ArticlePublisher preview available

Meditation States and Traits: EEG, ERP, and Neuroimaging Studies

Authors:
Baruch Rael Cahn at University of Southern California
Baruch Rael Cahn
John Polich
John Polich
John Polich
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
Read publisher preview
Download citation
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Neuroelectric and imaging studies of meditation are reviewed. Electroencephalographic measures indicate an overall slowing subsequent to meditation, with theta and alpha activation related to proficiency of practice. Sensory evoked potential assessment of concentrative meditation yields amplitude and latency changes for some components and practices. Cognitive event-related potential evaluation of meditation implies that practice changes attentional allocation. Neuroimaging studies indicate increased regional cerebral blood flow measures during meditation. Taken together, meditation appears to reflect changes in anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal areas. Neurophysiological meditative state and trait effects are variable but are beginning to demonstrate consistent outcomes for research and clinical applications. Psychological and clinical effects of meditation are summarized, integrated, and discussed with respect to neuroimaging data.
A preview of this full-text is provided by American Psychological Association.
Learn more
Content available from Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
Meditation States and Traits: EEG, ERP, and Neuroimaging Studies
B. Rael Cahn
University of California, San Diego, and University
of Zurich Hospital of Psychiatry
John Polich
The Scripps Research Institute
Neuroelectric and imaging studies of meditation are reviewed. Electroencephalographic
measures indicate an overall slowing subsequent to meditation, with theta and alpha
activation related to proficiency of practice. Sensory evoked potential assessment of
concentrative meditation yields amplitude and latency changes for some components and
practices. Cognitive event-related potential evaluation of meditation implies that practice
changes attentional allocation. Neuroimaging studies indicate increased regional cerebral
blood flow measures during meditation. Taken together, meditation appears to reflect
changes in anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal areas. Neurophysiological
meditative state and trait effects are variable but are beginning to demonstrate consistent
outcomes for research and clinical applications. Psychological and clinical effects of
meditation are summarized, integrated, and discussed with respect to neuroimaging data.
Keywords: meditation, EEG, ERP, fMRI
Overview and Definitions
Electroencephalographic (EEG) studies of
meditative states have been conducted for al-
most 50 years, but no clear consensus about the
underlying neurophysiological changes from
meditation practice has emerged. Sensory
evoked potential (EP) and cognitive event-
related potential (ERP) assessments of medita-
tive practice also reflect variegated results.
Some reliable meditation-related EEG fre-
quency effects for theta and alpha activity, as
well as EEG coherence and ERP component
changes, have been observed. Positron emission
tomography (PET) and functional magnetic res-
onance imaging (fMRI) studies are beginning to
refine the neuroelectric data by suggesting pos-
sible neural loci for meditation effects, although
how and where such practice may alter the
central nervous system (CNS) have not yet been
well characterized. The current study reviews
and summarizes the neuroelectric results in con-
junction with neuroimaging findings. Toward
this end, meditation terms and effects are de-
fined, the results of neuroelectric meditation
studies are collated, and the findings are related
to other neuroimaging reports.
The word meditation is used to describe prac-
tices that self-regulate the body and mind,
thereby affecting mental events by engaging a
specific attentional set. These practices are a
subset of those used to induce relaxation or
altered states such as hypnosis, progressive re-
laxation, and trance-induction techniques (Vaitl
et al., 2005). Given that regulation of attention
is the central commonality across the many
divergent methods (R. J. Davidson & Goleman,
1977), meditative styles can be usefully classi-
fied into two types—mindfulness and concen-
trative— depending on how the attentional pro-
cesses are directed. Most meditative techniques
lie somewhere on a continuum between the
B. Rael Cahn, Department of Neurosciences and Medical
School, University of California, San Diego, and Labora-
tory for Psychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Univer-
sity of Zurich Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland;
John Polich, Department of Neuropharmacology, The
Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA.
