Content uploaded by Mohammad Al-Saidi
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Mohammad Al-Saidi on Nov 30, 2023
Content may be subject to copyright.
Edited by
Mehran Haghirian and Aisha Al-Sarihi
November 2023
Pathways for
Regional Environmental
Cooperation in the Gulf
2
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
Acknowledgements
Contributors
Introduction
Mehran Haghirian and Aisha Al-Sarihi
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the
Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem
Mohammad Al-Saidi
Chapter 2. Towards Common and Sustainable Resource
Management in the Gulf
Tobias Zumbrägel
Chapter 3. Joint Efforts to Combat Extreme Weather Events
in the Gulf
Said Al-Sarmi and Suad Al-Manji
Chapter 4. Tackling Sand and Dust Storms toBuild on
Regional Détente in the Gulf
Glada Lahn and Adnan Tabatabai
Chapter 5. CooperationOpportunities for the Gulf in the
Energy Transition
Robin Mills
Chapter 6. Boosting Food Securityin the Gulf through
Regional Cooperation
Malak Altaeb
Chapter 7. Bolstering Iraq’s Climate Response through
Regional Environmental Cooperation
Maha Yassin
Chapter 8. Addressing Shared Environmental Challenges in
the Gulf with European Support
Mehran Haghirian
Chapter 9. Examining Gulf-Southeast Asia Interregional
Environmental Cooperation
Aisha Al-Sarihi and Muhammad Shidiq
3
4
7
15
25
37
50
63
77
88
101
117
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
This publication was commissioned as part of the Bourse & Bazaar Foundation’s
‘Integrated Futures Initiative,’ which is supported by a grant from the Rockefeller
Brothers Fund.
4
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
Contributors
Suad Al-Manji
Dr Suad Al-Manji is the head of the risk management department at Oman’s Ministry of
Education. She holds a degree in geography from Sultan Qaboos University. She graduated
from the University of Leeds with a PhD in geography in 2018, specialising in Disaster
Management and Community Resilience.
Mohammad Al-Saidi
Dr Mohammad Al-Saidi is a research associate professor at the Center for Sustainable
Development at Qatar University. He holds a PhD in economics from Heidelberg University.
Previously, he was a senior researcher with the Institute for Technology in the Tropics
at the TH Köln – University of Applied Sciences in Germany. Dr Al-Saidi has worked on
projects and published papers on Yemen, the Gulf, East Africa and Jordan on issues ranging
from development and the environment to water resources, management and sustainable
transitions.
Aisha Al-Sarihi
Dr Aisha Al-Sarihi is a Research Fellow on policy and politics of climate and environment at
the National University of Singapore’s Middle East Institute, as well as an Associate Fellow at
Chatham House, the Middle East Council on Global Affairs and the Arab Gulf States Institute
in Washington, DC. Her other areas of research include political economy, geopolitics, policy
and governance of energy transition, climate, and environment, with a focus on the Middle
East and Southeast Asia. She has authored several publications, including journal articles in
the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Environmental Policy and Governance, Renewable
Energy and Climate Policy. Dr Al-Sarihi holds a PhD from the Centre for Environmental
Policy at Imperial College London.
Said Al-Sarmi
Dr Said Al-Sarmi is Climate Change Affairs Expert at Oman’s Environment Authority. His
work as a climate expert started in 1996 at Oman’s Directorate General of Meteorology,
where he later became its Director of Research and Development. He has also served as
a Meteorological and climatological expert at the Gulf Cooperation Council, and regularly
represents Oman at United Nations Framework Conventions on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
He earned his doctorate from Oxford University in 2015.
5
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
Malak Altaeb
Malak Altaeb is an independent consultant, blogger, and researcher originally from Libya and
currently based in France. She has a master’s degree in environmental policy from Sciences
Po University in Paris and a bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering from University of
Tripoli. She is an Ecological Security Fellow at the Center for Climate and Security, Strategic
Risks Institute, as well as a Non-Resident Scholar in the Climate and Water Program at the
Middle East Institute in Washington, DC. Altaeb was previously a Non-Resident Fellow at the
Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy, where she focused on food security in North Africa.
