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Citation: El-Sherbini, M.S.; Tajudeen,
Y.A.; Oladipo, H.J.; Oladunjoye, I.O.;
Adebayo, A.O.; Mahmood, J.
Planetary Health and Anthropocene
Discourse: The Role of Muslim
Religious Leaders. Challenges 2023,
14, 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/
challe14040046
Academic Editor: Susan Prescott
Received: 19 September 2023
Revised: 14 November 2023
Accepted: 17 November 2023
Published: 21 November 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
challenges
Perspective
Planetary Health and Anthropocene Discourse: The Role of
Muslim Religious Leaders
Mona Said El-Sherbini 1, 2,3,4,*, Yusuf Amuda Tajudeen 4,5 ,6 ,7 ,* , Habeebullah Jayeola Oladipo 4, 5,7,8 ,
Iyiola Olatunji Oladunjoye 5, 9 , Aminat Olaitan Adebayo 7,10 and Jemilah Mahmood 11
1Narrative Medicine and Planetary Health, Integrated Program of Kasr Al-Ainy (IPKA), Faculty of Medicine,
Cairo University, Cairo 11562, Egypt
2Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo 11562, Egypt
3Invited Faculty, The Nova Institute for Health, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
4The Nova Network, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA; tajudeenamudayusuf@gmail.com
5
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin 240003, Nigeria;
iyiolaoladunjoye@gmail.com
6Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200132, Nigeria
7Planetary Health Alliance Campus Ambassador, Boston, MA 02115, USA; oladipohabeebullah@gmail.com
8Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin 240003, Nigeria
9Rouleaux Foundation, Suite 66, Agege 100283, Nigeria
10
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan P.O. Box 22133, Nigeria
11 Sunway Centre for Planetary Health, Sunway University, Petaling Jaya 47500, Malaysia;
jemilah@sunway.edu.my
*Correspondence: monas.elsherbini@kasralainy.edu.eg (M.S.E.-S.); ytajudeen2713@stu.ui.edu.ng (Y.A.T.);
Tel.: +20-100-246-5704 (M.S.E.-S.); +234-(0)-706-206-3691 (Y.A.T.)
Abstract:
The Anthropocene epoch marks a critical phase in the history of humanity, where anthro-
pogenic activities have profoundly impacted our planet. Alongside remarkable ecological crises, the
Anthropocene worldview has raised existential questions, with a cultural and ethical discourse that
recognizes the intrinsic value and calls for more responsible sustainable living. Addressing these
collective challenges necessitates a broader perspective guided by a unified sense of purpose toward
personal and planetary health. In this context, the role of religious leaders in shaping the social
and environmental worldviews of their followers cannot be underestimated. Religious teachings
provide a moral framework for promoting climate action, global ethics, the rights of Indigenous
peoples, peace, and justice, and other aspects of planetary health. By examining the global ecological
crises through the lens of Islam, the Religion of Nature, or Din al-Fitrah, and its environmental and
spiritual teachings, we can gain valuable insights into humanity’s connection to the fabric of creation
and its interaction with the world. These principles, rich in moral values, are intertwined with
accountability and social cohesiveness. Therefore, the role of Muslim religious leaders considering
the planetary-scale threats warrants further elucidation, recognizing that many other faiths and faith
leaders can similarly contribute together for the common good.
Keywords: planetary health; muslim religious leaders; islam; Anthropocene; ecological crises
1. Introduction
The Anthropocene refers to a distinct geological epoch that addresses the scale and
impact of human activity on Earth, to the extent that the planet is being altered due to
human activities rather than natural causes [
1
]. This proposed epoch carries ethical impli-
cations, conveying a powerful message about collective human actions and their historical
consequences [
1
]. From a scientific standpoint, the consequences of anthropogenic activities
on human health and well-being are evident in the increased burden of non-communicable
Challenges 2023,14, 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/challe14040046 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/challenges
Challenges 2023,14, 46 2 of 16
diseases, emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, poorer mental health, and even
loneliness epidemics [
2
,
3
]. Additionally, exposure to extreme weather events such as heat-
waves, wildfires, earthquakes, and hurricanes, as well as threats to food security, climate
refugees, and unsustainability of human societies driven by rapid biodiversity loss and
climate change crisis, pose a serious threat to global public health [
2
]. In 2015, the term
‘planetary health’ was introduced into the academic lexicon by the final report of The Rocke-
feller Foundation–Lancet Commission on planetary health. This initiative was developed
to address the escalating threats posed by the Anthropocene era on deteriorating natural
systems and their impact on human civilization, upon which it depends [
2
]. Planetary
Health Alliance (PHA) defines planetary health as ‘a solution-oriented, transdisciplinary field
and social movement focused on analyzing and addressing the impacts of human disruptions to
Earth’s natural systems on human health and all life on Earth’ [
4
]. While the concept of plan-
etary health may seem relatively new, its ideas and core principles are deeply rooted in
ancestral origins [
5
]. Indigenous knowledge systems, informed by our ancestors, depict
living knowledge embodied within the people who carry it forward and are intertwined
with their ontological principles. Such a perspective also recognizes the planetary health
message of the complex ecological interdependence and interrelatedness at micro-, meso-,
and macro-scales [
6
,
7
]. A comprehensive and inclusive summary of planetary health, as
reported by Prescott and Logan, emphasizes the intricate human relationship with the
natural environment, its ancestral past, and its evolutionary resonance in the modern era,
bridging the gap between intentions and behaviors while encompassing the notion of
“hope” as a fundamental aspect [8].
In this paper, we contend that a successful transition from the Anthropocene should
not be restricted to academic discourse, but also include a social movement that embraces
spirituality and socio-cultural perspectives [
9
]. Kevin Schilbrack argues that “The criterion
for what belongs in the academy is not whether one’s inquiries are value-laden—they always
will be—but whether those values are open to challenge and critique” [
10
]. From a systems
perspective, drawing upon religious, indigenous, and traditional wisdom, the individual
sphere plays a crucial role in shaping global leadership capacities for planetary health [
10
].
