the estimation of peak runoff from catchment with size ranging from 3 to less than 30 km2 using the soil classification and the curve number. HY-8 computer software was used for sizing square and circular sections. Circular sections were also calculated. The appropriate sizes for square sections in large basins are 3 m to 4 m and 2 m to 2.9 m for more than 114 m3/s and 32 m3/s respectively, but for circular sections, diameters were 4.1m, from 3 m to 3.8 m and from 2.5 m to 2.9 m under flow rates more than 160 m3/s, 68 m3/s and 25 m3/s respectively. However, for small basins, square sections sizes were 3m to 3.1m and 2 m to 2.7 m for flow rates more than 23 m3/s and 8 m3/s respectively. Diameters for circular sections were 3 m to 3.2 m and 2 m to 2.9 m under flow rates 23 m3/ s and 8 m3/s respectively.
... An understanding of the importance of proper culvert design has developed, as indicated by its introduction as an element of an innovative approach to teaching engineering in Australia (Chanson 2000). ...
This study is a broad and critical review of the transdisciplinary literature on the construction of culverts and their impacts on stream hydrology and geomorphology as well as on stream habitats and biota. For engineers, a culvert is a structure, usually of the tunnel type, that transfers a stream or open drain under a road, railway line, or other obstacle from one side to the other. In fact, culverts are complex hydraulic structures whose impacts on stream ecosystems must be evaluated and understood before they are designed. The objective of this paper is to analyse and discuss recent knowledge about culvert functioning in terms of their negative effects on the passage of freshwater biota, particularly fish, and on entire stream ecosystems. We present the results of many studies showing that improperly designed culverts are barriers for migrating animals and usually have serious ecological consequences (mainly disturbances to fish life history). We also pay attention to different culvert modification methods that increase their passability for organisms and mitigate the impacts of culverts on the surrounding environment. The other purpose of this review is therefore to emphasize that the integration of the knowledge and professional experience of biologists and ecologists with those of river managers, river engineers, hydraulic engineers, hydrologists, and geomorphologists is necessary to design culverts that preserve the natural properties of streams.
... Thus consideration of hydrologic conditions is essential in culvert design . There are many methods for culvert design and these methods are, equations [4] nomographs and computer programs. A computer program is developed to handle the hydraulic and structural design of culverts under field conditions [5]. ...
In Iraq, the infrastructures are developing rapidly, so it is necessary to consider the hydrology of the developed catchment before constructing any drainage facilities such as culverts to prevent traffic disruption during rain. In this study, sizing of box culvert for highways in Iraq is proposed using the rational method for determination of peak runoff from small catchment (less than 3 km2). However, soil conservation service curve number (SCS-CN) was used in the estimation of peak runoff from a catchment with sizes ranging from 3 to less than 30 km2. HY-8 computer software was used for sizing square and circular sections. The appropriate sizes for square sections in large basins are 3 m to 4 m and 2 m to 2.9 m for more than 114 m3/s and 32 m3/s, but for circular sections, diameters were 4.1m, from 3 m to 3.8 m and from 2.5 m to 2.9 m under flow rates more than 160 m3/s, 68 m3/s and 25 m3/s in sequence. However, for small basins, square sections sizes were 3m to 3.1m and 2 m to 2.7 m for flow rates more than 23 m3/s and 8 m3/s in sequence. Diameters for circular sections were 3 m to 3.2 m and 2 m to 2.9 m under flow rates 23 m3/ s and 8 m3/s in sequence.
... Several factors influence the discharge capacity of a culvert, but the cross-sectional area and the inlet configuration are the two that can be controlled the easiest with the biggest impact on water flow. The importance and benefits of well-designed inlets were recognized in early research [16], yet modern design guidelines have failed to adopt these benefits [17][18][19][20][21]. A review of the geometric influence on hydraulic performances in rectangular culverts was completed in 2004 by Jones et al. [19]; but only a few sizes of the inlet design were investigated, and most subsequent alterations were limited to the top bevel and/or wingwall setups rather than to the shape of the complete opening. ...
This paper presents the findings of a study into how different inlet designs for stormwater culverts increase the discharge rate. The objective of the study was to develop improved inlet designs that could be retro-fitted to existing stormwater culvert structures in order to increase discharge capacity and allow for changing rainfall patterns and severe weather events that are expected as a consequence of climate change. Three different chamfer angles and a rounded corner were simulated with the software ANSYS Fluent, each of the shapes tested in five different sizes. Rounded and 45∘ chamfers at the inlet edge performed best, significantly increasing the flow rate, though the size of the configurations was a critical factor. Inlet angles of 30∘ and 60∘ caused greater turbulence in the simulations than did 45∘ and the rounded corner. The best performing shape of the inlet, the rounded corner, was tested in an experimental flume. The flume flow experiment showed that the optimal inlet configuration, a rounded inlet (radius = 1/5 culvert width) improved the flow rate by up to 20% under submerged inlet control conditions.