Mehran Haghirian
Mehran Haghirian is the Director of Regional Initiatives at the Bourse & Bazaar Foundation.
He leads the Integrated Futures Initiative, a project seeking to identify areas for economic
diplomacy and regional integration in the Middle East. He is a PhD candidate at Qatar University
and holds a master’s degree in international affairs from the American University’s School
of International Service in Washington, DC. Before joining the Bourse & Bazaar Foundation,
heworked at the Ibn Khaldon Center for Humanities and Social Sciences as a researcher and
assistant director, at the Atlantic Council’s Future of Iran Initiative as a program assistant, and
at the American University as a graduate teaching assistant.He wasalso a visiting fellow with
the Middle East and North Africa programme at the EuropeanCouncil on Foreign Relations.
Glada Lahn
Glada Lahn is a Senior Research Fellow at Chatham House’s Environment and Society Centre
in London. Since joining Chatham House in 2004, Lahn has worked on a range of international
resource-related projects that intersect with geopolitical, economic and development
concerns. Lahn is currently working on CASCADES, a multi-partner EU initiative to assess the
transboundary risks of climate impacts and make recommendations for actions on resilience
building. Lahn has also worked independently for organisations including the International
Energy Agency, the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) and various UN bodies. She
has a background in Arabic and Middle Eastern Studies at SOAS, the University of London,
the University of Damascus, and the London School of Economics.
Robin Mills
RobinMills established Qamar Energy in Dubai in 2015 to meet the need for regionally based
Middle East energy insight and project delivery. He is an expert on energy strategy and
economics. For 14 years, Mills worked for Shell and the Dubai government, concentrating on
new business development in the Middle East energy sector. He is a Non-Resident Fellow at
theColumbiaUniversity SIPA Center on Global Energy Policy, the author of two books –The
Myth of the Oil Crisis andCapturing Carbon – and the editor ofLow Carbon Energy in the
Middle East and North Africa. He is the columnist on energy and environmental issues at The
National newspaper (Abu Dhabi). He holds a rst-class degree in geology from the University
ofCambridge and speaks ve languages, includingArabic and Farsi.
Contributors
6
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
Muhammad Shidiq
Muhammad Shidiq is the Senior Research Analyst for ASEAN Climate Change and Energy
Project (ACCEPT) and Senior Researcher at the Energy Modelling and Policy Planning
Department at the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE). His work focuses on modelling the energy-
climate nexus and expanding the ACCEPT portfolio across Southeast Asia. Before joining
ACE, he worked in research and intergovernmental relations to implement programmes
related to energy and climate in Southeast Asia. He has also worked as Principal Investigator
at USAID-Clean Air Catalyst, Air Quality Lead for Indonesia at World Resources Institute,
and Program Manager for Science, Technology and Innovation at ASEAN-USAID IGNITE.
Shidiq holds a bachelor’s degree in chemistry from Gadjah Mada University in Indonesia and
an Erasmus Mundus master’s in energy and environmental science from the University of
Groningen in the Netherlands.
Adnan Tabatabai
Adnan Tabatabai is the co-founder and CEO of the Center for Applied Research in Partnership
with the Orient (CARPO). Through CARPO, Tabatabai has set up and facilitated various
regional dialogue initiatives, such as the Iran-Saudi Dialogue Initiative, since 2015, as well as
the Tafahum wa Tabadul project, since 2018, enhancing dialogue and exchange between the
six GCC member states, Yemen, Iraq, and Iran.
Maha Yassin
Maha Yassin is an independent researcher and a Climate Fellow at the Institute of Regional
and International Studies of the American University of Sulaymaniyah in Iraq. Yassin
specialises in environmental policy, climate security, and activism in Iraq. Previously, she
worked as a Research Fellow and Outreach Ofcer at Clingendael, the Netherlands Institute
for International Relations, managing the Basra Forum for Climate, Environment and Security.