In 2023, Krause proposed four spheres in the handbook on Global leadership practices
for planetary health, wherein leaders can influence the behavioral (action), collective (we
space), and the larger macro-level environment (systems) [
11
]. However, it is essential to
recognize that the emphasis is often on the individual in a compartmentalized view, neglecting
the spiritual dimension [
11
]. Weir further argued that “The impact on ‘leadership’ is that it
is often difficult to separate the agency of individuals from that of wider collectives” [
12
]. The
significant role of religious leaders, as highlighted by the UN Secretary-General, António
Guterres, bring people together to work for the common good. In 2015, his predecessor,
Ban Ki-Moon, also stated that there is a profound responsibility to protect the fragile
web of life on this Earth for the generations to come and it is time for the world’s faith
groups to collaborate with science [
13
]. Furthermore, the global call to spiritual faith
leaders of all faiths by the Sao Paulo Declaration on planetary health emphasizes the
moral dimension of protecting all life on health and leading in the creation of unity and
solidarity [
13
]. Common themes found in world religions, such as stewardship, respect
for life, ethical consumption, interconnectedness, compassion, and social justice, can serve
as guiding principles in navigating the Anthropocene landscape [
13
,
14
]. In this context,
Islam as a major world religion encompasses the human ‘inner’ being and intentional
actions aimed at promoting the well-being of the planet and all its inhabitants. Islam
features a symbiotic unity found in diverse cultural paradigms and transformative schools
of thought that inform leadership approaches across time and space [11,15]. Furthermore,
the operational principle of societal obligations discourages all Muslims from remaining
passive spectator in their community [
16
]. Instead, there is an inherent moral duty for
Muslims to meet societal needs, whether urgent or more general [
16
]. This concept holds
significant relevance in the context of the Anthropocene and planetary health discourse. By
examining the global ecological crises through the lens of Islam, the Religion of Nature, or
Challenges 2023,14, 46 3 of 16
Din al-Fitrah, and its environmental and spiritual teachings, we can gain valuable insights
into humanity’s connection to the fabric of creation and its interaction with the world. The
focus of this viewpoint article is four-fold: first, to consider the theoretical delineation
of the Anthropocene and related planetary crises; second, to probe the ecological and
spiritual repercussions of the Anthropocene within a socio-cultural context; third, to engage
planetary health discipline through the lens of Islamic sciences; fourth, to unfold the role of
Muslim religious leaders in the era of the Anthropocene; finally, to provide avenues for
future research studies and recommendations.
2. The Implications of the Anthropocene and Anthropocentrism
The Anthropocene epoch was initially a conceptual proposal coined by the Nobel Prize
winner chemist, Paul J. Crutzen, in 2000 [
17
]. The Anthropocene implications have sparked
much discussion and critique among various academics, poets, philosophers, politicians,
and activists due to their highly ethical ramifications [
18
]. Rothe’s article highlights several
discourses that have emerged regarding the Anthropocene era, including eco-catastrophism,
eco-modernism, and planetary realism [
18
]. Eco-catastrophism seeks to slow down human
history on Earth by imposing ‘planetary boundaries’ that illustrate the scenario of going above
the 2 degree Celsius threshold. In this, eco-catastrophism calls for immediate international
action needed to mitigate a dangerous shift in the Earth system—a new global form of ‘Earth
system stewardship’. In contrast, Eco-modernism accepts human action on Earth and seeks to
accelerate it, promoting the use of technology ‘techno-environmentalism’, including climate
geoengineering (intentional technological manipulation of Earth’s climate), nuclear power,
big data, artificial intelligence, and genetic engineering, which is claimed to be intelligently
used to ‘create a planet that is better for both its human and non-human inhabitants’ [
18
]. Planetary
realism, on the other hand, acknowledges the Anthropocene and seeks to use it profoundly
as an opportunity to foster a deeper understanding of the human earth’s boundedness and
work toward new approaches to understanding and cooperating with the planet Earth [
18
].
In this sense, it is thought that both natural and human systems are resilient, making it
possible and legitimate to conduct technological experiments on the entire planet. However,
this discourse also places a strong focus on Indigenous and traditional knowledge systems
with its historical construct on interaction with nature. Nonetheless, the corresponding
planetary experimentation still ought to be embraced as a geo-political project [18].
Anthropocentrism, the tendency to perceive the world through a human-centric lens,
plays a significant role in the emergence of these multiple discourses [1]. This perspective
is often reflected in the techno-centric models that dominate modern society [
18
]. From an
indigenous wisdom perspective, in Te Reo M
¯
aori, the language of the Indigenous peoples
of Aotearoa New Zealand, ‘whenua’ means the land and people are one [
19
]. Redvers
et al. stress on “First Law values”, which played a role in promoting sustainable practices
and resilient approaches to environmental and health-related challenges for millennia [
20
].
Indigenous people’s concepts, such as viewing nature as Mother Earth, highlight the wisdom
embedded in their portrayal of the Earth as a living organism sustaining life [
20
]. According
to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES): Mother nature is an expression used in a number of countries and regions to refer to
the planet Earth and entity that sustains all living things found in nature with which humans
have an indivisible, interdependent physical and spiritual relationship. Other nature lexicons
include Terra,Mother Nature,The Blue Planet, and Gaia [
21
]. Environmental activist Vandana
Shiva eloquently captures this interconnectedness by stating the following: “Our future
is inseparable from the future of the Earth. It is no accident that the word human has its roots in
‘humus’, the Latin word for soil. Adam, the first human in the Abrahamic traditions, is derived
from ‘Adamah’, meaning soil in Hebrew” [
22
]. The African wisdom perspective of Ubuntu has
similarities with Indigenous notions in North America, which can be translated as “I am
because we are” [
23
], or “I am a person by virtue of other persons” [
24
]. As Elkington argued,
“This communal focus of Ubuntu has radical implications for how a person might relate to other
persons, and to the planet” [25].
Challenges 2023,14, 46 4 of 16
So, what is required is an attitude of openness towards alternative ways of experienc-
ing the self, and the world or what Boaventura de Sousa Santos calls the “epistemologies of the
South” [
26
]. These general philosophical and sociological orientations rooted in indigenous
beliefs contradict the Cartesian view of nature (nature as an inert object) [
19
–
26
]. Thus,
by embracing diverse cultural and epistemological notions, new insights can be gained,
the understanding of our very selfhood can be redefined, and actions oriented towards
planetary health goals can be sparked, aiming to create a positive shared future for all.