... beneath a road [2,14,15] (Fig. 1). In terms of hydraulic engineering, the optimum design of a culvert yields the smallest barrel size compatible with an inlet control operation at design discharge [10,11,16]. The resulting design leads to large culvert barrel velocities for design and less-than-design flow conditions, with adverse impact on upstream fish passage [3,28,33]. ...
A culvert is a covered channel designed to pass water through an embankment. The recognition of the adverse ecological impacts of culverts on upstream fish passage is driving the development of new culvert design guidelines, with a focus on small-bodied fish species seeking low velocity zones to minimise energy expenditure. Herein a hybrid modelling technique was applied, combining physical modelling, one-dimensional theoretical calculation and three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics modelling. The results reveal fundamental turbulent processes that may affect small-body-mass fish navigability and provide new insights for the development of standard box culvert design guidelines. Systematic validations were performed to a wide range of initial conditions and smooth barrel geometries. A physical relationship was derived from numerical and experimental data of past and present studies, correlating the dimensionless flow area with a normalised local velocity V/Vmean.
... A maximum acceptable afflux h max , at design flow conditions, is then set by the asset owner based upon an impact assessment of the culvert structure on the upstream catchment and embankment. Second the culvert barrel size is selected by an iterative procedure and the optimum size is the smallest barrel size allowing for inlet control operation (Herr and Bossy 1965;Hee 1969;Chanson 2000Chanson , 2004. The resulting optimum design is to operate as an open channel system at the design discharge, with critical flow conditions typically occurring in the barrel in order to maximise the discharge per unit width and to reduce the barrel cross-section area. ...
Low-level river crossings can have negative impacts on freshwater ecosystems, including blocking upstream fish passage. In order to restore upstream fish passage in culverts, we developed physically-based design methods to yield cost-effective culvert structures in order to maintain or restore waterway connectivity for a range of small-bodied fish species. New guidelines are proposed for fish-friendly multi-cell box culvert designs based upon two basic concepts: (1) the culvert design is optimised for fish passage for small to medium water discharges, and for flood capacity for larger discharges, and (2) low-velocity zones in the culvert barrel are defined in terms of a percentage of the wetted flow area where the local longitudinal velocity component is less than a characteristic fish speed linked to swimming performances of targeted fish species. This approach is novel and relies upon an accurate physically-based knowledge of the entire velocity field in the barrel, specifically the longitudinal velocity map, because fish tend to target low-velocity zone (LVZ) boundaries. The influence of the relative discharge threshold Q1/Qdes, characteristic fish swimming speed Ufish, and percentage of flow area on the size of box culvert structures was assessed. The results showed that the increase in culvert size and cost might become significant for a smooth culvert barrel with Ufish < 0.3 m/s and Q1/Qdes > 0.3, when providing 15% flow area with 0 < Vx < Ufish. Similar trends were seen for culvert barrel with recessed cell(s).
... Dengan pemahaman akan akibat kerugian dalam penggunaan pompa dan pemipaan maka dapat membantu meminimalisir kehilangan energi pada sistem pemipaan yang dipergunakan [5]. Telah banyak dilakukan simulasi penggunaan karakteristik jalus distribusi air seperti yang dilakukan oleh Chanson [6]. ...
Pompa sentrifugal merupakan salah satu jenis pompa yang banyak digunakan dalam bidang industri, pertanian dan rumah tangga. Pompa sentrifugal dapat dijumpai pada pompa Chiller yang dipakai di perusahaan PT.X Bontang. Telah dilakukan penelitian dan analisis terhadap pompa chiller yang dipasang tunggal. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menghitung head losses mayor dan head losses minor pada variasi bukaan katup instalasi pompa tunggal. Dalam penelitian pompa chiller yang penulis lakukan, menggunakan variasi bukaan katup 100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, dan 10%. Dari hasil pengujian dilapangan debit terbesar ditunjukan pada bukaan 100% dengan 0,0053 m3/s. Dari hasil perhitungan untuk head losses mayor diperoleh 4,629 m bukaan 100% dan 1,151 m bukaan 10%. Perhitungan head losses minor diperoleh 9,7 m bukaan 100% dan 2,1 m bukaan 10%. Dari data yang diperoleh bahwa semakin besar bukaan katup maka semakin besar pula head losses mayor dan head losses minor.