This work was supported by National Institute on Drug
Abuse Grant DA14115 to John Polich, and by a grant from
The Fetzer Institute. B. Rael Cahn was supported in part by
National Institute of General Medical Sciences Medical
Scientist Training Grant T32 GM07198.This paper is
16434-NP from The Scripps Research Institute. We thank
Arnaud Delorme and Lee Schroeder for helpful comments,
and gratefully acknowledge the support and guidance of
Mark Geyer and Franz Vollenweider.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to John Polich, Cognitive Electrophysiology Labo-
ratory, Department of Neuropharmacology TPC-10, The
Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road,
La Jolla, CA 92037. E-mail: polich@scripps.edu
This article is reprinted from Psychological Bulletin,
2006, Vol. 132, No. 2, 180 –211.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice © 2013 American Psychological Association
2013, Vol. 1(S), 48–96 2326-5523/13/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/2326-5523.1.S.48
48
... Extensive evidence shows that increases in gamma occur during various meditation practices, 123,124 particularly during self-dissolution meditation. 124 Accordingly, this could reflect a neurological correlate of psychedelic-induced ego-dissolution 105 and the aforementioned narrative "inflection point" where individuals disidentify with certain thoughts, emotions, or behaviour. 35,105 Second, the study found significant acute increases in theta (6-8 Hz) in most subjects during 5-MeO-DMT. ...
... 123 Various meditation practices are known to increase theta, alpha, and gamma coherence. 123,124,129 Regarding AUD, one study demonstrated higher theta and alpha coherence in long-term abstinent alcoholics (n = 20) ...
... 60 Hz) frequencies in the medial PFC and ventral hippocampus and beta band coherence across brain areas.59,60 These results are broadly consistent with the aforementioned neuroimaging study58 and the extensive literature of meditation where increases in theta, gamma, and coherence have potential implications for antidepressant and anxiolytic effects124,125 but also antiaddictive effects due to improvements in inhibition.123,126,127 Second, several studies demonstrate that 5-MeO-DMT induces neuroplasticity. ...
The potential of 5‐methoxy‐N,N‐dimethyltryptamine in the treatment of alcohol use disorder: A first look at therapeutic mechanisms of action
Article
Full-text available
Alcohol use disorder (AUD) remains one of the most prevalent psychiatric disorders worldwide with high economic costs. Current treatment options show modest efficacy and relapse rates are high. Furthermore, there are increases in the treatment gap and few new medications have been approved in the past 20 years. Recently, psychedelic‐assisted therapy with psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide has garnered significant attention in the treatment of AUD. Yet, they require significant amounts of therapist input due to prolonged subjective effects (~4–12 h) leading to high costs and impeding implementation. Accordingly, there is an increasing interest in the rapid and short‐acting psychedelic 5‐methoxy‐N,N‐dimethyltryptamine (5‐MeO‐DMT). This paper offers a first look at potential therapeutic mechanisms for AUD by reviewing the current literature on 5‐MeO‐DMT. Primarily, 5‐MeO‐DMT is able to induce mystical experiences and ego‐dissolution together with increases in psychological flexibility and mindfulness. This could decrease AUD symptoms through the alleviation of psychiatric mood‐related comorbidities consistent with the negative reinforcement and self‐medication paradigms. In addition, preliminary evidence indicates that 5‐MeO‐DMT modulates neural oscillations that might subserve ego‐dissolution (increases in gamma), psychological flexibility and mindfulness (increases in theta), and the reorganization of executive control networks (increases in coherence across frequencies) that could improve emotion regulation and inhibition. Finally, animal studies show that 5‐MeO‐DMT is characterized by neuroplasticity, anti‐inflammation, 5‐HT2A receptor agonism, and downregulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 with clinical implications for AUD and psychiatric mood‐related comorbidities. The paper concludes with several recommendations for future research to establish the purported therapeutic mechanisms of action.
View
... However, no study has directly compared these measures on FA, OM, and TM. In meditators, FA meditation is characterized by a central increment of beta (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) Hz) frequency power bands, OM monitoring by frontal theta bands (4)(5)(6)(7)(8) and TM by occipital alpha bands (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13), analyzing only the difference in the effects of the meditation but without comparing them [5][6][7][8][9]. On the other hand, heart rate variability was mostly analyzed during the meditation, and in all techniques, there was an increase in the parasympathetic system and a decrease in the sympathetic one (Table 1) [10][11][12][13]. ...
... Other studies reported an increased basal cerebral activation in alpha and beta bands of meditators compared to controls (e.g., Vipassana meditation and Himalayan yoga) in FA techniques [15][16][17]. This suggested a trait (i.e., stable, individual) difference between meditators and controls (or non-meditators) in FA, OM and TM techniques [18][19][20][21]. However, it is still unexplored whether this discrepancy in terms of basal neurophysiological activation between expert meditators and non-expert meditators (control group) still holds for other more sophisticated meditative techniques [1]. ...