3. The Intersection between Religion, Science, and Ecology
The word science originates from the Latin word scientia, which encompasses any
system of knowledge. Science follows a systematic methodology, aiming to achieve
a profound
understanding of how the natural and social world functions [
27
]. However,
since the seventeenth century, the prominence of modern and postmodern science has
witnessed the marginalization of spiritual or metaphysical aspects. Likewise, the inclusion
of
an ontologica
l component within medical and life sciences remains a subject of ongoing
debate, with evidence-based measurable data often taking precedence [
27
]. Albert Einstein
eloquently addressed this matter, expressing the view that “Science without religion is lame,
religion without science is blind”, a statement that emphasizes the potential for the mutualistic
beneficial consideration of both scientific and religious perspectives [
28
]. An illustrative
analogy can be drawn as follows: humans, with their limited knowledge, possess only
a pixel,
a tiny fragment of the bigger picture, while God, the supreme creative agency, has
the entire picture, and humans are trying to connect its dots [
29
]. These ontological exam-
ples underscore the profound multi-faceted nature of science, which can greatly benefit
from the incorporation of religious discourse, for a more holistic, inclusive, and rational
perspective [
27
,
28
]. Thomas Berry also emphasizes the importance of understanding the
relationship between the world’s religions and the natural world, in the context of the entire
planet and its integrity [
30
]. In the late 1960s, with the global environmental movements,
Sayyed Hossein Nasr argued that the ecological catastrophe is intertwined with
a spiritual
crisis, wherein humanity’s disconnection from the metaphysical has resulted in the de-
struction of the natural world [
31
]. Similarly, Fazlun Khalid points out that desacralizing
the natural world has consequences for our spiritual state and our connection to God [
32
].
Ibrahim Ozdemir contends that humanity’s alienation from nature is due to a loss of aware-
ness of the divine quality of the environment and modern worldview that has rendered all
philosophical claims and speculation useless [
33
]. This has led to a purely utilitarian view
of nature, justifying its exploitation, the animals it nurtures, and its resources as well [
1
,
33
].
However, the ecological crises have promoted a shift towards viewing religion from
a new perspective, an ecological perspective in which everything is interconnected as
an organic whole [
30
,
33
]. In Pope Francis’ encyclical Laudato Si’, an intriguing connection is
made to the Sufi al-Khawwas, echoing the teachings of Rumi. They both affirm that the true
essence of nature can be grasped by the mystical seeker [
34
,
35
]. This perspective, rooted in
Qur’anic eco-philosophy, unveils the interconnectedness of all aspects of nature, forming
a vibrant and living whole [
35
]. It can be likened to the “great chain of being” or maratib al-
wujud [
36
], a concept shared in both Islamic and Western traditions, as poetically expressed
by Alexander Pope [
37
]. This interconnectedness implies that the great chain of being is
also a profound living miraculous “great chain of consciousness”, a phrase aptly coined by
Mohammed Rustom [
38
]. It suggests that consciousness permeates the entire spectrum of
existence, from infinite to finite, leaving no aspect devoid of this inherent awareness [
38
].
This perspective blurs the artificial lines around the notion that nature is placed within set
boundaries; rather, it focuses on synchronized harmony with a precise, delicate balance [
1
],
a concept that resonates with Muslims’ principles of tawhid (the interconnectedness of
all creations toward one God), taqwa (living with God-consciousness), and tasbih (the
constant state of God’s glorification by all creatures that is invisible to the human senses
and mind) [1,32].
Challenges 2023,14, 46 5 of 16
Nevertheless, anthropocentrism, like other centric viewpoints, has created a stark
division in how people perceive nature or the role that it plays in human affairs and the pre-
vailing status quo [
1
]. While these ontological points of view are presented in
a simplified
manner, they can offer some clarification when discussing the Anthropocene with respect to
the existential idea of the human relationship with the natural environment [
1
]. Faith-based
traditions and religious scholars have the potential to infuse a spiritual and ethical dimen-
sion and participate in transformative social change [
39
]. Christian theologist Norman
Wirzba further elaborates that viewing people from the standpoint of soil highlights the
interdependence of humans and the planet [
40
]. The Holy Qur ’an also states that humans
are transcendent beings made of soil [
41
]. This perspective underscores the importance
of recognizing that our health is closely tied to the health of the entire ecosystems on
both micro and macro levels [
7
,
41
,
42
]. Since everything we consume relies on the soil and
its nutrients, it would be a more accurate exemplification of ourselves as embodied and
embedded beings [
39
] to view soil as a complex body containing billions of organisms
and foundational microbes, including the holobiome and microbiome, enabling the daily
cycles of biological processes within every living species in the vast ecological theatre on
Earth [7,42].
These principles align strongly with the concept of planetary health, which implies
that human health is planetary health [
2
,
7
,
9
]. Moreover, considering soil in relation to
being human opens up the potential for rich interreligious dialogue, as the Earth serves
as a metaphor for the unity of creation [
14
,
20
,
22
,
34
,
39
,
40
]. Overall, integrating scientific
and religious perspectives can help elucidate the human relationship with the natural
environment in the context of the Anthropocene.
4. Historic and Modern Insights on Islamic Sciences Significant to Planetary Health
The long intellectual history of Islamic sciences, as a system of knowledge, is derived
from the Sacred book of the Qur’an and the hadith (record of Prophet Muhammed’s actions
and narrations, peace be upon him) [
43
]. The essence of Islam is centered upon the logical
hierarchical order of nature that follows a vertical top-down approach with unity of all
creations towards one God, the oneness belief [44]. Islamic sciences, place the heart as the
spiritual intellect, with immense gratitude for the beauty, power, and intelligent mastery
design of God [
29
]. All lifeforms and creatures from the cellular to the cosmic level are
seen as a set of messages offering signs with a divine code that scientists are encouraged to
decipher [
45
]. Islamic civilizations have made substantial advancements in various fields,
including mathematics, science, medicine, philosophy, and astronomy [
43
]. Rich episte-
mological and dynamic cultural resources in Islamic studies resulted from the immense
respect of other cultures, a supreme prophetic hallmark of traditional Islamic teachings [
15
].
