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Citation: Wang, J.; Ma, Q.; Wei, X.
The Application of Extended Reality
Technology in Architectural Design
Education: A Review. Buildings 2023,
13, 2931. https://doi.org/10.3390/
buildings13122931
Academic Editor: Svetlana J. Olbina
Received: 19 October 2023
Revised: 15 November 2023
Accepted: 17 November 2023
Published: 24 November 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
buildings
Review
The Application of Extended Reality Technology in
Architectural Design Education: A Review
Jingwen Wang 1, Qingsong Ma 1,* and Xindong Wei 2,*
1College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266033, China;
wangjw621@126.com
2School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun 130118, China
*Correspondence: maqingsong@qut.edu.cn (Q.M.); xindong33@hotmail.com (X.W.)
Abstract:
With the emergence of Architecture 4.0 and the occurrence of the COVID-19 pandemic,
extended reality (XR) technology has been increasingly applied in architectural education. This
study aims to systematically organize and analyze the applications and outcomes of XR technology
in construction education over the past five years, provide a theoretical framework for its future
widespread use, and highlight its drawbacks as well as future research directions. The paper
employs content analysis to summarize and analyze the findings. The report reveals that more
institutions are integrating XR technology into their architectural education programs and that it has
a significant impact on teacher effectiveness, student motivation, reflection and improvement, and
teacher–student communication. The study suggests that XR technology will increasingly replace
conventional teaching techniques in classrooms.
Keywords:
virtual reality technology; augmented reality technology; extended reality technology;
mixed reality technology; architecture education
1. Introduction
Over the past three years, online communication has replaced face-to-face interaction
as the primary means of conducting work and academic study. Although the COVID-19
pandemic is coming to an end, it served as a catalyst for technological advancement [
1
],
and more schools are implementing XR technology for distance learning [
2
]. Traditional
teaching methods like videos, pictures, and verbal descriptions typically fall short of
expected teaching effectiveness due to communication gaps between teachers and students
and external challenges [
3
–
5
]. XR technology makes it possible to visualize the material
being taught, lowers barriers to communication, and enables students to practice and reflect
repeatedly, greatly enhancing learning outcomes and motivation, and turning students into
active knowledge seekers [6–8].
The main goal of this study is to examine instances of XR technology use in construc-
tion education over the last five years, evaluate the benefits and drawbacks, and identify
future research directions. The major aim of this research is to investigate the impact of
extended reality technology on architecture education and learning. Specifically, this study
aims to determine the role of this technology in different areas of architecture education
and whether it has led to a significant shift in the teaching and learning paradigm. The
results of this study indicate that XR technology improves the delivery of architectural
education, motivates active learning, fosters reflection and improvement, and improves
communication. This paper offers theoretical underpinnings for pedagogical applications
and suggestions for incorporating XR into varied forms of educational instruction.
The literature on XR technology in the construction industry is vast. Tom Kvan et al. [
9
]
explore various realities to improve and better understand design activities in the design
lifecycle. Márcia Regina de Freitas et al. [
10
] discuss the potential benefits of VR and AR
Buildings 2023,13, 2931. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13122931 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 2 of 23
from early planning to conceptual building design. Xiao Lia et al. [
11
] mention the use of
VR and AR for targeted training and knowledge-based construction risk prevention. Juan
Manuel Davila Delgado et al. [
12
] demonstrate how VR and AR can be applied throughout
the lifecycle of a building. Po-Han Chen et al. [
13
] show through their research that MR has
a significant positive impact on the expressiveness of architectural design. This paper will
review three aspects of architectural design: architectural theory, architectural practice, and
architectural design.
2. Methodology
This paper utilized a content analysis research strategy. Three main databases (Science
Direct, Google Scholar, and Web of Science) were used to search the English literature
published between January 2017 and December 2022 in order to gather relevant research
information. The search process was conducted in two phases. The keywords “VR, vir-
tual reality, AR, augmented reality, MR, mixed reality, extended reality, and architecture
education, training, or pedagogy” were searched in the initial stage. This search round
resulted in 93 papers. The papers were further filtered based on the title and abstract in the
second stage. The selection criteria were as follows: (1) the title and abstract address the
above keywords and the main content is specific to the undergraduate architectural design
program; (2) the main content addresses the knowledge of architectural theory courses;
(3) study of VR/AR/MR technologies in practical architecture courses; and (4) research
on the relationship between VR/AR/MR and architectural education or the inspiration
of technology application to architectural education. The selection process is shown in
Figure 1.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24
design lifecycle. Márcia Regina de Freitas et al. [10] discuss the potential benets of VR
and AR from early planning to conceptual building design. Xiao Lia et al. [11] mention
the use of VR and AR for targeted training and knowledge-based construction risk pre-
vention. Juan Manuel Davila Delgado et al. [12] demonstrate how VR and AR can be ap-
plied throughout the lifecycle of a building. Po-Han Chen et al. [13] show through their
research that MR has a signicant positive impact on the expressiveness of architectural
design. This paper will review three aspects of architectural design: architectural theory,
architectural practice, and architectural design.
2. Methodology
This paper utilized a content analysis research strategy. Three main databases (Sci-
ence Direct, Google Scholar, and Web of Science) were used to search the English literature
published between January 2017 and December 2022 in order to gather relevant research
information. The search process was conducted in two phases. The keywords “VR, virtual
reality, AR, augmented reality, MR, mixed reality, extended reality, and architecture ed-
ucation, training, or pedagogy” were searched in the initial stage. This search round re-
sulted in 93 papers. The papers were further ltered based on the title and abstract in the
second stage. The selection criteria were as follows: (1) the title and abstract address the
above keywords and the main content is specic to the undergraduate architectural de-
sign program; (2) the main content addresses the knowledge of architectural theory
courses; (3) study of VR/AR/MR technologies in practical architecture courses; and (4) re-
search on the relationship between VR/AR/MR and architectural education or the inspi-
ration of technology application to architectural education. The selection process is shown
in Fig. 1.
Figure 1. Flowchart of the review process.
3. Extended Reality Technologies
3.1. Concept
Rauschnabel et al. [14] provide the most recent conceptual interpretation of extended
reality (XR), where X serves as a stand-in for any type of reality technology, including
virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR). In this paper, we
default to extended reality technologies such as VR, AR, and MR. Milgram’s “reality–vir-
tual continuum” theory [15] suggests that the degree of environment display realism cor-
responds to dierent technologies. The real environment and the virtual environment are
located at opposite ends of the continuum, while augmented reality and augmented
Figure 1. Flowchart of the review process.
3. Extended Reality Technologies
3.1. Concept
Rauschnabel et al. [
14
] provide the most recent conceptual interpretation of extended
reality (XR), where X serves as a stand-in for any type of reality technology, including
virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR). In this paper, we
default to extended reality technologies such as VR, AR, and MR. Milgram’s “reality–
virtual continuum” theory [
15
] suggests that the degree of environment display realism
corresponds to different technologies. The real environment and the virtual environment
are located at opposite ends of the continuum, while augmented reality and augmented
virtual reality, which are two distinct environments that do not overlap, are located in the
middle. Concepts are defined as shown in Figure 2.
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 3 of 23
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24
virtual reality, which are two distinct environments that do not overlap, are located in the
middle. Concepts are dened as shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Concept identication.