Yassin holds a master’s degree in communication studies from the Erasmus University
Rotterdam, where she focused on media framing of environmental activism in Iraq, and a
bachelor’s degree in geology from the University of Basra, where she studied the impact
of sand and dust storms on food security in southern Iraq. Yassin has extensive experience
in the humanitarian sector, having worked with several international nongovernmental
organisations in Iraq and the Netherlands. Yassin also specialises in youth and civil society
engagement for addressing environmental threats, particularly in southern Iraq.
Tobias Zumbrägel
Dr Tobias Zumbrägel is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Heidelberg in Germany.
He is also afliated with the Cluster for Excellence Climate, Climatic Change, and Society
at the University of Hamburg, as well as the Center for Applied Research in Partnership
with the Orient (CARPO) in Bonn. He studied history, political science, and Middle Eastern
studies in Cologne, Tübingen, and Cairo, and he holds a PhD from the Friedrich-Alexander
University Erlangen-Nuremberg.He iseditor-in-chief of CARPO’s Sustainability Series and
is on the editing board of Energy and Society. His book Political Power and Environmental
Sustainability in Gulf Monarchies was published with Palgrave Macmillan in 2022.
Contributors
15
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
Chapter 1
Collective Environmental
Action to Preserve the Gulf’s
Marine Ecosystem
Mohammad Al-Saidi1
Abstract
The Gulf’s marine ecosystems are vital for economic activities and the security of food and
other necessities for tens of millions of people. The environmental footprint arising from the
use of the Gulf’s environmental resources is becoming larger. With climate change and the
expansion of coastal infrastructure, mitigating the environmental challenges that face the
Gulf requires collective action and transboundary cooperation. In 1978, the littoral states of
the Gulf formed the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment
example, through common measures to reduce pollution from oil and other substances.
However, this organisation does not tackle many of the contemporary challenges facing
marine ecosystems. Regional environmental cooperation also needs to be expanded to
other issues, such as climate change impacts and the mitigation of environmental risks. This
chapter explains the need for expanding and enhancing cooperation and provides examples
and future directions for Gulf-wide environmental cooperation.
Introduction
The land around the shared body of water that borders Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) had a population of about 190 million
people in 2021. Some of the world’s largest and most rapidly expanding cities are located
on the Gulf’s coasts, particularly cities in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council
1 Dr Mohammad Al-Saidi is a research associate professor at the Center for Sustainable Development at Qatar
University. He holds a PhD in economics from Heidelberg University. Previously, he was a senior researcher
with the Institute for Technology in the Tropics at the TH Köln – University of Applied Sciences in Germany.
Dr Al-Saidi has worked on projects and published papers on Yemen, the Gulf, East Africa and Jordan on issues
16
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
(GCC). Coastal cities in the Emirates, Bahrain, and Qatar have expanded from a few thousand
in the 1970s to modern urban agglomerations with millions of inhabitants.2 For all littoral
countries, the Gulf is of high economic importance as a trade hub. It is also a key source of
food and clean water through desalination. The Strait of Hormuz, the only sea passage to
the Gulf, is one of the most important global energy chokepoints, transiting one-third of the
3 The
expansion of the coastal built environment, desalination activities, and the production and
transport of carbon fuel resources have meant more pollution and the destruction of vital
marine ecosystems in the Gulf. Future pressures on the Gulf, including climate change, will
require the enhancement of cooperative mechanisms to capture synergies and effectively
mitigate environmental impacts.
Environmental pressures on the Gulf result from internal factors such as population and
economic growth and external effects such as climate change. They are not adequately
addressed because of low levels of environmental regulation and the lack of effective
regional cooperation. This chapter argues that Gulf countries need to enhance regional
environmental cooperation by strengthening current institutions – particularly the mandate
and instruments of ROPME – and expanding the cooperation areas, including climate action.
destruction of ecosystems, and climate change as an aggravator. Next, it will explain the
legacies of Gulf-wide cooperation and the priorities so far. This contribution will then explain
the need for expanded and enhanced cooperation, and it will provide examples and future
directions for Gulf-wide environmental cooperation.