During the Islamic Golden Age (8th–15th century), scholars built upon the knowledge
of earlier civilizations, including the ancient Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian,
Chinese, West African, and many others [
43
,
46
]. Through translation, the preservation
and expansion of these grand narratives have taken place, coupled with the mutual syn-
thesis of cross-cultural thinking [
15
,
43
,
46
]. Islamic civilizations fostered a rich tapestry of
scientific, intellectual development, creative growth, novelty, and flourishing of the human
spirit [
43
]. This cross-pollination of knowledge across different cultures and civilizations,
including Greco-Roman, Judeo-Christian, Hinduism, and
Confucianism [43,46]
eventually
influenced the making of the European Renaissance and the birth of modern science [
43
].
The brilliant works of literature, philosophy, and science with the philosophico-scientific
conception of nature by great Muslim thinkers and influencers belong to Western tradi-
tions, like Ibn Rushd, Ibn Arabi, Avicenna (Abd Allah Ibn Sina, commonly known in
English by his Latinized name: Avicenna), and Rumi (Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi,
famously known as Rumi to the English-speaking world). The question remains as to why
these particular works are elevated to the universal constellation of Western scientific intelli-
gentsia while leaving behind other holistic and historic ecophilosophical works by Aziz
al-Din Nasafi, Mahmud Shabistari, and Mulla Sadra [
41
]. Against this historic construct,
Challenges 2023,14, 46 6 of 16
weaving together insights from diverse perspectives, historic and modern, can provide
a comprehensive framework for human-nature interaction. In contemporary times and
as the environmental and holistic health movements gain momentum, notable Muslim
scholars like Sayyed Hossein Nasr have been widely recognized for their contributions in
linking the pressing ecological crises to a spiritual crisis since the 1960s till date [
31
,
44
,
47
].
Also, Ziauddin Sardar and S.Parves Manzoor approached the environmental crisis from
an Islamic science perspective during the 1970s and 1980s [
48
]. Over time, publications
in the theoretical area of Islamic eco-theology and environmental ethics have gradually but
steadily increased, and aspects of Muslim environmental activists have been encountered
in the real world [
49
–
55
]. In this sense, the existence of a philosophical doctrine serves as
a moral compass for people, including those seeking science [
1
]. As part of the same fabric
of creation, Islamic teachings urge the conservation of nature and all its inhabitants [
51
].
Ozdemir further emphasizes that the Qur’an refers to the diversification of species, similar
to human communities, recognizing the right of all species on earth to co-exist peacefully as
established communities (ummah) and have their own languages, communication capacity,
and respect for life [
33
]. It is considered that the perfect order of the whole nature, small
and large, is constantly bringing us spiritual light to reflect on the beauty and power of
its maker [
44
,
45
]. These Islamic principles promote a profound attitude of respect and
preservation for biodiverse species and all lifeforms, biotic and abiotic alike, grounded in
the moral obligation towards one God [
55
]. Thus, the ideas of ecological ethics and sus-
tainability that are spiritually more profound are well documented in the writings of many
Muslim scholars who addressed environmental challenges [
31
–
33
,
48
–
55
] and also in the
Islamic Declaration on Sustainable Development [
56
], the Organization of Islamic Conferences
(OIC) [
57
], and a Muslim Declaration on Nature [
56
] of the Muslim World League [
48
], to
mention just a few.
While human’s relationship to the rest of the creation has been addressed in Is-
lamic science, the academic field known as Islam and planetary health is a fairly modern
construct [58]
. However, approaching Islam from a planetary health perspective can re-
veal a profound holistic ecology, recognizing the human–ecological–spiritual interactions
as inter-relational in a unified system, i.e., a single creation [
52
,
58
]. These synergies as-
pire to infuse a spiritual, and hence ethical, engagement with earth and the biodiverse
species inhabiting it, as well as the way we interact with the rest of the creation. As
such, insights from Islamic teachings within a planetary health paradigm can illuminate
a component of spiritual accountability, which is essential to counteract the status quo in
contemporary societies.
5. Role of Muslim Religious Leaders
The Anthropocene represents a threat that is not only irreversible but also ‘seemingly’
absolute in time and space [
1
]. It was even referred to by planetary health experts as the
Anthropocene syndrome [
59
]. In a contemporary setting, Islam faith-based traditions are
employed in the production of new meaning-making that conforms to prevailing power
structures of the status quo, and notions of individualism and identity through consump-
tion and materialism [
11
,
16
,
53
]. This also includes epistemological considerations and
scientific studies that address climate and health, and the digital future [40,59,60]. Islamic
studies with their profound orientation in the divine wellspring of knowledge can provide
meaning to the past, present, and future, bridging the gap between science, technology, and
spirituality [
43
,
45
,
49
,
60
–
62
]. Cultivating the true image of Islam as a religion that highly
respects other cultures is crucial [
15
]. For example, Chinese Muslim culture commonly
calls their faith Qïng Zheñ Jiào(the religion of the pure and real) instead of yisilan Jiào(the
religion of Islam), a foreign-sounding to native Chinese ears. Also, the ideogram K
¯
ai ti
¯
an gu
jiào(the primordial religion from the world’s beginning) is prominently inscribed upon
entering a Chinese mosque [
15
]. This encounter reflects that Islam was not alien to their
people’s legacy but belonged to the very ethos of Ancient China, representing the best
of its religious and philosophical traditions [
15
,
46
]. Such insights on how Islam clearly
Challenges 2023,14, 46 7 of 16
reflects the distinctive bedrock (indigenous culture) over which they flow [
15
] are crucially
important as globalization and knowledge validation seem to harmonize indigenous forms
of cultural expressions in the Anthropocene era [
11
,
15
]. The Qur ’anic teachings refer to the
diversity of languages, skin color, and cultures and encourage humanity to “get to know
one another” in a mutually beneficial way [
63
]. Thus, the role of Muslim religious leaders
became crucial in our rapidly changing times, underscoring the critical role of human
flourishing at the center for planetary health and world peace [16,58].
5.1. Embracing Ecological Consciousness: A Spiritual Pro-Planetary Path
In the context of the Anthropocene and planetary health discourse, the need to integrate
a positive pro-planetary mindset is highlighted by many planetary health
scholars [7–9,42]
.