... Conventional culvert design software programs include governmental software programs such as the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Culvert Hydraulic Analysis Program (HY-8) [2] or commercial programs such as Bentley CulvertMaster [3]. Design parameters for cylindrical culverts include the peak flowrate, slope of the culvert, headwater and tailwater elevations, and the diameter of a culvert barrel [4]. Typical culvert design software automatically calculates and adjusts site-specific parameters like culvert slope and headwater elevations until suitable design conditions are met. ...
A GIS-enabled culvert design module is presented. This module employs Python programming to combine a proposed culvert location, topography, land use, and rainfall data to automatically design a culvert. The module is embedded within ESRI ArcGIS 10.4 software, providing a seamless single platform that eliminates error propagation associated with cross-platform data transfer as well as providing 95% time savings over traditional calculation methods. The module uses United States Geological Survey digital elevation data to analyze watershed topography. Runoff coefficients are determined from data available through the National Land Cover Database. Rainfall data are retrieved from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and combined with watershed and land use information to calculate peak discharge using the rational method. Peak discharge is then combined with culvert design parameters to design a single-barrel culvert. The module was used to redesign ten existing culverts along a highway in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, resulting in designs for updated land cover and rainfall conditions. Results from the techniques developed herein can be used for planning purposes and to highlight vulnerabilities in the existing infrastructure. The automation methods may be extended to other hydrologic objectives and runoff mitigation design such as open-channel design and detention or retention ponds.
... Current standard culvert designs are characterized by a significant afflux at the design discharge (Henderson 1966). In terms of hydraulic engineering design, the optimum size of a culvert is the smallest barrel size allowing for inlet control operation (Herr and Bossy 1965;Chanson 2000Chanson , 2004. The current engineering approach is focused on design flow conditions and does not consider upstream fish passage requirements. ...
Standard box-culvert designs are similar to ancient designs. The acknowledgment of the ecological impact of culverts and road crossings on rivers has led to changes in culvert design guidelines. A small triangular corner baffle system was tested to assist upstream passage of small body-mass fish in box-culvert structures on a flat bed slope. The study was conducted in a near full-scale physical facility, which had a width of 0.5 m and a length of 12 m. The investigation presented a detailed characterization of the flow field. Tests showed that small-bodied fish preferred to swim in slow-velocity regions (i.e., in the baffles' corner). The most effective baffles had heights comparable to fish length. A key outcome of the study is the adverse impact of strong flow reversal on small-bodied fish, because strong flow reversal may confuse small-bodied fish attempting upstream culvert passage. A remedial measure is the ventilation of baffles, tested successfully herein.
... There was absolutely nothing interesting about it: it was not teaching science, it was teaching science words.' Likewise, Chanson (2000) analyses the situation for engineering, specific for hydraulic engineering designing. He pointed out that lectures on engineering design have become a presentation of standards and codes rather than the teaching of sound design practice, where most of students request formulae and equations to solve a design exercise and they fail to develop any original design. ...
Several methodological approaches to improve the understanding and motivation of students in Hydraulic Engineering courses have been adopted in the Agricultural Engineering School at Technical University of Madrid. During three years student's progress and satisfaction have been assessed by continuous monitoring and the use of ‘online’ and web tools in two undergraduate courses. Results from their application to encourage learning and communication skills in Hydraulic Engineering subjects are analysed and compared to the initial situation. Student's academic performance has improved since their application, but surveys made among students showed that not all the methodological proposals were perceived as beneficial. Their participation in the ‘online’, classroom and reading activities was low although they were well assessed.
... Professor C.J. Apelt presented an authoritative review (Apelt, 1983) and a well-documented audiovisual documentary (Apelt, 1994). The writer highlighted a wide range of design options (Chanson, 2000(Chanson, , 2004a. Since about 150 structures were built in Eastern Australia with discharge capacities ranging from less than 2 m 3 s −1 to more than 800 m 3 s −1 . ...
For centuries, hydraulic engineers were at the forefront of science. The last forty years marked a change of perception in our society with a focus on environmental sustainability and management, particularly in developed countries. Herein, the writer illustrates his strong belief that the future of hydraulic engineering lies upon a combination of innovative engineering, research excellence and higher education of
... Change is constant and everywhere [5] modern society is characterized by a rapidly expanding base of knowledge and expertise, such that many students can not be expected to be cognisant of all of the knowledge in their chosen area of learning, [6].Whilst trying to incorporate more "human" skills into their knowledge base and professional practice, today's engineers must also cope with continual technological and organisational change in the workplace. In addition they must cope with the commercial realities of industrial practice in the modern world, as well as the legal consequences of every professional decision they make [7].The challenge of preparing engineering graduates for a fast changing work environment calls for the development of thinking programmes [8]. ...