A microcosm of biodiversity and environmental change
The Gulf is endowed with a great biodiversity of ecosystems, including wetlands, mangroves,
and whales. The exceptional conditions of the Gulf as a semi-closed body of water with
adapted to extreme climatic conditions.4 Large islands in the Gulf, such as Qeshm and Kish
in Iran, exhibit rich biodiversity that makes them popular touristic destinations in the Middle
East.5 For GCC countries, the eco-tourism sector is growing, with whale and turtle-watching
2 Jong M de, Hoppe T, Noori N. City Branding, Sustainable Urban Development and the Rentier State. How
Do Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Dubai Present Themselves in the Age of Post Oil and Global Warming? Energies
https://doi.org/10.3390/en12091657
3 US Energy Information Administration. The Strait of Hormuz is the world's most important oil transit chokepoint;
2019. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=39932
https://
doi.org/10.1080/00210862.2016.1241569
https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-04-
2018-0012
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
17
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
attracting both locals and foreigners.6,7 Importantly, these marine ecosystems are of the
utmost importance for the cultural identity of cities in the Gulf. Global cities such as Doha,
Two groups of drivers are negatively impacting the Gulf’s ecosystems. First, the internal
factors of environmental change related to coastal development, sea-based infrastructure
(including carbon fuel extraction and shipping), and land-based pollution (including the ever-
growing problem of plastics). Coastal urbanisation has damaged coastal ecosystems such as
mangroves and coral reefs, making the Gulf the most degraded marine ecosystem in the
world.8
environmental cost. For example, desalination produces highly saline rejected water (called
desalination brine), which is disposed of in the Gulf, endangering marine ecosystems.9 Plastic
litter is also an increasing transboundary problem, starting to be tackled through regulations
and bans.10 All of these disturbances should also be seen alongside the traditional risk of oil
spills that occurred in 1980, 1983, and 1991.
Second, the external factor of climate change and variability is exacerbating the environmental
problems of the Gulf. Global warming means a higher evaporation rate in the Gulf, while
climate disasters like heatwaves are particularly concerning.11 Higher temperatures can lead
deaths.12 Sand and dust storms have closed marine terminals for oil exports, and they could
13
When the Gulf’s ecosystems are damaged, there are severe impacts on economies and
supply chains. The increased salinity and pollution of the Gulf can threaten desalination
activities, which already require advanced technologies. Traditionally, the GCC states
relied on distillation technologies for desalinating seawater because of the high salinity and
6 Lambert E, Hunter C, Pierce GJ, MacLeod CD. Sustainable whale-watching tourism and climate change:
https://doi.
org/10.1080/09669581003655497
7 Busaidi MA, Bose S, Claereboudt M, Tiwari M. Sea turtles tourism in Oman: Current status and future prospects.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358417751026
https://doi.
org/10.1080/13604813.2014.962889
9 Hosseini H, Saadaoui I, Moheimani N, Al Saidi M, Al Jamali F, Al Jabri H et al. Marine health of the Arabian Gulf:
Drivers of pollution and assessment approaches focusing on desalination activities. Marine Pollution Bulletin
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112085
10
Gulf: Challenges, opportunities and recommendations from a transdisciplinary perspective. Marine Policy
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104909
11 Ben-Hasan A, Christensen V. Vulnerability of the marine ecosystem to climate change impacts in the Arabian
https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00556
12 Al-Saidi M. Coastal Development and Climate Risk Reduction in the Persian/Arabian Gulf: The Case of Qatar. In:
Harris PG, editor. Climate Change and Ocean Governance: Politics and Policy for Threatened Seas. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press; 2019, p. 60–74.