A remarkable articulation of the role of a Muslim as a trustee, a ‘Khalifa’ with stewardship
and guardianship, is charged with the responsibility of seeking, attaining, and cultivating
knowledge in all domains of life to make the planet a better place for all
beings [44,47]
. The
Qur’an mentions the word “Earth” 485 times and many verses on creation and humanity
as part of a balanced whole [
33
,
63
]. For example, about 750 verses in the Holy Book of the
Qur’an highlight the creation of the natural world, the laws that govern it, and its impact
on human well-being and the sustainability of the environment [
33
,
63
]. Pope Francis has
even acknowledged that non-Muslims can learn from the Holy Qur’an, as it is a book of
many levels and great depths [45].
From a holistic perspective, the spiritual consciousness among all creatures can find
the explanation in the linchpin Arabic term ‘fitrah’ [
60
,
64
]. Fitrah represents the primordial
covenant and the inherent goodness within human beings since they are born, which also
signifies their intrinsic awareness as well as the natural disposition to incline towards
the divine truth while also embracing morality [
29
,
64
]. Nurturing this innate affinity
towards God’s agency becomes a life-long process, centered on the purification of the
heart [
64
]. Essentially, Islam, which is based on its root name “salam”, which means peace
(Religion of Peace), serves as a program to restore calmness to the heart and peace of
mind through the remembrance of the divine qualities, thereby affirming Islam as the
Religion of Nature, or Din al-Fitrah [
60
,
64
]. Moreover, the commitment to embracing mercy,
harmony, and beauty within the spiritual heart stands as a fundamental and intrinsic
quality in the context of Islamic tradition, one that is cultivated within the individual
and extends outward to encompass all fellow beings and the entire spectrum of creation.
This theological foundation forms the bedrock of Islam’s identity as the Religion of Mercy.
Expounding upon the extensive significance of embodying the mercy ethos has the potential
to contribute substantially to the broader discourse on world peace, planetary health, and
global well-being [65].
Islamic canon “Shari’ah” emphasizes the path to God, which encompasses more than
just a set of higher principles and private spiritual practices. It is a dynamic system that
provides meaningful guidance and a wealth of many contemporary environmental issues
for the welfare of all created beings [
37
]. For example, within the scope of shari’ah, there is
a specific chapter on environmental jurisprudence called fiqh al-bi’ah, with guidance on hu-
man actions related to the natural environment while stressing moderation in behavior [
60
].
By delineating and expounding on these concepts, incorporating God’s message from the
stream of previous prophets highlighted in the shari’ah, holistic environmental literacy, and
ethics can be framed. Muslims hold the belief in all prophets, with Prophet Muhammed,
the seal of the prophets, serving as a continuation, confirmation, and completion of the
universal divine message [45,60].
Consequently, the role of Muslim religious leaders is distinctive in providing timeless
wisdom from sacred sources, recognizing the extensive array of God’s messages concerning
the preservation of biodiverse species and all lifeforms [
50
]. Muslim religious leaders
can also offer comprehensive reflection on action, including interpretations of how nature
functions and insights into the sustainable and ethical use of natural resources within the
spirit of Islam [65–67].
Challenges 2023,14, 46 8 of 16
Furehaug emphasizes that ecological decline in the Anthropocene serves as a wake-up
call, offering ‘signs’ to pause and rethink by bringing focus to ideas of free will, responsibil-
ity, and accountability for human actions and more opportunities for human agency [1].
‘Corruption has appeared throughout the land and sea by (reason of) what the hands of
people have earned so that He may let them taste part of (the consequence of) what they
have done so that perhaps they will return (to righteousness)’. (Qur’an 30:41) [63]
Even more intriguing is the corruption of the arth that will manifest itself in several
ways, including soil erosion, ocean acidification, the destruction of food systems, wildlife
extinction, and climate change [
1
]. These are also “signs” to contemplate and reflect to
find the way back (to righteousness), as explained by Furehaug [
1
]. In fact, one-eighth of
the Qur’an exhorts Muslims to meditate on nature [
63
]. These Islamic perspectives are
important reminders of their moral precepts about the natural systems of the Earth and the
resources therein [
1
,
31
,
32
]. According to Hamza Yusuf Hanson, the president of Zaytuna
liberal arts college in the USA, the cultivation of mindfulness and reflection with awe
and wonder of the natural world has become critically important in today’s modern era
marked by technological distractibility with prevailing ‘engineer’s mindset’ that seems to fit
everything in a linear mechanistic fashion [
64
]. Thus, traditional Islamic thought places the
heart, rather than the brain, as the center of intellect, consciousness, and conscience. This
understanding permeates all aspects of Islamic sciences, including the inward sciences that
focus on the purification of the heart [64].
The modern campaign ‘Reduce, Reuse, Recycle’ aligns with religious environmental
conscience enhanced by the concept of Islamic Iktisad (frugality). Prophet Muhammed
practiced this principle in his usual way of mending his clothes and repairing his shoes,
highlighting the value of mindful consumption and sustainability of resources within the
practice of Islam [
53
]. Prophet Muhammed also encouraged the planting of trees (to ‘hold
onto the sapling in your hand’), even ‘if the last day was established’. The hadith emphasizes
humanity’s responsibility to preserve the natural environment no matter what condition
prevails with a seemingly simple action of ’planting a sapling’, yet the weight attached to
the action is of great spiritual and ecological significance [
60
]. The Prophet Muhammed’s
sayings and positive actions give hope no matter what condition an individual is in, or the
condition of the natural environment [
60
]. The prophet also considered the act of planting
trees or sowing seeds as a charitable gift with a moral, ecological, and spiritual orientation,
displayed inwardly and outwardly: “If one plants a tree or sows seeds, if then a bird, a person, or
an animal later eats from them, this action is regarded as a charitable gift (sadaqah) for him” [
51
,
58
].
Therefore, every good action is considered of great spiritual significance, i.e., ‘Actions are
based upon intentions’, was stated by the Prophet Muhammed [60].