... To this end, we focused on and analyzed a timeframe of 2 min of eyes closed before and post-meditation. This allowed testing the impact of meditation at the trait, i.e., more stable label, as well as state, i.e., the short-term level, in the pre vs. post-meditation phase [18,20]. ...
Mind and body connection in expert meditators: a computational study based on central and peripheral nervous system
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2024
A meditative ‘technique’ is conceived as a continuum of different affective states involving mind and body jointly. Meditative practices can involve cognitive effort (e.g., focused attention and open-minded techniques), as well as automatic and implicit practices (e.g., transcendental techniques). The NGALSO tantric self-healing meditation technique is a brief, comprehensive meditation technique relying on mind and body connection. In this study, we aimed to investigate the state and the trait neurophysiological correlates of NGALSO meditation practice. First, 19 EEG channels and a 3-lead ECG signal were recorded from 10 expert meditators (more than 7 years of daily meditation) and 10 healthy inexpert participants (controls) who underwent the same meditative procedure. The neuropsychological profiles of experts and controls were compared. Results showed that expert meditators had significantly higher power spectra on alpha, theta and beta, and a higher sympathetic tone with lower parasympathetic tone after meditation. Conversely, the control group had significantly less power spectra on alpha, theta and beta, and a higher parasympathetic tone with lower sympathetic tone after meditation. A machine learning approach also allowed us to classify experts vs. controls correctly by using only EEG Theta bands before or after meditation. ECG results allowed us to show a significantly higher effort by expert meditators vs. controls, thus suggesting that a higher effort is required for this meditation, in line with the principle ‘no pain, no gain’ in body and mind.
View
... Electroencephalogram (EEG) is one such technique that has been widely applied to monitor the neural oscillation of distinct brainwaves such as alpha wave. An increase in alpha band power in the prefrontal and frontal lobe during mediation or eyes closed states has supported the effectiveness of the MBSR program on stress reduction and self-awareness enhancement (Aftanas and Golocheikine, 2001, Cahn and Polich, 2006, Gao et al., 2016, Morais et al., 2021, Moynihan et al., 2013Henry, 2022). Recently, utilizing electrophysiological measures (i.e., ECG, EEG, and EDA), Morais et al. has found that MBSR is associated with an increase of alpha power in the prefrontal cortex during and after the intervention, but no significant similar increase was observed at other brain areas and especially, at two months post the training course (Morais et al., 2021). ...
... Electroencephalogram (EEG) is one such technique that has been widely applied to monitor the neural oscillation of distinct brainwaves such as alpha wave. An increase in alpha band power in the prefrontal and frontal lobe during mediation or eyes closed states has supported the effectiveness of the MBSR program on stress reduction and self-awareness enhancement (Aftanas and Golocheikine, 2001, Cahn and Polich, 2006, Gao et al., 2016, Morais et al., 2021, Moynihan et al., 2013. ...
Investigating the effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Stress Reduction
Article
  • Feb 2025
Financial constraints usually hinder students, especially those in low-middle income countries, from seeking mental health interventions. Hence, it is necessary to identify effective, affordable and sustainable counter-stress measures for college students in low-middle income countries context. This study examines the effect of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) on psychological outcomes of students, especially when they are exposed to stressful situations. Forty-nine students with an age range from 18 to 22 years old were initially recruited (35 females; mean age = 19.9 ± 0.75 years and 14 males; mean age = 20.0 ± 0.6 years). After signing the consent form, subjects were randomly assigned into two groups: Test group – practice MBSR (N = 25) and Control group - do not practice MBSR (N = 24). The MBSR program includes 8-weeks. Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS-42) were used as research instruments. Findings reveal that test group showed a decrease in negative emotional states after the intervention of MBRS. It is suggested that practice of MBSR might enhance the students’ ability to encounter with stressful situations. In conclusion, MBSR intervention led to a sustained reduction of negative emotional states. MBSR as an effective and sustainable stress-countering approach for students in LMICs.
View
... Specifically, the control group exhibits higher relative power concentrated in the low-frequency band, i.e., delta band, while the experimental group shows significantly lower delta power and significantly higher alpha power. It suggests that the alpha band in EEG signals serves as a primary indicator of the body's calm and relaxed state [9,10]. ...