Design has traditionally been an important part of an engineer's training. The initial Engineering Design course in second year undergraduate engineering degree play an integral part in combining the learned knowledge and promote problem solving proficiency. Engineers Australia (Formerly the Institution of Engineers Australia) outlines, soft skills and social proficiencies as a key competency in the accreditation framework. Furthermore the Australian engineering competency standards gives design a significant weight in its evaluation criteria, requiring engineering curriculum to have significant design course experience (2004). Thus engineering design pedagogy including assessment and evaluation strategies are of an increased emphasis for educators. This paper describes the application of problem based learning in an undergraduate preliminary engineering design course with an emphasis on student learning.
... Professor C.J. Apelt presented an authoritative review (Apelt 1983) and a well-documented audio-visual documentary (Apelt 1994). The discusser highlighted the wide range of design options (Chanson 2000) and illustrated prototypes (Chanson 1999Chanson , 2001) (Table 1). The concept of Minimum Energy Loss (MEL) culvert was developed by Norman Cottman, shire engineer in Victoria (Australia), and late Professor Gordon McKay, University of Queensland (McKay 1971McKay , 1978). ...
... The design theory is well understood for man-made structures with rectangular cross sections. Professor C. J. Apelt presented an authoritative review (Apelt 1983), while the author highlighted the wide range of design options and illustrated prototypes (Chanson 1999Chanson , 2000). Some audio-visual and Internet references are presented inTable 1. ...
Culverts are among the most common hydraulic structures. Modern designs do not differ from ancient structures and are often characterised by significant afflux at design flows. A significant advance was the development of the Minimum Energy Loss (MEL) culverts in the late 1950s. The design technique allows a drastic reduction in upstream flooding associated with lower costs. The development and operational performances of this type of structure is presented. The successful operation of MEL culverts for more than 40 years is documented with first-hand records during and after floods. The experiences demonstrate the design soundness while highlighting the importance of the hydraulic expertise of the design engineers.
While leading scholars emphasised the role of turbulence in waterways and the complex fish–turbulence interactions, what do we really know about turbulence? A recent paper developed a comparison between different boundary treatment to improve upstream passage of small fish in box culverts. The limitations of the work are discussed. It is argued that the practical engineering design implications cannot be ignored, while a solid understanding of turbulence typology is a basic requirement to any successful boundary treatment conducive of upstream fish passage.
Traditional box culvert designs lead to development of high velocity zones in the culvert barrel that often impede upstream migration of fish. Herein, three‐dimensional Reynolds‐averaged Navier‐Stokes (RANS)‐ and Large eddy simulation (LES)‐based computational fluid dynamics (CFDs) simulations were performed to compare the effectiveness of smooth, asymmetrically roughened, and corner‐baffled barrels, in creating low‐velocity zones (LVZs) and providing opportunity for upstream passage of small‐bodied fish. The results revealed distinctive benefits provided by the asymmetrically roughened and corner‐baffled barrels relative to the smooth barrel. Cross‐sectional asymmetry, corners, and obstructions are important factors that contribute to the generation of LVZs conducive to fish passage, albeit contiguity of LVZs is required, particularly for weak swimmers. The study demonstrates the adequacy and effectiveness of CFD models to complement traditional laboratory studies in understanding basic mechanisms beneficial to fish passage and to provide insights into future designs.
The challenge to understanding the fluid mechanics of fish swimming is knowing exactly what the water is doing where the fish swims. Recent field and laboratory observations in box culvert barrel showed that fish tend to swim preferentially close to the channel sidewalls, in regions of slow velocity and often high turbulence intensity. An analogy with human swimming is developed herein. Fish minimise their energy expenditure by swimming in inter-connected low-velocity zones (LVZs) and minimising acceleration-deceleration amplitudes. In a box culvert barrel, the mechanical energy expenditure is drastically reduced in sidewall and corner flow regions, characterised by low velocities and secondary current motion. These regions were “sweet spots” used by small bodied fish to minimise their rate of work. Both bed and sidewall roughness must be scaled to the fish dimensions. More generally, the methodology brings rigorous scientific insights into why certain culvert designs, possibly equipped with baffles and apertures, are more efficient in promoting fish passage. One may foresee an evolution of the scientific approach towards using advanced physics-based theory supported by high-quality data sets. The results also raise questions on limitations of current fish swim tunnel tests, and matching swimming performance data to hydrodynamic measurements.