These examples of the common good shift the human consciousness in the mind
to the re-centering of consciousness in the spiritual heart [
60
,
64
]. In an academic con-
text, exploring the perspectives of Western non-Muslim intellectual elites regarding the
Prophet Muhammed reveals intriguing insights. Alphonse de Lamartine, a renowned
nineteenth-century French poet, articulated that the Prophet Muhammed created a spiritual
nationality that united the people of every tongue and race through the restoration of ratio-
nal dogmas [
68
]. Similarly, Sir George Bernard Shaw, the distinguished British playwright,
referred to Prophet Muhammed as the “Savior of Humanity” [
69
]. In his influential book,
The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, Michael Hart positioned Prophet
Muhammed as the foremost spiritual leader throughout human history while stating his
global impact to serve humanity [
70
]. In contemporary times, the prominent scholar Dr.
Craig Considine provides a sociological analysis of Prophet Muhammed’s teachings and
examples in his book The Humanity of Muhammed, a Christian View. Considine highlights
Prophet Muhammed’s wise situational leadership skills, forging peaceful co-existence in
religious pluralism that aimed to uplift our common humanity, a side often forgotten in
mainstream depictions and media narratives [
71
]. Thus, drawing inspiration from the
Islamic worldview, the exemplary role model of Prophet Muhammed, and the moral teach-
Challenges 2023,14, 46 9 of 16
ings of the Qur’an, can serve as a guiding lighthouse for personal and planetary health
across time and space.
5.2. Leveraging Planetary Health Message in the Virtual and Real Environment
The urgency for collective action in the Anthropocene discourse is heightened by the
assumptions of a single future planetary-scale crisis [
2
,
4
,
7
,
9
]. Notably, the shared emphasis
on environmental protection for planetary health transcends diverse religious and global
indigenous knowledge beliefs [
5
–
7
,
11
,
19
,
20
,
22
,
30
,
34
,
41
]. In the context of the Anthropocene
discourse, Muslim leaders’ social obligations, ethical responsibilities, and scientific roles
become crucial. This is due to their potential to inspire proactive ecological solutions within
the growing population of over 2 billion Muslims globally, who share a profound and
meaningful common identity [
11
,
16
,
47
,
48
,
58
]. Muslims worldwide, despite their heteroge-
neous cultural and ethnic backgrounds, represent a cohesive dynamic community [
15
,
16
].
To this end, environmental initiatives should encompass phasing out greenhouse gas emis-
sions, investment in net-zero carbon solutions, preservation of natural biodiversity, and
prohibition of species exploitation [
57
,
58
,
60
,
67
]. Such actions will certainly reinforce the
sacred message of ‘planetary health’ in the Holy Book of the Qur’an [58,63].
The holistic worldview embedded in Islamic teachings, as depicted through the
storytelling style of the sacred Qur’an, has a profound potential to inspire learning and
motivate concerned Muslims to act [
58
,
60
,
63
,
66
]. A pertinent example can be inferred
from the story of Prophet Yusuf/Joseph, recounted in the Qur’an. During his time, he
actively participated in devising a developmental strategy for the state of Egypt. Prophet
Yusuf effectively addressed economic crises and climatic changes through a practical and
innovative approach to ensure food security in times of adversity. This historic exemplary
approach demonstrates the Qur’anic emphasis on proactive and sustainable solutions to
address societal challenges [63].
Integrating Islamic environmental ethics, characterized by its non-anthropocentric
nature, into modern educational curricula can foster and enable goal-oriented actions
synergic with planetary health [
58
,
60
,
66
,
67
]. Collaborative efforts with organizations
like the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in
projects such as the “Qur’anic Botanic Garden” promote sustainable gardening and plant
conservation education [
71
,
72
]. Moreover, the United Nations initiative of World Interfaith
Harmony Week represents a valuable opportunity for advancing planetary health [
72
]. By
facilitating interfaith dialogue and collaboration, this initiative provides avenues to discuss
shared values and foster collective actions toward a sustainable and resilient future for
our planet [
14
,
35
,
42
]. In contemporary pluralistic societies, there exists a pressing need
to revitalize historic intercultural knowledge exchange for planetary health, reminiscent
of the Islamic golden age’s contribution to the European Renaissance, bridging the gap
between East and West. In the digital era, this exchange transcends traditional social
and physical boundaries [
11
,
15
,
43
,
48
,
73
–
75
]. In the USA, the Garrison Institute provides
an example of bringing together spiritual thought leaders with academic sciences and
humanities to promote actions for planetary health [
76
]. This effort, and many others, align
with the collective goal of enhancing collaboration and effective dialogue between diverse
faith-based communities and scientific communities to reinforce the value of spiritual
perspectives in addressing the profound challenges of the Anthropocene.
Muslim religious leaders bear a significant responsibility in facilitating development
policies and practices aligned with any development goals. This task necessitates con-
sidering various factors, such as the interconnectedness of religious and cultural norms,
local relevance, national sovereignty, security concerns, and the needs of marginalized
indigenous communities [
77
]. For instance, the Muslim worldview challenges the Neo-
Malthusian argument of population control [
78
] without adequately addressing the root
causes of materialistic and deterministic logic that perpetuate inequalities between ad-
vantaged and less advantaged communities [
7
]. Such principles are acknowledged in
Challenges 2023,14, 46 10 of 16
the context of planetary health [
7
], which also emphasizes the moral understanding of
sustenance (risq) within the Muslim perspective [16].
Dr. Umar F. Abdullah, a prominent American Muslim scholar, presents a holistic and
moderate interpretation of Islamic teachings, thoughts, and practices that offer valuable
insights into the context of planetary health. He draws inspiring examples of women’s
legacies in Islam from models of communal living and regenerative agriculture [
15
,
16
,
78
,
79
].
His local and global initiatives serve as an exemplary manifestation of Islam that embraces
an open-minded approach while anchoring spiritual principles, integrating knowledge of
diverse cultural heritages, and critically examining ecological solutions for the common
good [80].