13 Al-Hemoud A, Al-Sudairawi M, Neelamanai S, Naseeb A, Behbehani W. Socioeconomic effect of dust storms in
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2816-9
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
18
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
turbidity of the Gulf. Only recently could they install the worldwide common technology
using membranes, after this technology advanced to accommodate the Gulf’s water quality.14
use, but they produce more dense and salty brine. Membrane desalination accounts for
Gulf – the other 94% are distillation-based technologies.15 However, newer plants in the
GCC region are deploying membrane technologies using reverse osmosis. If this trend of
expanding membrane-based technologies continues, any deterioration of the quality of
the Gulf may have severe impacts on desalination because these membranes have limited
With more desalination, pollution, and climate impacts, some speculate that the Gulf will
reach a point of “peak salt,” in which desalination is hardly possible.16 Another traditional
but growing threat is the presence of harmful algae blooms, also known as red tide. The
algae arrive on shipping vessels from the Gulf of Oman or the Arabian Sea and can disrupt
desalination. The last major incidents were in 2008 and 2009.17 Other coastal infrastructure
for food – including the increasing number of aquaculture installations – and energy
production are also at risk from environmental change.18 For example, the degradation of
19
Larger marine animals in the Gulf – called charismatic species – might be more tolerant
to variations in sea temperature and salinity compared to other stressors they face, such
20 These charismatic species
include dolphins, dugongs, and green and hawksbill turtles, all of which are highly important
for biodiversity and as cultural resources for Gulf societies. In fact, the temperature tolerance
rates of marine species might be changing worldwide and in the Gulf, the world’s hottest sea.
Therefore, some scholars regard the Gulf as a “natural laboratory” to understand how marine
ecosystems adapt to extreme conditions caused by climate change.21,22
14 Moossa B, Trivedi P, Saleem H, Zaidi SJ. Desalination in the GCC countries- a review. Journal of Cleaner
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131717
15 Hosseini et al. Marine health of the Arabian Gulf, 112085.
16 Leahy S, Purvis K. Peak salt: is the desalination dream over for the Gulf states? Guardian 2016, 29 September
2016; Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2016/
sep/29/peak-salt-is-the-desalination-dream-over-for-the-gulf-states [September 26, 2023].
17 Al Shehhi MR, Gherboudj I, Ghedira H. An overview of historical harmful algae blooms outbreaks in the Arabian
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.048
18 Al-Saidi M, Saliba S. Water, Energy and Food Supply Security in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries—A
https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030455
19 Burt. The environmental costs of coastal urbanization in the Arabian Gulf, 760–70.
20 Wabnitz CCC, Lam VWY, Reygondeau G, Teh LCL, Al-Abdulrazzak D, Khalfallah M et al. Climate change impacts
https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194537
21 Riegl BM, Purkis SJ (eds.). Coral Reefs of the Gulf: Adaptation to Climatic Extremes. Dordrecht: Springer
Netherlands; 2012.
22 Bouwmeester J, Riera R, Range P, Ben-Hamadou R, Samimi-Namin K, Burt JA. Coral and Reef Fish Communities
in the Thermally Extreme Persian/Arabian Gulf: Insights into Potential Climate Change Effects. In: Rossi S,
Bramanti L, editors. Perspectives on the Marine Animal Forests of the World. Cham: Springer International
Publishing; 2020, p. 63–86.
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
19
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
The cooperation imperative despite rivalry and competition
Regional environmental cooperation in the Gulf is underwhelming compared with benchmark
regions. Cooperation among regions in Asia (for example, ASEAN countries) or Europe exhibits
more multilateral agreements, supranational delegation, common targets, and investment
commitments,23 despite the Gulf littoral countries having more in common in terms of shared
resources, history, and culture than other regions. Besides the focus on marine protection
and pollution issues, ROPME does not have any other clear mandate. There are also no other
major institutional arrangements for inclusive Gulf-wide environmental cooperation. The
failure to advance cooperation despite the increased urgency of environmental issues can be
rivals of Iran and Saudi Arabia.24 Recent diplomatic developments and reconciliations across
the region suggest a new horizon for environmental cooperation.
Even within the GCC, environmental cooperation has been below expectations. It has largely
followed a narrow path of the smallest common denominator, mainly focusing on harmonising
policies in the areas of marine life, water production, agriculture, and energy.25 The GCC
cooperation legacies have also exhibited periods of competition and disaccord, such as the
2017 Gulf crisis or the failure of joint projects, such as a GCC-wide nuclear program. Recent
diplomatic developments around the region also extend to the mending of ties within the
GCC itself, and closer cooperation on environmental issues could be expected. While it is
important to strengthen integration among GCC states, regional environmental challenges
can succeed only if Iran and Iraq are included as well.