Virtual reality (VR) is a simulation technology that creates a virtual space entirely by
computer [16]. It utilizes computer technology to create multi-source information fusion,
interactive 3D visual scenes, and physical behavior system simulation environments that
immerse the user in the virtual environment through a head-mounted display (HMD) [17].
The system focuses on perception, user interface, backend software, and hardware to
model and portray the scene in 3D using real-time computer graphics technology. VR
technology is characterized by immersion, interaction, and imagination [18]. By utilizing
virtual reality technology, it becomes feasible to import an architectural model at a 1:1
scale onto a display. This allows users to view the entire model through their glasses while
wearing a head-mounted display (HMD). Additionally, users can even navigate inside the
fully restored model environment using handle controls.
Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that overlays data and computer-generated
images on models or spaces in the real environment [19] to enhance the user’s perception
of the surroundings. The system creates virtual models using technologies for human–
computer interaction, optoelectronic displays, 3D real-time animation, computer graphics,
and tracking, and then projects the models into the physical world [20]. Enhancements
can be visualized with mobile devices, tablets, or head-mounted displays (HMDs). AR
technology is characterized by real-time interaction between the user and the environment
[21], and the blending of the physical and virtual worlds enhances human perception [22].
With augmented reality technology, users can visualize accurate spatial data, including
measurements such as length, width, and height. This is achieved by overlaying the vir-
tual data onto the real background, which serves as the base. Previously inaccessible in
the real world, these data can now be seamlessly transmied to the user’s eyes through
glasses, owing to this technology.
Mixed reality (MR) is a technology that allows virtual information to exist side by
side with the real world and interact in real time [23], forming a new visual environment
that contains both actual environmental elements and virtual objects. The system’s reali-
zation is made possible through tracking, gesture recognition, 3D interaction, and lan-
guage interface technologies. While augmented reality technology focuses on enhancing
interactivity, mixed reality technology goes beyond simply overlaying virtual elements
onto a real space. It allows users to interact with the model in various ways, not only
through the visual display but also through the use of handles. This expanded function-
ality enables users to engage with the virtual building model in a more immersive and
interactive manner.
Figure 2. Concept identification.
Virtual reality (VR) is a simulation technology that creates a virtual space entirely by
computer [
16
]. It utilizes computer technology to create multi-source information fusion,
interactive 3D visual scenes, and physical behavior system simulation environments that
immerse the user in the virtual environment through a head-mounted display (HMD) [
17
].
The system focuses on perception, user interface, backend software, and hardware to model
and portray the scene in 3D using real-time computer graphics technology. VR technology
is characterized by immersion, interaction, and imagination [
18
]. By utilizing virtual reality
technology, it becomes feasible to import an architectural model at a 1:1 scale onto a display.
This allows users to view the entire model through their glasses while wearing a head-
mounted display (HMD). Additionally, users can even navigate inside the fully restored
model environment using handle controls.
Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that overlays data and computer-generated
images on models or spaces in the real environment [
19
] to enhance the user’s perception
of the surroundings. The system creates virtual models using technologies for human–
computer interaction, optoelectronic displays, 3D real-time animation, computer graphics,
and tracking, and then projects the models into the physical world [
20
]. Enhancements can
be visualized with mobile devices, tablets, or head-mounted displays (HMDs). AR technol-
ogy is characterized by real-time interaction between the user and the environment [
21
],
and the blending of the physical and virtual worlds enhances human perception [
22
].
With augmented reality technology, users can visualize accurate spatial data, including
measurements such as length, width, and height. This is achieved by overlaying the virtual
data onto the real background, which serves as the base. Previously inaccessible in the real
world, these data can now be seamlessly transmitted to the user’s eyes through glasses,
owing to this technology.
Mixed reality (MR) is a technology that allows virtual information to exist side by side
with the real world and interact in real time [
23
], forming a new visual environment that
contains both actual environmental elements and virtual objects. The system’s realization is
made possible through tracking, gesture recognition, 3D interaction, and language interface
technologies. While augmented reality technology focuses on enhancing interactivity,
mixed reality technology goes beyond simply overlaying virtual elements onto a real space.
It allows users to interact with the model in various ways, not only through the visual
display but also through the use of handles. This expanded functionality enables users to
engage with the virtual building model in a more immersive and interactive manner.
As shown in Figure 3, the 3Rs (VR, AR, and MR) differ in terms of interaction features,
with VR being one-way, AR being both one-way and two-way, and MR enabling two-way
interaction between users and both virtual and physical spaces [17].
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 4 of 23
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 24
As shown in Fig. 3, the 3Rs (VR, AR, and MR) dier in terms of interaction features,
with VR being one-way, AR being both one-way and two-way, and MR enabling two-way
interaction between users and both virtual and physical spaces [17].
Figure 3. Technology interaction capability identication.
3.2. Development History
The concept of virtual reality was rst introduced by Jaron Lanier [24]. The virtual
environment is described as a 3D synthesis system that is interactive, immersive, and
multi-sensory [25]. The earliest virtual reality system was developed by Ivan Sutherland
[26]. The rst head-mounted display (HMD) was created by Philco in 1961 [27], which
marked a turning point in the history of virtual reality because it showed that it was no
longer necessary to employ bulky apparatus to use VR; instead, it could be accomplished
by a portable display. With the rise in popularity of the “metaverse” concept in recent
years, VR has become more widely used across numerous industries [28,29].
The concept of augmented reality was rst introduced by Tom Caudell and David
Mizell who discussed the advantages of augmented reality as opposed to virtual reality
[30]. The rst AR interface was developed by Sutherland in the 1960s. The rst use of AR
was a training tool for airline and air force pilots in the 1990s [31].
The idea of mixed reality was rst mentioned by Milgram in 1994. Early denitions
of the notion were more basic; however, as technology advanced, the concept of MR be-
came more advanced. The HoloLens gadget was released in 2016, causing MR to move
from theoretical study to practical, mainstream use [32]. There are a number of other MR
devices that can recognize vocal commands and user motions, such as Google Glass. How-
ever, it might be dicult to design this interaction style so that it responds in a satisfying
way. Typically, for the devices to understand the gestures and spoken instructions, they
must be executed and pronounced correctly, which can be challenging for regular users
who have not received systematic training. Furthermore, only a small number of lan-
guages and gestures are supported. For instance, the Microsoft HoloLens, one of the most
sophisticated MR systems, supports English and oers three recognized motions. Further-
more, HoloLens can provide a beer viewport and free users’ hands.
According to a survey, one of the top 10 strategic technologies for technology in 2018
was immersive technology (VR/AR/MR) [33]. Construction 4.0, which aims to combine
the three industries of industrial production, information physical systems, and digital
computing technologies—including BIM (Building Information Modeling), articial intel-
ligence, VR/AR, and cloud computing—has been dened by some academics in the cur-
rent global context of Industry 4.0 [34-36]. As a part of Industry 4.0, Construction 4.0 rep-
resents a shift from traditional building methods to building automation. With the inte-
gration of XR technology, this change has also impacted the way building construction is
Figure 3. Technology interaction capability identification.