Culverts are among the most common hydraulic structures. Modern designs do not differ much from ancient structures and are characterised by significant afflux at design flow conditions. A major advance in hydraulic engineering was the development of Minimum Energy Loss (MEL) culverts by the late Professor Gordon McKAY in the late 1950s. The design technique allows a drastic reduction in afflux associated with lower costs. The successful operation of MEL culverts for more than 40 years demonstrate the design soundness while highlighting the importance of streamlining and near-critical flow conditions throughout the structure. The novelty of the MEL culvert design is emphasised, as well as its application to embankment breach development. Further information are available on the Internet {http://www.uq.edu.au/~e2hchans/mel_culv. html}, a video documentary (APELT 1994) and a chapter of the textbook CHANSON (1999, 2004).
For centuries, hydraulic engineers were at the forefront of science. The last forty years marked a change of perception in our society with a focus on environmental sustainability and management, particularly in developed countries. Herein, the writer illustrates his strong belief that the future of hydraulic engineering lies upon a combination of innovative engineering, research excellence and higher education of quality. This drive continues a long tradition established by eminent scholars like Arthur Thomas Ippen, John Fisher Kennedy and Hunter Rouse. © 2007 International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research.
Proceedings of The International Conference on Interdisciplinary Research in Engineering and Technology 2015 happened at New Delhi, India
The paper describes the pedagogical impact of field works in undergraduate hydraulic engineering subjects in an Australian University. Field studies have been regularly organised to complement traditional lectures in hydraulics subjects during the last 10 years. Anonymous student feedback indicated a strong motivation for hydraulic courses that include a field work component, associated with lower failure rates. Employers' response highlighted a strong industry support for such field work experience. Another outcome is the students' personal development gained during such activities. The study shows also that the selection of field trips is critical to maximise students' learning.
Hydraulics has been at the forefront of science for centuries. In this paper, new exciting developments are presented in terms of energy dissipation and multiphase flows. These include the hydraulic design of rectangular dropshafts and stepped chutes for embankment dams, and new air-water studies of spillway flows and dam break waves. The findings demonstrate innovative hydraulic research which must be supported by active and sustained funding.
The design of culverts and bridge waterways according to the approach described variously as "minimum energy" and as "constant energy" is summarised. The hydraulics of the flow in such waterways is discussed. Even though the flow occurring can be quite complex, the waterways can be designed with simple calculations within certain limitations. Some of these limitations are discussed. Some results concerning energy losses in the expanding part of the flow are presented.
2 -= Sketch of a Minimum Energy Loss culvert rCHANSON Introducing Originality and Innovation in Engineering Teaching: the Hydraulic Design of Culverts
- H Fig
Fig. 2 -= Sketch of a Minimum Energy Loss culvert rCHANSON, H. (2000). Introducing Originality and Innovation in Engineering Teaching: the Hydraulic Design of Culverts. European Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 377-391 (ISSN 0304-3797)
Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of Highway Culverts. Hydraulic Eng. Circular, US Dept. of Transportation Design of Small Dams
- L A Herr
- H G And Bossy
HERR, L. A. AND BOSSY, H. G., 1965, Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of Highway Culverts. Hydraulic Eng. Circular, US Dept. of Transportation, Federal Highway Admin., HEC No. 5, December. US DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 1987, Design of Small Dams. Denver CO: Bureau of Reclamation. VALLENTINE, H. R., 1969, Applied Hydrodynamics (London: Butterworths).
Hydraulics of Precast Concrete Conduits
- Concrete Pipe Association Of
- Australia
CONCRETE PIPE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, 1991, Hydraulics of Precast Concrete Conduits (Jenkin Buxton Printers, Australia).
A Short History of Stepped Cascades in Australia
CHANSON, H. (1997). "A Short History of Stepped Cascades in Australia." ANCOLD Bulletin, No. 106, Aug., pp.
101-111.
The Minimum Energy Loss Culvert
APELT, C.J. (1994). "The Minimum Energy Loss Culvert." Videocassette VHS colour, Dept. of Civil Eng., University
of Queensland, Australia, 18 minutes.
Applied Hydrodynamics
VALLENTINE, H.R. (1969). "Applied Hydrodynamics." Butterworths, London, UK, SI edition.
4 -Photographs of a prototype MEL culvert below Ridge Street
- Fig
Fig. 4 -Photographs of a prototype MEL culvert below Ridge Street, Brisbane QLD, Australia -Design discharge : 220