Iran has the longest Gulf coast, with important terrestrial and marine ecosystems as well as
industrial sites. The Gulf coastline harbours the majority of Iran’s desalination capacity, which
is expected to increase through new plants and water transfer infrastructure to counteract
the country’s growing water crisis.26 A large expansion of supply infrastructure on the Gulf’s
coastline in Iran increases the need for coordination and collaboration. Desalination activities
across Iran’s Gulf coast is negligible compared with the GCC states. Iran has 75 desalination
plants with a total capacity of 450,000 cubic metres per day, and 92% of them are located
23 Al-Saidi M. Cooperation or competition? State environmental relations and the SDGs agenda in the Gulf
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envdev.2020.100581
24 Al-Saidi M. Regional Environmental Cooperation: The (Lost) Potential for a Sustainable Future in the Arabian/
Persian Gulf. In: Standish K, Devere H, Suazo A, Rafferty R, editors. The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Peace.
Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2022, p. 813–831.
25 Al-Saidi. Cooperation or competition?
26
East Institute.
growing-drought
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
20
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
in the southern provinces of Hormozgan, Bushehr, Sistan-Baluchistan, and Khuzestan.27,28
The whole region has about 850 desalination plants, predominantly in the GCC countries,
which have about 50% of the world’s desalination capacity of 95 million cubic metres per
day.29,30 Along the Gulf coast, some of the large desalination sites in GCC states exceed
Iran’s entire desalination capacity, such as Jubail in Saudi Arabia, which has a capacity of
1.15 million cubic metres per day, and Jabal Ali in the UAE, which has a capacity of 2 million
cubic metres per day.31
Tigris and Euphrates rivers because of upstream damming.32 Iran and Iraq are the only
ROPME: Legacies and shortcomings
ROPME was established in 1978, one year after the adoption of the Kuwait Regional Convention
for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution. ROPME was
seen as an implementation instrument of the Kuwait Convention, and it was thought of as
an initial step for region-wide environmental cooperation. As a single-issue organisation,
ROPME has largely focused on marine pollution issues, and it helped with the adoption of
several accompanying protocols to the Kuwait Convention, namely on pollution from oil and
other harmful substances (1978), pollution from the exploration of the continental shelf (1989),
pollution from land-based sources (1990), as well as marine movements and the disposal of
hazardous waste (1998). No new protocol has been adopted since.
ROPME has advanced environmental cooperation in the Gulf, although the institutional
arrangements have not progressed beyond technical cooperation on the issue of marine
protection. Most of ROPME’s work focuses on promoting joint activities through action
plans (lately the 2011–2020 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity). Also, ROPME’s Marine Emergency
Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC) in Bahrain, which was established in 1982, aims to combat
pollution by oil and other harmful resources. Cooperation through MEMAC can prevent
serious incidents. The centre provides technical assistance to ROPME member states
27 Financial Tribune. Desalination Capacity to Reach 650,000 cm/d by 2025. Financial Tribune 2023, 8 January
2023; Available from:
650000-cmd-by-2025#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20plans%20are%20estimated%20to,quoted%20as%20
saying%20by%20IRNA [October 02, 2023].
28 Tehran Times. 75 water desalination plants operating across Iran. Tehran Times 2022, 2 August 2022; Available
from: https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/475292/75-water-desalination-plants-operating-across-Iran
[October 02, 2022].
29
30 Jones E, Qadir M, van Vliet MTH, Smakhtin V, Kang S-M. The state of desalination and brine production: A global
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.076
31 Al-Saidi and Saliba. Water, Energy and Food Supply Security in the GCC Countries, 455.
32 France 24. Twilight of the Tigris: Iraq's mighty river drying up 2022, 31 October 2022; Available from: https://www.
france24.com/en/live-news/20221031-twilight-of-the-tigris-iraq-s-mighty-river-drying-up [September 26,
2022].