3.2. Development History
The concept of virtual reality was first introduced by Jaron Lanier [
24
]. The virtual
environment is described as a 3D synthesis system that is interactive, immersive, and multi-
sensory [
25
]. The earliest virtual reality system was developed by Ivan Sutherland [
26
].
The first head-mounted display (HMD) was created by Philco in 1961 [
27
], which marked
a turning point in the history of virtual reality because it showed that it was no longer
necessary to employ bulky apparatus to use VR; instead, it could be accomplished by a
portable display. With the rise in popularity of the “metaverse” concept in recent years, VR
has become more widely used across numerous industries [28,29].
The concept of augmented reality was first introduced by Tom Caudell and David
Mizell who discussed the advantages of augmented reality as opposed to virtual reality [
30
].
The first AR interface was developed by Sutherland in the 1960s. The first use of AR was a
training tool for airline and air force pilots in the 1990s [31].
The idea of mixed reality was first mentioned by Milgram in 1994. Early definitions of
the notion were more basic; however, as technology advanced, the concept of MR became
more advanced. The HoloLens gadget was released in 2016, causing MR to move from
theoretical study to practical, mainstream use [
32
]. There are a number of other MR devices
that can recognize vocal commands and user motions, such as Google Glass. However,
it might be difficult to design this interaction style so that it responds in a satisfying way.
Typically, for the devices to understand the gestures and spoken instructions, they must
be executed and pronounced correctly, which can be challenging for regular users who
have not received systematic training. Furthermore, only a small number of languages and
gestures are supported. For instance, the Microsoft HoloLens, one of the most sophisticated
MR systems, supports English and offers three recognized motions. Furthermore, HoloLens
can provide a better viewport and free users’ hands.
According to a survey, one of the top 10 strategic technologies for technology in
2018 was immersive technology (VR/AR/MR) [
33
]. Construction 4.0, which aims to
combine the three industries of industrial production, information physical systems, and
digital computing technologies—including BIM (Building Information Modeling), artificial
intelligence, VR/AR, and cloud computing—has been defined by some academics in the
current global context of Industry 4.0 [
34
–
36
]. As a part of Industry 4.0, Construction 4.0
represents a shift from traditional building methods to building automation. With the
integration of XR technology, this change has also impacted the way building construction
is taught, promoting self-directed learning. While modern technology offers numerous
advantages, there are still challenges to address, such as cost and public perception.
3.3. Application Status
Architectural environment design using immersive virtual reality systems dates back
to 1999, according to Dirk Donath et al. [
37
]. Since then, numerous studies have been
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 5 of 23
conducted. In 2001, Dirk et al. [
38
] researched 3D design in a virtual setting. In 2006,
Ross Tredinnick et al. [
39
] immersed virtual building concept design using SketchUp. In
2009, Aleksander Asanowicz et al. [
40
] investigated VR as a method for building spatial
environments. In recent years, VR has been applied practically to architectural, landscape,
and environmental planning. In 2013, Rolf Lakaemper et al. [
41
] advocated using VR
to satisfy the needs of the construction sector as a visually oriented visual assistance.
In 2015, M.E. Portman et al. [
42
] applied VR practically to architectural, landscape, and
environmental planning. In 2017, Julie Milovanovic et al. [
43
] used a VR environment
created using an HMD for a design course for second graders.
AR has also been widely applied in various fields. In 2009, Xiangyu Wang [
44
]
proposed a solution for AR in terms of real-world modeling and technical constraints. In
2016, Süheyla Müge Halıcı et al. [
45
] researched the use of AR in collaborative design. In
2021, Shan Luob et al. [
46
] found that the use of augmented reality (AR) was significantly
increasing in three areas: AR data exchange, AR human–computer interaction, and AR 3D
whole-system training. In the same year, Fernando Moreu et al. studied the application
of AR in civil infrastructure management and construction of buildings throughout their
life cycle.
Since the 1990s, MR technology has been applied to interior design. In 2008, a fresh
collaborative method for design evaluations was created using MR. In 2014, studies sug-
gested that MR technology might be used in conjunction with other programs to visualize
architectural ideas. In 2021, Po-Han Chen et al. looked into the use of MR to improve the
effectiveness of architectural design expression.
As VR technology advances, the virtual environment it creates becomes more and more
lifelike. However, customers also want to be able to perceive virtual objects in the actual
environment, which led to the development of AR technology. The desire of consumers to
engage more deeply with digital information led to the development of MR technology.
However, the process of developing the 3Rs is slow. In addition to the construction industry,
XR technology is widely used in a number of other sectors, including manufacturing [
47
],
agriculture, animal husbandry and aquaculture [
48
], industry [
49
], the medical sector [
50
],
and the entertainment sector [
51
]. In the future, XR technology is expected to find even
wider applications in various sectors.
4. Traditional Architecture Education
4.1. The Significance of Modifying Conventional Teaching Techniques
The old system of education has numerous flaws, and as society has advanced, it
has become crucial to alter the manner in which education is delivered. A comprehensive
education for sustainable development has been attained through the creation of innovative
teaching tools and educational philosophies. Kristin Børte et al. [
52
] discovered, however,
that a lot of instruction still relies heavily on conventional methods and instructors and
ignores the value of supportive infrastructure and collaborative development. Extensive
reality technology can serve as a good substitute for instructional infrastructure, which is
another factor that influences students’ eagerness to learn and their eagerness to participate
in class. Numerous academics have developed novel approaches to teaching and learning.
For example, Torsten Masseck [
53
] used experiments to show the value of living laboratories
as a cutting-edge infrastructure for higher education. Easy, a sustainable energy simulation
tool, was utilized by Camille de Gaulmyn et al. [
54
] to test a novel approach to teaching and
learning in a building program. Technology and tools should advance alongside teaching
methods [55].
4.2. Traditional Architecture Learning Theory
Several theories, including experiential learning theory (ELT) [
56
,
57
], adaptive learning
theory [
58
], behaviorist theory, social cognitive theory, information processing theory,
constructivism, cognitive learning process theory [
59
], and learning style theory [
60
] have
been used to explain architectural instruction, as shown in Table 1. The principles of
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 6 of 23
experiential learning and cognitive learning processes are often applied in the teaching of
architectural design.
Table 1. Learning theory.
Theory Proposer Time Theory Content
Experiential learning
theory Kolb 1984
1. Concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO),
abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation
(AE) are the four steps of the process of transforming
experiential knowledge. 2. Four learning styles—convergent,
divergent, assimilative, and adaptive—are distinguished
among students.
Adaptive learning
theory Newland 1987
Investigating learning preferences, stereotypes, and cultural
prejudices in light of Kolb’s theory led to the identification of
four learning preferences for teaching: general knowledge
learning, dynamic learning, contemplative learning, and joyful
learning.
Behaviorist theory Watson 1916
Based on Pavlov’s conditioning model, which explains learning
from the standpoint of environmental events rather than
processing behavior
Social cognitive theory
Bandura 1986
1. People can pick up new behaviors by seeing how others
behave; learning does not require performing the new
behaviors nor does learning require reinforcement. 2. After
adopting personal standards, it gives the person the ability to
function as a self-regulator. The gap between performance and
the measure prompts a self-evaluative reaction, which affects
subsequent behavior.
Information
processing theory Shuell 1986
A focus on how individuals interact with environmental events,
how they learn new information, how they relate it to prior
knowledge, how they store new information in memory, and
how they retrieve it when necessary. Throughout the process,
people are the information processors.