View
... Few studies also reveal the effect of Vedic chanting on brain waves showing positive changes in them. A study on neurophysiological correlation with chanting illustrated an increase in endogenous neural oscillations in the lowfrequency delta-band, especially in the Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC), an area associated with emotion, behavior, memory retrieval, planning, and autonomic motor functions [24]. The neurophysiological study by Cahn et al. demonstrated an increase in alpha and theta waves in EEG after meditative chanting [25]. ...
View
... Increases in electrical activity in the alpha register (8-12 Hz), correspond to an idling state, with reduced processing of sensory information [178], a non-directive meditation [179], but also to various stages of rest, while this state of relaxation does not mean an empty mind [179]. The intensification of the activity in the alpha band is present in some types of meditation [180] and in connection with mindfulness sessions [181] (M -technique also called open meditation OM, of non-directive monitoring of thoughts). ...
POSSIBLE ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES INDUCED BY THE PRACTICE OF PRAYER IN ORTHODOX CHRISTIAN TRADITION
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2024
The present study aims to highlight possible changes that the practice of prayer (in the Christian Orthodox Tradition)-PCOT-after a pattern of 30 minutes of daily practice, for 8 weeks-can induce in the electrical activity of the brain. The participants (n=33) were divided into two groups: Study Group (SG), n=16, with an average age of 39.2 years and Control Group (CG) n=17, with an average age of 38.6 years). The Study Group included Orthodox Christian faithful who do not pray daily, being trained in a 3-hour session on the psycho-emotional, behavioural and spiritual specifics of PCOT. No intervention was performed on the subjects of the Control Group. The study included, before and after the period of 8 weeks of daily practice of PCOT, EEG measurements according to a measurement protocol. Applying the Wilcoxon signed rank test revealed significant differences in median value in the case of SG subjects, pre/post-experience, in the alpha and gamma2 registers, but not in the beta and gamma1 registers. Further research and changes in the experimental design are needed so as to allow for more accurate assessments. Results are discussed in the context of similar studies, highlighting some specific limitations of studies that evaluate the physiological changes induced by spiritual/religious experiences, especially of those that use EEG, while also formulating some recommendations for increasing the methodological quality of future studies.
View
... Prior reviews on neural plasticity have noted similarities between meditation and physical activity [46]. Like exercise, the neurobiological mechanisms of mediation are less widely studied than cognitive effects, where a reoccurring practice of meditation is known to benefit to cognitive control [47]. Moreover, even a single session of meditation has been shown to acutely benefit task performance [48]. ...
Resting-State Functional Connectivity Change in Frontoparietal and Default Mode Networks After Acute Exercise in Youth
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2024
BACKGROUND A single bout of aerobic exercise can provide acute benefits to cognition and emotion in children. Yet, little is known about how acute exercise may impact children’s underlying brain networks’ resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC). OBJECTIVE Using a data-driven multivariate pattern analysis, we investigated the effects of a single dose of exercise on acute rsFC changes in 9-to-13-year-olds. METHODS On separate days in a crossover design, participants (N = 21) completed 20-mins of acute treadmill walking at 65–75% heart rate maximum (exercise condition) and seated reading (control condition), with pre- and post-fMRI scans. Multivariate pattern analysis was used to investigate rsFC change between conditions. RESULTS Three clusters in the left lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC) of the frontoparietal network (FPN) had significantly different rsFC after the exercise condition compared to the control condition. Post-hoc analyses revealed that from before to after acute exercise, activity of these FPN clusters became more correlated with bilateral lPFC and the left basal ganglia. Additionally, the left lPFC became more anti-correlated with the precuneus of the default mode network (DMN). An opposite pattern was observed from before to after seated reading. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that a single dose of exercise increases connectivity within the FPN, FPN integration with subcortical regions involved in movement and cognition, and segregation of FPN and DMN. Such patterns, often associated with healthier cognitive and emotional control, may underlie the transient mental benefits observed following acute exercise in youth.
View
... Research suggests there may be an important relationship between mindfulness and burnout (Luken & Sammons, 2016). Mindfulness can be conceptualized as a cognitive state in which one pays attention to experience in a nonjudgmental way, or as a trait in which one tends to engage with their day-to-day experiences in a mindful way (Cahn & Polich, 2013). Research supports the use of mindfulness interventions for increasing mindfulness and other positive outcomes including reduced stress in adult samples (Khoury et al., 2013) in health service professionals (Burton et al., 2017), and in HSP trainees (Rimes & Wingrove, 2011). ...