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
21
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
and, in exceptional cases, conducts operations to compact pollution incidents. The centre
Stolt Valor in 2012 (no spillage
reported) or the oil spill from MT Desh Shanti in 2013. In such instances, MEMAC monitors
the incidents and coordinates with member states and regional and international private
actors that do the actual rescue or clean-up. Its operational mandate also includes capacity
building and nonbinding guidelines for member states.
ROPME has promoted the exchange of experiences among Gulf littoral countries through
organising encounters on various environmental challenges, including convening scientists
For example, ROPME published a comprehensive report on marine climate change impacts.
Many of the reviewed impacts have been shown to affect sectors such as power plants,
tourism, and desalination.33 It has also been engaged in partnerships with several international
organisations, such as the Regional Seas Programme (RSP) of the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and with nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), including the regional
Many of these partnerships focus on capacity building and studies quantifying risks and
of UNEP, it has received support from UNEP in conducting regional studies and workshops.
Observers of ROPME’s work applaud its role in advocating joint action and sustainability in the
Gulf. At the same time, they criticise the failure to broaden formal cooperative frameworks
to include contemporary challenges related to the management of the Gulf’s ecosystems in
a more coordinated manner, or to establish comprehensive (that is, longer-term and better-
funded) protection measures, including instruments for monitoring and valuation.34,35
It is telling that important protocols from the Convention of Biological Diversity and the
Establishment of Protected Areas have been discussed since the early 2000s but have not yet
been adopted by the Gulf countries. This demonstrates how political tensions, particularly in
the context of Iran’s nuclear program and inner rifts among GCC states, have stalled effective
environmental cooperation in the Gulf.
With the lack of broad regional frameworks, transboundary cooperation has largely taken
place either among GCC states themselves or through occasional encounters facilitated by
the membership of Gulf littoral countries in international environmental conventions. The
participation of Gulf states in these conventions has proliferated since the late 1970s, with Iraq
recently joining many of these agreements as well.36 While conventions on biodiversity and
marine pollution have been around for many decades, Gulf states are increasingly interested
33 ROPME. ROPME Marine Climate Change Impacts: Evidence Report; 2020.
34 Al-Saidi. Regional Environmental Cooperation, 813–831.
35 Sale PF, Feary DA, Burt JA, Bauman AG, Cavalcante GH, Drouillard KG et al. The Growing Need for Sustainable
https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13280-010-0092-6
36 Al-Saidi M, Zaidan E, Hammad S. Participation modes and diplomacy of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
https://doi.org
/10.1080/09614524.2019.1597017
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
22
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
in the full scope of the global sustainability agenda, including issues such as climate change
action, renewable energy, and circular economies.37,38
Towards greater regional environmental cooperation
Regional institutions for environmental cooperation, such as ROPME, should be strengthened
on Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) – including transboundary ones – will boost the mandate
of ROPME.
Ideas such as marine spatial planning using ecosystem-based management and integrated
coastal zone management can be better promoted through ROPME.39 Many of the MPAs in
the Gulf are not effective because they do not include marine spatial plans with designed
zones and uses.40 ROPME’s potential is far from being fully exploited in terms of catalysing
expertise and participation from the Gulf countries and the international marine research
community.41
terms of common targets and funds for marine protection. Such plans are required to better
understand the risks facing the Gulf, develop coordinated monitoring systems, connect
MPAs, and design restoration measures to sustain marine ecosystems. Some scholars
have suggested GCC states to lead the regional efforts to integrate coastal management
because of their active role in coastal development – the UAE, for example.42 In fact, the
GCC states have been the most active users of the Gulf’s coasts, and they should contribute
more towards protection commitments. As an organisation, the GCC has experience and has
established mechanisms to promote biodiversity and protection efforts, such as through the
GCC Convention on the Conservation of Wildlife and their Natural Habitats and its follow-up
instruments.
37 Al-Saidi et al. Participation modes and diplomacy of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries towards the
global sustainability agenda, 545–58.