Constructivism Hyslop-Margison
and Strobel 2008
Constructivism is not a theory but an epistemology, a
philosophical explanation of the nature of learning, and a
method for students to build their own learning. It does not
suggest the presence and ongoing discovery and testing of
learning principles.
Cognitive learning
process theory VanLehn 1996
One learns from experts in a field of knowledge if they desire to
learn more about it. Experts spend more time at the outset of a
problem’s analysis, have a larger domain knowledge, are better
at grasping what they do not know, and solve problems more
quickly and precisely. Although this method of learning
necessitates a learner’s long-term study and takes a lot of time,
it produces valuable outcomes.
Learning style theory FeldereSoloman 1991
The study of learning style preferences can assist in developing
teaching strategies to enhance information acquisition by
identifying learning styles using models like the MBTI and
K-LSI and then providing learning guidance for various styles.
Experiential learning has been applied in various professional educational contexts,
such as management, computer science, and education. Thomas Kvan et al. used compara-
tive experiments to demonstrate that the basic design approach of architects is adaptive.
Chinese architecture schools provide students with a wider range of learning styles and
more opportunities for experimentation with theory due to the longer design courses and
numerous opportunities for communication and peer learning.
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 7 of 23
4.3. Traditional Architecture Education Issues
Pedagogy was defined by Mortimer [
61
] in 1999 as “a conscious activity undertaken
by one person to enhance the learning of another person”. Educational technology makes
rational use of technology to support and enhance learning [
62
]. Information technology
and education are interdependent. The discipline of architectural education is based on
ongoing involvement in architectural design and advancement, and spatial imagination
is crucial to teaching. According to Wang T-J [
63
], students can become more imaginative
through the examination and study of excellent design works. Imagination cannot be taught
like rational thought. Traditional architectural design education often emphasizes teacher-
centered learning, where the teacher transmits knowledge and the students passively
accept it, relying on the depiction of two-dimensional drawings [
64
]. Rich spatial shapes
are challenging to communicate verbally and visually alone [
65
]. Spatial imagination and
spatial comprehension are the most challenging areas for modern students to master, and
they are also the focus of traditional architecture education that has been searching for a
breakthrough, as noted in numerous studies [66].
Architectural education has experimented with various methods, including computer
modeling [
67
], hand models, and additional courses like color and construction to improve
students’ abilities and learning, but these strategies still involve teaching in 2D form.
Students find it difficult to accurately experience and master the 3D spatial perception of
architectural design because they cannot personally experience the 1:1 field space [
68
]. A
critical ability for students to participate in practical projects after graduation is to mix
information with design, which is lacking in contemporary architectural design education.
One study identified five key issues with today’s architecture education [
69
]: (1) design
and theory do not go together; (2) lack of understanding of how color and scale feel in the
real world; (3) lack of design reflection; (4) ineffective design process guidance; and (5) lack
of opportunities for students to address real-world design issues.
The limitations of traditional architectural teaching methods can be overcome by
incorporating extended reality technology (XR). XR technology allows for a 1:1 restoration
experience, addressing challenges related to experiencing and perceiving architectural
spaces. In the past decade, there has been a shift in education, with a focus on exploring
new learning models suitable for architecture students [
70
]. The COVID-19 pandemic
disrupted face-to-face teaching and learning, confining people to their homes. However,
XR technology has bridged the gap by enabling remote communication and immersive
experiences. The adoption of XR technology in education is rapidly accelerating, both
domestically and internationally, facilitating flexible teaching and learning approaches.
5. Results
A total of 45 articles survived the second round of screening, and additional anal-
ysis was conducted to extract data such as title, author, date of publication, published
journal, category, keywords, technical tools, research area, main research content, key
findings, importance of the paper, and thesis or practical restrictions. It was found that
the advent of XR technology is changing the teaching approach from “teacher-centered”
to “student-centered”. This paradigm shift indicates that an active teaching approach is
starting to replace the conventional passive teaching strategy. Students will actively use the
resources to conduct academic study rather than passively accepting the indoctrination
of knowledge; this change will inspire students’ enthusiasm and ambition to learn. A
keyword co-occurrence analysis was performed on the papers, and the level of correlation
between the chosen articles is depicted in Figure 4. VR and AR are currently the most
popular applications, while MR is slowly generating new ones. Moreover, there is a robust
correlation among the 3Rs, as evidenced by the thick connecting lines that link them. The
research direction of this paper is supported by data from the education field, which is
also a growing area of study. It is apparent that scholars are increasingly focusing on
the field of education where the implementation of the 3Rs takes place. The articles are
grouped into three categories based on the research topic: architectural design, architectural
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 8 of 23
theory, and architectural practice. The grouping criteria are as follows: architectural design
refers to articles created specifically for the purpose of design, such as those on designing
architectural spaces, architectural expressions, architectural monoliths, etc.; architectural
theory refers to courses that introduce theoretical knowledge, such as the technical theory
of architecture, theory of building structures, history of architecture, etc.; and architectural
practice refers to courses that teach technology-based practices, such as building construc-
tion practice courses and construction safety management practice courses. In order to
apply XR to architectural design, an architectural student’s model is typically imported
into the device. From there, the user can walk into a space that they have designed and
enjoy the amazing sensation of overlapping, interlacing, and dislocating space through
practical experience. In addition, the user has the ability to instantly receive a fresh design
area by altering the model whenever they see fit based on their personal experiences. When
XR is used in architectural theory, users can enter the space to view the actual building,
comprehend its structure, volume, and space, and make up for the drawbacks of the 2D
photos’ flat portrayal. This usually happens after importing the architectural model 1:1. An
example of a forward teaching style is that when XR is used in architectural practice, it is
typically possible to simulate the architectural practice activities beforehand. By practicing
beforehand, users can become familiar with a wide range of scenarios that could arise in
the real world and devise strategies for handling them when they do.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 24
popular applications, while MR is slowly generating new ones. Moreover, there is a robust
correlation among the 3Rs, as evidenced by the thick connecting lines that link them. The
research direction of this paper is supported by data from the education eld, which is
also a growing area of study. It is apparent that scholars are increasingly focusing on the
eld of education where the implementation of the 3Rs takes place. The articles are
grouped into three categories based on the research topic: architectural design, architec-
tural theory, and architectural practice. The grouping criteria are as follows: architectural
design refers to articles created specically for the purpose of design, such as those on
designing architectural spaces, architectural expressions, architectural monoliths, etc.; ar-
chitectural theory refers to courses that introduce theoretical knowledge, such as the tech-
nical theory of architecture, theory of building structures, history of architecture, etc.; and
architectural practice refers to courses that teach technology-based practices, such as
building construction practice courses and construction safety management practice
courses. In order to apply XR to architectural design, an architectural student’s model is
typically imported into the device. From there, the user can walk into a space that they
have designed and enjoy the amazing sensation of overlapping, interlacing, and dislocat-
ing space through practical experience. In addition, the user has the ability to instantly
receive a fresh design area by altering the model whenever they see t based on their
personal experiences. When XR is used in architectural theory, users can enter the space
to view the actual building, comprehend its structure, volume, and space, and make up
for the drawbacks of the 2D photos’ at portrayal. This usually happens after importing
the architectural model 1:1. An example of a forward teaching style is that when XR is
used in architectural practice, it is typically possible to simulate the architectural practice
activities beforehand. By practicing beforehand, users can become familiar with a wide
range of scenarios that could arise in the real world and devise strategies for handling
them when they do.