To disseminate knowledge and promote an environmental vision and practices while
leveraging planetary health messages, key Muslim stakeholders are encouraged to orga-
nize in-person and virtual eco-Islamic conferences and engage with global Imams, local
mosque committees as well as traditional Islamic scholars [
56
,
57
,
60
]. Global and local
Islamic leaders and scholars should also collaborate with different faith-based communities
to foster intrinsic values and meaningful inter-religious dialogues aimed at addressing
ecological and spiritual crises [
34
,
41
,
67
]. For example, the Islamic perspective clearly shows
synergies with other religions and cultures, such as the Buddhist concept of upaya, which
accommodates the teaching of the ‘truth’. In a sense, scientia sacra contains both the ‘seed and
the fruit’ for what is viewed as the ‘tree of knowledge’ [
80
,
81
]. Also, the Japanese traditional
culture places a strong emphasis on the concept of “sensei”, literally translated as ‘teacher’
but goes beyond that to encompass mastery of knowledge and character development.
This theme can be similarly encountered in the example of Khadr and Prophet Moses
representing the ideal relationship between the teacher and the student represented in
classical Sufi books and the Qur’an [82].
Islamic teachings provide a significant opportunity to encourage environmental action
with accountability and infuse spiritual consciousness toward planet health, as Islam
is inseparable from the natural world, and environmental care is an integral part of its
faith [37,40].
On the other hand, a multidisciplinary approach to planetary health encourages
local and global synergies between scholars of philosophy, metaphysics, natural and
social science, neuroscience, and indigenous knowledge and religious leaders who
can help to reinvigorate a metaphysical spiritual view of creation and the natural
environment [9,19,30,31,38,58,72]
. Relying solely on science and technology is arguably
insufficient to address the current complex ecological crises in the Anthropocene while
sidelining the metaphysical component [
1
,
27
,
37
,
38
]. For example, the gap between science
and spirituality is exemplified by the concerns instilled in Western communities regarding
the absence of a human–spiritual dimension in artificial intelligence, with a humanoid robot
like Mindar seen as a new deity of the future, in reality, trained on human data [
61
,
83
]. The
concept of ‘blessed algorithms’ and the critical flaws that arise when trained on biased human
data highlight the need for caution and awareness of the magnitude of an anthropocentric
worldview dominated by an engineer’s mindset and materialistic profiteering [
84
–
86
].
Muslim religious leaders and scholars must continue to provide a meaningful moral
compass in the face of ecological and spiritual crises in the synthetic age [31,85,86].
Taking inspiration from the original Alliance of Virtue (hilf al-fudul) established by
Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) in the 7th century Common Era, the New Al-
liance of Virtue seeks to promote a shared commitment to peace, human dignity, and mutual
understanding between all people irrespective of race, ethnicity, or religion, thus, serving as
a model for contemporary action in the digital age and for the common good [
86
]. Islamic
leaders and scholars have historically played a vital role in advocating for sustainable
Islamic core principles, and their importance cannot be overstated [
43
,
47
,
49
,
56
,
57
,
65
,
87
].
Thus, Islam’s binocular vision can provide a strong foundation for promoting active sus-
tainable values while acknowledging the role of human agency in contemporary ecological
and spiritual crises.
Challenges 2023,14, 46 11 of 16
Furthermore, the Qur’an is believed by Muslims to be an all-time eco-educational pro-
gram of life and living marked by moderation, concern for equity, and free of
waste [58,63].
6. Avenues for Future Research Studies
To explore avenues for potential future research studies, it is imperative to consider the
rich contextual themes of planetary health from an emic, inside-out perspective compatible
with the Islamic worldview and teachings. This perspective aligns with the integral
theory model, which underscores effective global leadership practices for planetary health.
This model involves the enhancement of self-leadership by an inquiry-based process that
facilitates the mapping of transformative changes from individuals to collective to macro-
level spaces, as presented by Krause in their research design [11].
To harmonize with the holistic approach of planetary health and the discourse around
connectedness to nature [
42
]; in 2004, Mayer and McPherson Frantz formulated a measure for
the personality trait connectedness to nature. This trait reflects the emotional bond individu-
als feel as they connect to the natural world [
88
,
89
]. However, a study by Perrin and Benassi
study in 2009 suggests that the connectedness to nature scale primarily captures cognitive
belief rather than emotional connection to the natural environment [
90
]. Psychometric
properties and correlations of cognitive belief with related variables such as empathy, social
connectedness, and connectedness to nature, encompass more than transient situations,
feelings, or moods; they represent a fundamental attitude toward life [
90
]. In response to the
need for spirituality measures applicable across religious traditions, a psychometric scale
was developed to capture oneness belief [
90
–
92
]. The positive correlations observed between
personal life satisfaction and oneness belief provide a platform for exploring numerous
new research questions concerning the role of Muslim religious leaders in advancing per-
sonal and planetary health [
90
]. Similarly, Islam, like other religions, places significant
emphasis on environmental concerns, encompassing preservation and development [
90
].
Garfield et al. 2014 have established an empirical connection between oneness beliefs
and pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors [
92
]. Recent studies (Affandi et al. 2022;
Abdul Hamid and Abd Matalib 2021; Bsoul et al.2022) have delved into various prospects
of Islamic ideology and principles concerning environmental behavior [
72
,
93
–
95
]. In this
context, a Value–Belief–Norm model (Al-Mizan) has been proposed, rooted in the Qur’an
teachings, to establish an environmental-based ethos that amplifies balance and harmony.
This theoretical framework encourages the achievement of the critical balance between
the spiritual, societal, and material needs of humanity. The al-Mizan concept promotes
pro-environmental engagement and proactive behavior to live in harmony with self, with
others, and with nature and everything in it [96–98].
The advancing notion of human flourishing has implications for both personal well-
being and planetary health, as underscored by Logan et al. in 2023 [
99
]. However, cor-
relations with individual cognitive beliefs as well as social connectedness and connectedness
to nature can offer a comprehensive analysis for deeper comprehension of how these
frames influence individual and collective environmental behavior and actions [
90
]. For
example,
McFarland et al., 2012
, developed a scale for measuring a person’s closeness and
supportive behavior towards humanity, endorsement of human rights, and responses
in favor of global harmony, without regard for race, religion, tribalism, group bound-
aries or other
distinctions [100].
“The identification with all humanity” or the IWAH scale
offers
an operational
measure of the degree of individual expression with known-groups
validation [100]
. Additionally, future research should probe into the concept of teleology
from the perspectives of Islamic teachings, which assert that the world does have a purpose,
as indicated in the Qur’an [63,100].
On the scale of environmental sustainability research, the case study of Permaculture
serves as an example of holistic positive attitudes and behaviors toward sustainability.