38 Al-Saidi M, Das P, Saadaoui I. Circular Economy in Basic Supply: Framing the Approach for the Water and Food
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2021.03.004
39 Burt JA, Ben-Hamadou R, Abdel-Moati MA, Fanning L, Kaitibie S, Al-Jamali F et al. Improving management of
future coastal development in Qatar through ecosystem-based management approaches. Ocean & Coastal
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.08.006
40 van Lavieren H, Klaus R. An effective regional Marine Protected Area network for the ROPME Sea Area:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpolbul.2012.09.004
41 Sale et al. The Growing Need for Sustainable Ecological Management of Marine Communities of the Persian
Gulf, 4–17.
42 Ibid.
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
23
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
There is also a need to expand regional environmental cooperation beyond marine protection.
Climate change is a common challenge that requires catalysing regional expertise and data.
Some of the climate change issues concerning the marine environment can be mainstreamed
within the work of ROPME. In fact, ROPME has a long history of deliberating marine climate
change, such as the 1994 climate change report prepared by UNEP and ROPME or the 2020
report. However, climate impacts extend to other sectors, including energy and supply
infrastructure.
Regional cooperation can improve knowledge of the regional-level climate impacts.
Within the GCC, the idea of establishing a regional climate change centre together with an
environmental monitoring centre was agreed upon more than a decade ago, but the centres
did not materialise.43 In 2023, Saudi Arabia established a regional climate change centre
within its Middle East Green Initiative, although its mandate is not clear yet.44 In 2019, the
UAE established a regional cooperation centre on climate change for the Middle East, North
Africa, and South Asia, but it did not include Iran.
Another collaboration topic is the growing problem of plastic debris. ROPME’s activities on
this topic have been limited, and there is a need for a regional action plan to tackle land-based
waste and to develop clear consumption, prevention, and recycling targets.45 Furthermore,
necessary advice and facilitate trust among Gulf countries.46
In 2023, a coalition of Gulf scientists called for using science diplomacy as a way to build
trust, share knowledge, and address common environmental risks facing the Gulf littoral
countries.47,48 Instead of waiting for formal diplomatic measures or international agreements,
peer networks of scientists can lead some projects related to knowledge co-production using
multiple case studies, area-based conservation measures, and informing ocean protection
strategies. To make this happen, the Gulf scientists have asked for more regional research
funding, data sharing, and support for science-policy networks, as well as enhancing the
work of ROPME or neutral boundary organisations in catalysing international science
diplomacy efforts.49,50
43 Al-Saidi M. Cooperation or competition?
44 Arab News. Saudi Cabinet approves regional center for climate change; 2023. https://www.arabnews.com/
node/2264641/business-economy
45
46 Fieseler CM, Al-Mudaffar Fawzi N, Helmuth B, Leitão A, Al Ainsi M, Al Mukaimi M et al. Expanding ocean protection
https://
doi.org/10.1098/rsos.230392
47 Fieseler et al. Expanding ocean protection and peace.
48 Fawzi NA-M, Fieseler CM, Helmuth B, Leitão A, Al-Ainsi M, Al Mukaimi M et al. Diplomacy for the world’s hottest
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.add1555
49 Fieseler et al. Expanding ocean protection and peace.
50 Fawzi et al. Diplomacy for the world’s hottest sea, 1389–90.
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
24
Pathways for Regional Environmental Cooperation in the Gulf
Conclusion
Gulf water is a common environmental resource that requires the regulation of its use to halt
deteriorating environmental conditions. Populations of the Gulf states face an environmental
predicament caused by the lack of coordinated action on the protection of this unique body
of water and ineffective national regulations. The environmental issues of the Gulf should be
institutions.
With the increasing complexity of environmental change facing the Gulf, regional
environmental cooperation is more important than ever. As regional tensions have seemed
to decrease after the restoration of relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia, this opportunity
should be used to expand environmental cooperation in the Gulf. This means reinvigorating
platforms such as ROPME and encouraging the participation of scientists and non-state
actors in regional cooperation frameworks.
Chapter 1. Collective Environmental Action to Preserve the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystem - Mohammad Al-Saidi