Figure 4. Network of keywords based on VOSviewer.
5.1. Paper Publication Time
As shown in Fig. 5, the increasing trend in the literature on the use of VR, AR, and
MR technologies in architecture from 2017 to 2020 showed no discernible growth in 2018
Figure 4. Network of keywords based on VOSviewer.
5.1. Paper Publication Time
As shown in Figure 5, the increasing trend in the literature on the use of VR, AR,
and MR technologies in architecture from 2017 to 2020 showed no discernible growth
in 2018 or 2019 and a more discernible increase in 2020. Furthermore, XR technology in
architecture education has seen a significant increase between 2019 and 2022, especially
since the
COVID-19
pandemic (2019–2022) forced most people to work and study from
home, replacing face-to-face communication with online chat tools like ZOOM, Hangouts,
Skype, Tencent Meetings, etc. [
71
]. Architecture is a profession that demands both commu-
nication and experience. However, online chat tools can only offer users a two-dimensional
graphic representation of a building plan, leaving the user to rely on their imagination to
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 9 of 23
understand spatial relationships, structural elements, materials, and other building-related
issues. Unfortunately, users cannot physically interact with the design or experience it
in three dimensions. Instruction researchers are also investigating the potential for XR
technology to be used in architectural design instruction as more and more aspects of
architecture are effectively enhanced by it [72,73].
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 24
or 2019 and a more discernible increase in 2020. Furthermore, XR technology in architec-
ture education has seen a signicant increase between 2019 and 2022, especially since the
COVID-19 pandemic (2019–2022) forced most people to work and study from home, re-
placing face-to-face communication with online chat tools like ZOOM, Hangouts, Skype,
Tencent Meetings, etc. [71]. Architecture is a profession that demands both communica-
tion and experience. However, online chat tools can only oer users a two-dimensional
graphic representation of a building plan, leaving the user to rely on their imagination to
understand spatial relationships, structural elements, materials, and other building-re-
lated issues. Unfortunately, users cannot physically interact with the design or experience
it in three dimensions. Instruction researchers are also investigating the potential for XR
technology to be used in architectural design instruction as more and more aspects of ar-
chitecture are eectively enhanced by it [72,73].
Figure 5. Frequency of literature on the use of XR technology in architecture and education after
2017.
5.2. Country of Publication
As shown in Fig. 6, the quantity of articles published in various nations reects the
signicance of XR technology in that nation, specically examining how XR technology is
being used in building and education. The United States has the most research papers
from the past ve years, accounting for around 22.6% of the total. With a combined 35.5%
of the total, China is in second place behind the United States, followed by the United
Kingdom and Australia. Technology has been developed in other nations as a result of
research conducted in advanced nations, and the future trend for XR in architecture and
architectural education is a result of research emerging in each nation.
Figure 5.
Frequency of literature on the use of XR technology in architecture and education after 2017.
5.2. Country of Publication
As shown in Figure 6, the quantity of articles published in various nations reflects the
significance of XR technology in that nation, specifically examining how XR technology
is being used in building and education. The United States has the most research papers
from the past five years, accounting for around 22.6% of the total. With a combined 35.5%
of the total, China is in second place behind the United States, followed by the United
Kingdom and Australia. Technology has been developed in other nations as a result of
research conducted in advanced nations, and the future trend for XR in architecture and
architectural education is a result of research emerging in each nation.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24
Figure 6. Frequency of literature on the use of XR technology in architecture and architecture edu-
cation based on country.
5.3. Thesis Analysis
According to the classication criteria, the papers were categorized and examined.
Table 2 lists some representative papers that qualied for selection. The primary focus of
this literature is on how XR technology can be used to improve students’ architectural
learning by creating new platforms, displacing antiquated teaching methods, and sharp-
ening spatial skills.
Table 2. Excerpts from representative literature.
No.
Technology
Author
Research Content
Research Results
1
AR
URBAN H. et
al.
Creation of a new augmented
reality teaching platform for
classroom assessment.
The program is well liked and might be ap-
plied to education in the future.
2
VR/AR
MOREAU G.
et al.
Proposes VR alternative sys-
tem CORAULIS to support
teaching and learning.
Although the technique is successful in raising
design quality, it does not support building
size design.
3
XR
HUI V. et al.
Examines the benefits of XR
for the performance of archi-
tecture teaching.
Examines the various meanings and applica-
tions of XR in architectural education.
4
VR [74]
RYHERD E. et
al.
Investigates the pedagogical
use of VADER’s learning
modules.
Module improves first graders’ self-efficacy.
5
VR [75]
VELAORA M.
et al.
Investigates how the use of
VR in education affects the ca-
pacity for architectural design.
Realizing in a virtual reality environment the
experience of dynamic spatial ideas.
6
VR/AR/MR [76]
CABERO-AL-
MENARA J. et
al.
Examines the potential use of
VR, AR, and MR in higher ed-
ucation.
Multiple instructional modes can be applied to
XR technology.
7
VR/MR [77]
WU W. et al.
Investigates VR/MR Interven-
tions for Education and
The development of expertise and the acquisi-
tion of tacit knowledge can be facilitated using
VR/MR.
Figure 6.
Frequency of literature on the use of XR technology in architecture and architecture
education based on country.
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 10 of 23
5.3. Thesis Analysis
According to the classification criteria, the papers were categorized and examined.
Table 2lists some representative papers that qualified for selection. The primary focus of
this literature is on how XR technology can be used to improve students’ architectural learn-
ing by creating new platforms, displacing antiquated teaching methods, and sharpening
spatial skills.
Table 2. Excerpts from representative literature.
No. Technology Author Research Content Research Results
1 AR URBAN H. et al.
Creation of a new augmented
reality teaching platform for
classroom assessment.
The program is well liked and
might be applied to education in
the future.
2 VR/AR MOREAU G. et al.
Proposes VR alternative system
CORAULIS to support teaching
and learning.
Although the technique is
successful in raising design
quality, it does not support
building size design.
3 XR HUI V. et al.
Examines the benefits of XR for
the performance of architecture
teaching.
Examines the various meanings
and applications of XR in
architectural education.
4 VR [74] RYHERD E. et al. Investigates the pedagogical use
of VADER’s learning modules.
Module improves first graders’
self-efficacy.
5 VR [75] VELAORA M. et al.
Investigates how the use of VR
in education affects the capacity
for architectural design.
Realizing in a virtual reality
environment the experience of
dynamic spatial ideas.
6 VR/AR/MR [76]
CABERO-
ALMENARA J.
et al.
Examines the potential use of
VR, AR, and MR in higher
education.
Multiple instructional modes can
be applied to XR technology.
7 VR/MR [77] WU W. et al.
Investigates VR/MR
Interventions for Education and
Workforce Development in the
Construction Industry.
The development of expertise
and the acquisition of tacit
knowledge can be facilitated
using VR/MR.
8 VR [78] SHINOZAKI M. et al. Uses research review techniques
and eco-psychological ideas.