This approach integrates land, people, resources, and the environment using symbiotic
beneficial synergies [
41
]. Permaculture with its indigenous roots in sustainable eco-friendly
agricultural and land management practices aims to enrich Earth’s biodiversity, a goal
Challenges 2023,14, 46 12 of 16
congruent with the Qur’anic ecophilosophy of human stewardship towards all life forms.
Iskandar Waworuntu and Dr. Umar F. Abdullah exemplify this Islamic Permaculture
ethos. Though they reside in different parts of the world, namely Indonesia and America,
their mutual engagement in Islamic Permaculture in the Bumi Langit farm in Indonesia
unites them [
40
]. This example reveals the tenets of the great chain of consciousness with
awareness of the intricate interconnectedness of all beings, both biologically and spiritually,
a notion amplified and holds relevance in Islamic teachings [38,41].
From an academic perspective, the integration of rigorous interdisciplinary studies
of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS), ecological and spiritual perspectives within
planetary health domains is paramount [
11
,
19
,
20
,
25
,
26
,
31
,
80
]. This calls for incorporating
ancient knowledge and wisdom within the global knowledge benchmarks, orchestrating
different worldviews, and leveraging resources like the Oxford Islamic Studies databases.
For example, a rigorous Cochrane Review is imperative to systematically evaluate empir-
ical evidence spanning global Islamic history, leadership, and cultural paradigms [
101
].
Evaluating a culture’s efficacy involves coherence, consistency in behavior, and spirituality
nurtured within a shared prosperity framework [
15
,
101
]. Such endeavor amalgamates
the intricate tapestry of IKS, fostering religious perspectives, historical evaluation, and
cultural assessment, which can enrich our understanding of the past and guide our path
forward [15].
7. Recommendation
As part of the effort towards pursuing a sustainable future, we urge active engagement
with faith-based leaders, recognizing and appreciating their influential role in guiding the
communities toward the planetary health path. By encouraging interdisciplinary collabo-
rations among public health experts, scientists, religious scholars, and environmentalists,
we can improve our expertise and effectively address the complex planetary health crisis
of the present-day world. Moreover, fostering the development of educational programs
and initiatives centered on faith-based perspectives to address the complex environmen-
tal and health challenges can raise awareness within the religious communities (such as
the Muslim communities) about the intricate connection between faith and environment,
whereas raising awareness on sustainable practices within these populations will facilitate
positive change and enhance pro-environmental behaviors. Consequently, the exploration
of interfaith collaborations is a perfect way to avoid silo thinking while encouraging unity
among diverse voices in a shared commitment to ensuring the sustainability of the planet.
For a lasting impact to be achieved, incorporating the perspectives, ideas, and opinions
of the religious leaders in the policy-making process and implementation is essential,
ensuring that religion and science remain mutual and work in tandem. Future research
should focus on the interpretation of and application of the sacred texts from the Qur’an,
conducting comparative studies across other religions for the sole aim of identifying the
similarities and distinctions in religious teachings concerning the need to protect the en-
vironment and actions taken by faith-based leaders. Conducting an assessment of the
long-term impact of religious leaders’ involvement in awareness creation about the sustain-
ability of the environment especially within the Muslim communities’ concomitant with
the analysis of their role in shaping environmental policies is an important step to gain
a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of influence. Finally, the establishment of
a global planetary health network or improving existing planetary health networks with
the active involvement of Muslim religious leaders is highly crucial in facilitating collec-
tive efforts to protect the planet. Such global networks have the propensity of serving as
a bridge between faith-based wisdom and policy that would be taken on the environment on
a global scale. Beyond this, such global networks will further contribute to a more inclu-
sive approach to planetary health, thereby reflecting the diversity of perspectives while
promoting cross-cultural dialogues that transcend beliefs.
Challenges 2023,14, 46 13 of 16
8. Conclusions
This article emphasizes the importance of engaging religious leaders, including Mus-
lim leaders, in promoting environmental protection, ethical values, and planetary health.
The authors call for collaboration between scholars from various disciplines and spiritual
leaders to address ecological and planetary health challenges. The article also highlights
several areas for potential research related to planetary health and its relationship with
Islamic sciences and perspectives, covering various aspects such as integral theory models,
cognitive beliefs, well-being, teleology, permaculture, and indigenous knowledge systems.
These research areas do contribute to a deeper understanding of how cognitive frameworks
influence environmental behaviors and actions. Overall, these research areas can contribute
to the development of knowledge regarding a sustainable approach to planetary health
and its relationship with Islamic sciences and other perspectives. Such research can help
understand how cognitive beliefs, culture, and ancient wisdom influence human actions
related to environmental protection and planetary health. These thought processes, which
are more expansive than the prevalent but constrained discourse on pressing issues like
climate change and environmental degradation, seek to inspire a spiritual awakening,
inter-religious dialogue, and, as a result, ethical engagement with the earth, the species that
inhabit it, and the rest of creation in the web of life.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, M.S.E.-S., Y.A.T. and H.J.O.; methodology, M.S.E.-S.,
Y.A.T. and H.J.O.; resources, M.S.E.-S., Y.A.T. and H.J.O.; data curation, I.O.O. and A.O.A.; writing
—original draft preparation, M.S.E.-S., Y.A.T. and H.J.O.; writing—review and editing, J.M.; supervi-
sion, M.S.E.-S. and J.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement:
Information available in this manuscript is solely intended for educa-
tional and research purposes and does not endorse any specific beliefs, practices, and personalities
mentioned within. Readers should consult relevant authorities, scholars, professionals, and ex-
perts for additional resources when conducting related research. The authors and publishers of
this manuscript are not responsible for any outcomes that may occur from the application of the
information in this manuscript.
Acknowledgments:
We extend our deep appreciation to Rianne C. Ten Veen for her insightful exper-
tise and suggestions in enhancing the quality of this manuscript. Her comprehensive knowledge of
sustainable development and intercultural dialogue has greatly added to the value of our research,
specifically, in the context of planetary health and interconnectedness. We also extend our appreci-
ation to the editor of Challenges Journal for their time and consideration towards publishing this
manuscript. To the anonymous reviewers, we appreciate the suggestions and comments provided to
improve the quality of this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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