Mindfulness, Self-Compassion, Gratitude, and Burnout in Health Service Psychology Trainees: A Structural Equation Model
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2024
Occupational burnout is a growing concern among practicing psychologists but is understudied among psychology doctoral students. There is a need to identify possible protective factors mitigating burnout and the present study examined the interrelationships between mindfulness, self-compassion, gratitude, and burnout in a national sample of health service psychology doctoral trainees (N = 234) using structural equation modeling. Two a priori models were developed and results suggested that mindfulness, self-compassion, and gratitude may each function as important internal resources in mitigating burnout in health service psychology trainees. Mindfulness showed direct positive effects on self-compassion and gratitude and direct negative effects on burnout. Self-compassion and gratitude each also showed direct negative effects on burnout. Mindfulness also showed significant indirect effects on burnout through the partial mediating variables of self-compassion and gratitude. These results can inform researchers examining burnout by further understanding how the aforementioned cognitive factors may account for the differences in burnout. The findings can also be used to inform changes at the organizational level for doctoral training programs and can be used at an individual level as tools for empowering trainees to increase internal cognitive resources that may help them to engage in more sustainable practice. Additional research and practice implications for professional psychologists and limitations are discussed.
View
Mental Illness Monitor: Integrating Quantum Networking and ML for Physical and Mental Health Tracking
Chapter
  • Oct 2024
Significant risks to both physical health and mental well-being are posed by stress, prompting the need for the development of comprehensive assessment techniques. In this study, data from electroencephalogram (EEG), temperature sensors, accelerometers, and heartbeat sensors are combined to learn more about the physiological effects of stress. Through the analysis of relationships between EEG brainwave patterns, skin temperature changes, physical movement captured by accelerometers, and heart rate variations, nuanced insights into the complex dynamics of stress are sought. The findings elucidate the complementary information offered by EEG, ECG, accelerometer, temperature, and heart rate sensor measurements under stress conditions, enhancing our understanding of stress-related physiological responses. Quantum networking will help in creating more efficient machine learning techniques by its parallel processing capabilities
View
View
Prevention of Relapse/Recurrence in Major Depression by Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2000
This study evaluated mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), a group intervention designed to train recovered recurrently depressed patients to disengage from dysphoria-activated depressogenic thinking that may mediate relapse/recurrence. Recovered recurrently depressed patients (n = 145) were randomized to continue with treatment as usual or, in addition, to receive MBCT. Relapse/recurrence to major depression was assessed over a 60-week study period. For patients with 3 or more previous episodes of depression (77% of the sample), MBCT significantly reduced risk of relapse/recurrence. For patients with only 2 previous episodes, MBCT did not reduce relapse/recurrence. MBCT offers a promising cost-efficient psychological approach to preventing relapse/recurrence in recovered recurrently depressed patients.
View
The Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion and Affective Style
Chapter
  • Sep 2002
A full understanding of the biology and behavior of humans cannot be complete without the collective contributions of the social sciences, cognitive sciences, and neurosciences. This book collects eighty-two of the foundational articles in the emerging discipline of social neuroscience. The book addresses five main areas of research: multilevel integrative analyses of social behavior, using the tools of neuroscience, cognitive science, and social science to examine specific cases of social interaction; the relationships between social cognition and the brain, using noninvasive brain imaging to document brain function in various social situations; rudimentary biological mechanisms for motivation, emotion, and attitudes, and the shaping of these mechanisms by social factors; the biology of social relationships and interpersonal processes; and social influences on biology and health. Bradford Books imprint
View
View
View
View
View
Meditation as a voluntary hypometabolic state of biological estivation
Article
  • Jun 1998
  • News Physiol Sci
Meditation, a wakeful hypometabolic state of parasympathetic dominance, is compared with other hypometabolic conditions, such as sleep, hypnosis, and the torpor of hibernation. We conclude that there are many analogies between the physiology of long-term meditators and hibernators across the phylogenetic scale. These analogies further reinforce the idea that plasticity of consciousness remains a key factor in successful biological adaptation.
View
View
View
View