Establishes a VR-based cognitive
design assessment process for
architectural design.
9 VR/AR [79] AYER S. K. et al.
Uses technology to teach by
simulating events that one
would encounter in one’s career.
Supports VR/AR in AEC
education to encourage the
development of tacit knowledge.
10 AR [80] KIM J. et al. Uses augmented reality in the
classroom and for lab work.
AR enhances students’ spatial
abilities.
11 VR [81]CARDONA-REYES H.
et al.
Develops innovative interactive
teaching strategies based on
virtual reality settings.
Proposes a process for creating
virtual learning environments.
5.3.1. Architectural Design
Architectural Space Design
The creation of architectural space through design requires mature thought [
82
]. De-
veloping the ability to design architectural spaces is one of the most important skills for
architects to acquire during their careers [
83
], and it is the result of several interconnected
elements [
84
,
85
]. Nora Argelia Aguilera González [
86
] introduced interactive design in
a descriptive geometry course to help her students better comprehend space, master the
principles of spatial projection, and hone their spatial skills. It was found that VR/AR can
more effectively teach pictorial geometry and evaluate different student characteristics,
enhancing their learning experience. However, enhancing architectural design education
by relying solely on VR/AR is not ideal. Integrating technology with conventional teaching
methods and finding ways for professors to interact with students can help students learn
more effectively. Jorge Martin-Gutierrez et al. [
87
] asked senior students to assess their
visual–spatial perception by acquiring a sense of space in a virtual environment, while
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 11 of 23
first-year architecture students were asked to sketch architectural spaces in physical size
to improve their spatial skills. The experiment included six building blocks, which were
categorized into three difficulty levels for analysis and observation once the space had
been drawn. In the second portion of the experiment, students virtually wandered each
architectural room to note perceptions and sensations, employing the same six architectural
spaces but with the inclusion of various materials, textures, colors, and natural sunlight.
The study found that training considerably enhanced spatial orientation, rotation, and
vision. Additionally, it was discovered that immersive virtual reality environments could
convey the intended emotions of the designer. However, for tactile simulation of materials,
VR technology is currently not advanced enough and requires further development.
Instructive experiments on architectural space design have also made use of controlled
experiments. Jeffrey Kim et al. sought to engage students, enhance their spatial skills, and
reduce their cognitive load by introducing augmented reality technology, as they found
that students prefer active participation in the classroom to passive lectures and textbooks.
The study involved 254 randomly assigned students who participated in a post-observation
experiment on the visualization lecture, a NASA TLX, and a post hoc survey regarding the
intervention. The findings indicated that while AR enhanced assessment scores, it had no
effect on students’ acquisition of spatial abilities, but it did increase their motivation to study.
Mohamed Darwish et al. [
88
] conducted controlled investigations using pre- and post-
project examinations of spatial aptitude. The study compared two groups of architecture
department students at Ain Shams University and found no discernible variation in spatial
competence levels between them. The experimental group used VR for 3D sketching
and modeling and AR as an assessment tool for self-feedback throughout a three-week
entrance door design project, while the control group employed conventional tools. The
findings revealed an improvement in the group employing XR technology’s overall level of
spatial ability, suggesting that XR technology may enhance architectural design education
by strengthening students’ spatial skills and lowering their cognitive load. However,
learning the technology itself might be challenging and requires improvement for efficient
tool learning.
Additionally, new systems have been created for use in the architectural space design
process. Ziad Ashour et al. [
89
] developed a new educational platform called BIMxAR (BIM
software combined with AR) that utilizes a physical–virtual overlay feature. The study
first discussed the system’s performance and technical features before conducting a three-
stage experiment in a pilot user study to gauge participants’ learning gains and mental
cognitive load while using the system. The study found that the system model offers an
accurate solution, with only minor inaccuracies that can be applied to AEC AR applications.
Additionally, the system provides an innovative augmented reality representation that
allows users to interact with it and access BIM metadata. The system enables a sliced
perspective of the area behind the actual objects, helping users better understand spatial
relationships in the building. The approach reduces the additional cognitive strain placed
on students and enhances their learning. With its integrated learning capabilities and
visuals, BIMxAR is a straightforward and practical learning solution for construction
education. Hadas Sopher et al. [
90
] conducted a case study at the Israel Institute of
Technology where participants alternated between immersive and non-immersive media
each week to evaluate a structure. The study gathered each participant’s ideas through
the FOs network to represent their perspectives on the design space. The results suggest
that IVR (immersive VR) has the potential to increase student interest in design criticism
while also reducing carbon emissions, providing evidence for sustainable development
in teaching. However, to improve the use of IVR as a teaching tool, the study needs to be
more specific in terms of how IVR can improve design criticism communication.
Traditional architectural design prioritizes form and function [
91
,
92
]. Research aca-
demics began to recognize the significance of technology for teaching architectural design
after the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak [
93
,
94
]. According to C. Lorenzo et al. [
95
], im-
mersive technologies are a new tool that will be necessary for future architectural careers
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 12 of 23
and should be learned during undergraduate years. At Madrid’s CEU University Digital
Lab, students are taught to use VR and AR to interpret architectural projects, analyze inac-
cessible buildings in depth, visualize and analyze architectural design projects, and allow
for iterative trial and error and summary reflection during the design process. The study
found that the use of technology significantly affects the learning outcomes of students.
Chun-Heng Lin et al. [
96
] developed a multi-user system integration framework integrating
3D modeling, process modeling, and VR platforms based on procedural modeling and im-
mersive VR to assist architectural design education based on design scenario development.
However, a research limitation is the potential contradiction between the design parameters
built in the process modeling platform and the direct object manipulation provided in the
virtual reality environment, which necessitates the creation of a solution.
Numerous other academics have used a variety of different approaches for their study
of teaching and learning. Fauzan Alfi Agirachman et al. examined the application of the
VRDR system in a visibility-based design review process in a third-year architectural design
studio course in conjunction with eco-psychological ideas. The study found that a virtual
reality, which is based on a cognitive-based design review approach, can aid students in
developing their design work. However, the study was only conducted in an educational
setting. Further research and modification are needed to determine whether cognitive-
based design review methodologies are appropriate for use by professional architects. Julie
Milovanovic et al. examined specific VR/AR research projects to support collaborative
design in teaching and learning environments and enhance student design quality. The
study identified the advantages and disadvantages of VR/AR devices and suggested an
alternative system, CORAULIS, that incorporates VR and SAR technologies. CORAULIS
offers multiple augmented viewpoints of design objects as well as seamless navigation
and interaction in all representation spaces. However, the study did not assess the impact
of utilizing the CORAULIS application, which is a drawback. Tane Moleta compared
real-time virtual engines (RTVEs) with several well-known frameworks for architectural
design education to investigate the level to which RTVEs are used in architectural design
studios. The study suggests developing the use of technology in architectural design
from the viewpoint of the students. However, a limitation of the study is its inability to
thoroughly examine students’ experiences using RTVEs in architectural design studios.
While useful, immersive interaction design for architecture has many drawbacks.
Hugo C et al. [
97
] conducted a study in which first-year architectural design students
developed recreational buildings using vertical elements, horizontal elements, light, color,
degree of closure, and materials. The effectiveness of IVR in the four design phases was
evaluated through a questionnaire. The findings suggest that IVR has several benefits,
including the ability to perceive spatial design at a real scale, create visualizations in a
virtual space, experiment and interact with the space from a first-person perspective inside
the building, and experiment with various forms of design in the virtual environment. The
study also found that the short length of IVR use and the challenge of adopting it in remote
and underdeveloped locations were significant challenges for teachers.
Numerous academics have studied how to acquire and learn implicit knowledge.
Justin F. Hartless et al. examined the use of VR/AR to simulate scenarios that might
occur in students’ careers by asking students to evaluate architectural designs and make
decisions on how to adapt them to serve VR/AR wheelchair users. This inspired students
to utilize implicit knowledge. The findings demonstrated that both VR and AR simulations
allowed wheelchair users to complete the assignment, and comments indicating tacit
knowledge eventually came to light. However, students preferred the VR experience. The
experiment provides empirical evidence that the use and development of tacit knowledge
helpful to AEC decision making is encouraged by VR/AR. Wei Wu et al. suggested a
similar VR/MR technology to help with the acquisition of implicit knowledge and the
development of expertise by simulating a small house accessibility design assessment
and investigating the potential technological interventions in construction education and
workforce development to close the current skills gap between novices and specialists. The
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 13 of 23
study found evidence to support VR/MR’s ability to close the experience gap and help
with college students’ expertise.
Urban Design
A unique type of architectural design known as “urban design” takes the structure’s
surroundings into account [
98
]. David Fonseca et al. developed virtual games for teaching
architecture and urban design. Examples of educational technology include a PBL-based
teaching model, enhancements to the virtual navigation system based on data from earlier
user studies, and hybrid research of user perception enhancement based on both educa-
tional and professional use. The study found that teaching tactics can be chosen with the
student’s adaptation and area of competence after identifying the limitations of the system
and the essential distinctions and requirements of the user profile functions. Workflow effi-
ciency and building project sustainability are both enhanced by technology. The effect of age
and gender has to be evaluated in the future. Maria Velaora et al. combined a self-learning
educational experience based on a digital reality model with methodology and design
evaluation to show the effectiveness of urban design solutions for improving architectural
design abilities. They combined play space with architecture. The study found that urban
virtual environments are free from static nature by dematerializing and replicating the
location coordinates and geographic restrictions of the redesigned elements. Additionally,
in a virtual reality setting, dynamic spatial ideas can be observed and evaluated.
Architectural Expression
Architectural expression is a form of expression of architectural design and con-
cept [
99
]. Tatiana Estrina et al. developed a collection of case studies on pedagogy and
curriculum in the construction industry. Using extended reality cases that are taught in
lecture courses, influenced by architectural design, and learned experientially, we can
discuss various immersive technologies in various environments. This enables us to trace
the evolution of immersive media across diverse instances of architectural expression, from
solely interactive technology to mixed reality and interactive. The students in the case
studies all received high marks for their architecture course work and evaluations.
5.3.2. Architectural Theory
Architectural History Theory
Architectural history is the study of the positioning of architectural works in his-
tory [
100
]. It is frequently important to expand on the study of architectural history to learn
architectural design from earlier works. Agnieszka G˛ebczy´nska-Janowicz [
101
] asserted
that virtual buildings created with VR can replace actual ones. Virtual reality can assist
students in learning new abilities for future careers by fusing the past and present and
reconstructing nonexistent architecture in classes on monument conservation or designing
monumental architecture. Chiu-Shui Chan et al. [
102
] created a virtual pantheon scenario
using images, sketches, and textures to provide students with a rich architectural learning
experience. The IVR environment combined high-resolution photographs and audio narra-
tion of historical items, enabling students to precisely measure, recognize, and understand
the 3D characteristics, size, and scale of the virtual space. The study found that VR tech-
nology facilitated a better comprehension of the dimensions and scale of space, and the
recreation of historical facts in the IVR environment enhanced students’ understanding of
the past. Similarly, Eliyahu Keller et al. [
103
] analyzed the joint archaeological Lifta of the
MIT Department of Architecture and Ben-Gurion University, recognizing the limitations
of VR in creating objects and time. The study highlights the importance of exploring
how students learn and using progressive educational methods to enhance learning out-
comes. Mohammed A. Bahobail et al. [
104
] incorporated architectural history into virtual
technology and turned real-world projects into three-dimensional movies to substitute
conventional lectures. The study found that VR technology has the potential to improve
architecture education, but further research is needed, along with financial support from
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 14 of 23
schools. One of the study’s limitations is its narrow focus on teaching architecture courses
at King Saud University’s Faculty of Architecture and Planning, highlighting the need for a
more comprehensive pedagogical study.
Architectural Structure Theory
Building structures are crucial to the form, style, and sustainability of architecture [
105
].
Building Structure enhances construction design [
106
]. Yelda Turkan et al. introduced
an AR program available for iPads and used interactive 3D visualization technology to
teach a structural analysis course for civil and architectural engineering students at Iowa
State University. They conducted pre-tests, post-tests, and surveys to assess the accuracy
of the program. The study found that traditional teaching methods overemphasize the
analysis of individual structural members and fall short of providing a holistic approach to
analyzing complex structures with numerous interrelated elements. AR technology fills this
gap, benefits students’ structural learning, and is a tool that students prefer. The study’s
shortcoming is that, even after quantitative analysis of the data, not enough students made
up the sample size, which prevented the results from being statistically significant.
Architectural Technology Theory
Architectural technology, which is based on the philosophy of knowledge of science,
engineering, and technology [
107
], is the art of building construction [
108
]. WOOD, C.F.
et al. [
109
] created a questionnaire to gather information on the indicators of virtual reality
approaches in the UK and explain how to effectively set up the system in the classroom.
The study highlights the benefits of virtual reality for students and clarifies any software
concerns, demonstrating that students understand the need for beneficial aspects of tech-
nology that they would encounter in their profession. The findings offer a solid theoretical
foundation for the introduction of virtual reality technology in education, emphasizing the
need for teachers to change the way they educate to enable pupils to master technology at
a young age. In another study by Julio Cabero-Almenara et al. at the University of Seville
Chapel, 44 students from a basic construction mathematics course participated, and their
acceptance of MR technology was consistently high. The study suggests that MR technol-
ogy can be adopted in various teaching modes, including face-to-face and non-face-to-face
teaching, highlighting the need to support university instructors who advocate for MR in
the classroom.
5.3.3. Architectural Practice
Safety Management Practice
As construction is a high-risk industry, safety management is a top concern for
construction organizations, making it crucial for students to understand safety manage-
ment [
110
]. To create an authentic learning framework, Fan Yang et al. [
111
] used nine
authentic learning principles to design instructional materials and develop an immersive
VR/MR simulation of an actual tunnel collapse occurrence. The study found that while
VR/MR simulations are more motivating than video courses, they can also be uncomfort-
able and disrupt learning, and the virtual environment is not entirely realistic, making it
difficult for students to gauge the simulation’s accuracy. This highlights a need for future
improvement in this area. According to research, utilizing both 3D and 2D media can result
in the most efficient authentic learning environment.
Building Construction Practice
Building construction and construction industries are constantly refining work meth-
ods to produce the finest possible construction results [
112
–
114
]. As more construction
units are using extended reality technology [
115
,
116
], it is essential to include technology
in construction courses at the undergraduate level. Samad M. E. Sepasgozar [
117
] discusses
the use of digital twins and mixed reality in the construction industry to extend the body
of knowledge on building construction, showcase the capabilities of virtual technology for
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 15 of 23
education, and provide educators with a set of simple to complex technological tools. The
study implemented digital teaching of tunnel excavators, allowing students to learn the
procedure of operating an excavator to plan excavations at a construction site. Morgan
Mcarthur [
118
] engaged students in an architectural engineering teaching module using the
VADER testing platform. The VADER was utilized as an add-on to enhance the curriculum
being taught, and the study found that VADER improves students’ comprehension of disci-
plines linked to architectural design and construction while addressing the challenges and
ambiguities associated with selecting interests and career aspirations. Ece Erdogmus et al.
invited 89 students to participate in the VADERs module, which allowed them to experience
a virtual rotation of architectural engineering and its sub-disciplines, solve computational
tasks, and investigate the effects of design decisions on the sub-disciplines. The study
found that students were more engaged and conscious of diversity, more confident in their
subject knowledge, and very interested in and supportive of the use of technology. Future
empirical studies are needed to assess each module utilizing more participant-friendly
virtual apps and the methods described in the text.
Hajirasouli A. et al. analyzed the most cutting-edge AR technology and integrated
it into teaching and learning methods for building construction to give students a more
practical and realistic learning experience. The study found that using augmented reality
to educate building processes enhances students’ overall performance and capacity for
both short- and long-term learning, as well as their knowledge of complicated assembly
processes. The utilization of the students’ courses as experimental research constituted
the experimental constraint, but the cycle was insufficiently long. Longer cycles should be
used in future experimental experiments to show that AR applications can be made to be
sustainable for both the short- and long-term.
Many scholars have reviewed XR’s applications and directions for development in
order to confirm that the technology is currently being used in building construction
practice. Peng Wang et al. [
119
] analyzed the development and future directions of virtual
reality technologies and applications, from desktop-based VR to immersive VR to 3D
game-based VR and BIM-based VR, in the CEET field. The study found that education
has benefited from the shift from teacher-centered to student-centered learning and the
trend toward establishing integrated teaching and learning. However, the research is
limited to the technology in the CEET field and has not been tested in emerging engineering
education models, nor has the applicability of the technology to other educational tools
been tested. Yi Tan et al. [
120
] reviewed the current state, constraints, difficulties, and
potential directions of VR/AR educational applications in the architectural, engineering,
and construction sectors. The study separated educational applications into four categories:
“immersive AR/VR learning”, “AR/VR structural analysis”, “visual aid design tools”,
and “AR/VR-based teaching aids”, and educational training into two categories: “AR/VR
virtual operation guide” and “safety training”. The findings demonstrated that VR/AR
provides the AEC sector with the chance to change education and enhance current teaching
methodologies in a more diverse educational environment.
Reviews of the state of AR applications today have been compiled by a number of
academics. Pei-Huang Diao et al. [
121
] reviewed the use of AR in construction engineering
education courses and proposed that AR courses be preferred over those with objective
grading criteria to examine students’ learning outcomes, thereby improving classroom
quality. The study examined fundamental knowledge, application areas, development
tools, system types, teaching devices, teaching methods, and learning strategies. However,
the application of research methodologies, learning strategies, and teaching techniques, as
well as the choice of equipment and type of AR system, continue to provide challenges. Aso
Hajirasouli et al. proposed the usefulness of AR in the educational environment of building
construction using qualitative methodologies and thematic data analysis. The study found
that while little research had been conducted on other skills, educational research in the field
of architecture had largely concentrated on performance, communication, and spatial skills.
However, there is a lack of appropriate pedagogical approaches to applying technology
Buildings 2023,13, 2931 16 of 23
to architecture and specialized training in technology. Nonetheless, the introduction
of technology has led to more sustained learning, improved learning experiences, and
enhanced learning in both the short and long terms, according to educational research in
the field of architecture.
Additionally, certain scholars have invented new teaching paradigms and expanded
upon existing educational platforms. Harald Urban et al. created a new “AR-enabled
teaching” platform to test the usefulness of the AR Editor and AR Viewer applications in
building construction and engineering classes. The study found that the AR editor can be
used in the classroom to help students and teachers build AR teaching situations without
having any programming experience. Students expressed satisfaction with the app and a
desire to continue using the technology in the future. However, there is a need to further
expand the common 3D format in the future because the “AR-supported teaching platform”
can only be used in the IFC file discipline at this time. In the framework of a sports design
competition, Karan R. Patil et al. [
122
] presented technology using PBL as a new teaching
methodology. PBL does not demand investment in projects, but rather leverages real-world
projects to conceptually frame the learning process, providing students with hands-on
building design and construction experience during the competition. The study found that
projects incorporating actual design and construction experience can help students learn
certain skills that help them develop broad tacit and explicit knowledge.
A number of academics and researchers have opened up their campuses to students so
they might participate in practical construction learning. Fopefoluwa Bademosi et al. [
123
]
assessed undergraduate students in the University of Florida’s lower and middle education
buildings in randomized groups. The study combined AR and visualization layers, simu-
lating exterior masonry systems, roofing, and steel assembly system environments based
on BIM model elements and diagrams overlaid on real-time live video, and transforming
the site into a virtual scene introduced into the teaching classroom for interactive student
experience. Pre-testing and post-learning tests were used to reinforce key technological and
buildability concepts. When compared with modeling using AR alone, it was found that
BIM’s robust and comprehensive database makes it possible for AR to obtain model infor-
mation for educational buildings more quickly and precisely, which significantly reduces
labor time. The findings demonstrated that students who had taken the AR course were
better able to recognize components of steel, masonry, and roofing structures, qualifying
them for future employment. Ahmad K. Bashabsheh et al. employed a questionnaire
research and software test to simulate a building construction course and chose consulting
office modeling with Jordan University of Science and Technology construction students as
their experimental subjects. The study found that students learn more while utilizing VR
technology, develop tri-axial competences more effectively than when receiving traditional
education, and find technology use to be more enjoyable.
6. Discussion
According to studies, XR technology used in architectural instruction is a current
trend [
124
], especially in an era where VR/AR predominates and MR is still in the research
phase. XR technology application advantages are shown in Figure 7.
6.1. Advantages of XR Applications
One of the main advantages of virtual reality (VR) in education is its ability to provide
an immersive experience that replicates reality. By entering a virtual environment, students
can explore and analyze various design elements from a first-person perspective, which
can enhance their spatial cognitive abilities. Additionally, visualization in VR can help
students understand complex problems and foster their learning efficacy through frequent
manipulation and repetition [
125
]. The immersive experience of VR can also increase
students’ motivation and engagement in learning.
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Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24
world projects to conceptually frame the learning process, providing students with hands-
on building design and construction experience during the competition. The study found
that projects incorporating actual design and construction experience can help students
learn certain skills that help them develop broad tacit and explicit knowledge.
A number of academics and researchers have opened up their campuses to students
so they might participate in practical construction learning. Fopefoluwa Bademosi et al.
[123] assessed undergraduate students in the University of Florida’s lower and middle
education buildings in randomiz