Accounting for Non Economic Loss & Damage changes perspective of L&D as a whole

Abstract

Adverse impacts induced by climate change is already occurring and manifesting in the form of losses and damages which are expected to accelerate as climate change worsens and tipping points in eccological systems are reached. Failure to address climate-driven loss can trap populations in a state of vulnerability.

Such kinds of losses and damages can be either economic or non-economic in nature. Economic losses and damages can be measured using market prices. In contrast, non-economic loss and damage (or ‘NELD’) refers to a broad range of harmful impacts that are not so easily quantified, especially in financial terms. This makes it difficult to evaluate the non economic nature and the intensity of the losses and damages faced by frontline communities.

Full text

November 2023
Accounting for Non Economic Loss & Damage changes
perspective of L&D as a whole
Nusrat Naushin, Chowdhury Abrar Zahin, Madiha Chowdhury, Sumaiya Binte Selim, Juel Mahmud, Farhin Rahman Reeda
International Centre for Climate Change and Development (ICCCAD)
Introduction
Adverse impacts induced by climate
change is already occurring and
manifesting in the form of losses and
damages which are expected to accelerate
as climate change worsens and tipping
points in eccological systems are reached.
Failure to address climate-driven loss can
trap populations in a state of vulnerability.
Such kinds of losses and damages can be
either economic or non-economic in
nature. Economic losses and damages can
be measured using market prices. In
contrast, non-economic loss and damage
(or ‘NELD’) refers to a broad range of
harmful impacts that are not so easily
quantified, especially in financial terms.
This makes it difficult to evaluate the non
economic nature and the intensity of the
losses and damages faced by frontline
communities.
Non economic loss and damage
While there are several ways to experience
losses and damages induced by climate
change, policy makers often lean towards
focusing on those that can be easily
measured. Despite the undermining of the
less tangible losses, those are the impacts
that adversely affect the social fabric of societies and wellbeing. Non economic losses and damages are often
deeply entangled with the lives of an individual, where it is impossible to value one at the expense of the other
since all the factors are embedded in their way of life.
Valuation Framework for NELD
1. Assessment stage: Set rules for assessment rather than
pre-defining what counts as NELD, acknowledging
harm without predefining its nature.
2. Preventive stage: Include NELD in adaptation planning,
using perception-based instruments for effective
pathways.
3. Enabling stage: Take actions to help communities avoid
NELD, identifying gaps and providing support based on
community needs.
4. Feasibility stage: Assess the efficacy of actions to
prevent NELD, promote transparency, share results, and
highlight good practices for replication.
5. Reactive stage of incurred NELD: Establish a central
independent body to receive and recognize claims,
responding appropriately on the ground.
6. Community integration stage: Accept the public as
NELD-experiencing actors, promoting locally led
practices to address diverse community needs.
7. Communications stage: Engage in NELD
communication involving communities to raise
awareness, share stories, and inform research and policy
actions.
8. Policy Stage: Integrate NELD into policy documents by
standardizing its inclusion in vulnerability assessments
and preventive adaptation planning, reflecting values
and context specificity
Policy Brief

The difficulty in measuring and evaluating NELD makes it neglected, despite its importance to those impacted.
The idea of NELD brings forth normative dimensions of the loss and damage debate (Chan, 2016). As pointed in
the Discussion Brief by Chan et al., it is imperative to ask whose losses and damages count and how are they
counted; what tools are available to avoid NELD and how to respond to NELD.
Without accounting for NELD, it is not possible to address the full spectrum of losses and damages faced by the
frontline communities. Not only is arable land lost, but also landscapes; not only new livelihood options are learnt,
but intergenerational skill, knowledge and culture is lost. Hence it should be noted that the task of adapting to
new realities can in turn cause a sence of loss of their identity.
NELD resonate through the material and non-material spheres of human lives and societies (Chan, 2016). For
instance, we often see internal migration induced by both extreme and slow onset disasters. But following the
imminent loss of their houses and livelihood, the subsequent traditional knowledge or place of identity may leave
communities disconnected from their sense of self and each other.
NELD are always mediated by societal factors that shape the vulnerability of systems to physical impacts and by
culture, which provides the context according to which items are experienced and valued. Hence, in this brief, we
try to extract and shed light on the diversity of NELD which can be better understood through a focus on their
main characteristics, as discussed below.

1. Biodiversity and Ecosystems Loss
Biodiversity and ecosystem
have long been subject to
multiple stressors including
habitat degradation,
urbanization, pollution, and
over-exploitation, underscored
by the adoption of the United
Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity (UNCBD)
in 1992. Though goal 15 of the
Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) 2030 focuses
exclusively on biodiversity loss
and ecosystem degradation,
biodiversity plays a part in
achieving 14 out of the 17 goals
set, thus depicting its
interconnections.
Focusing on climate change, it acts as both an additional stressor and an exacerbator of the pre-existing stressors
of biodiversity. A study on the primary direct drivers of biodiversity loss in various types of ecosystems
worldwide by the MEA Board in 2005 had found climate change as a significant contributor, given no
novelty/change in policy measures implemented. In particular, the island, mountain, and polar ecosystems are
vulnerable to climate change. For instance, the small island community of the Kunburudhoo Island in South Ari
Atoll in the Maldives have lost their beaches and traditional crops, such as banana and breadfruit, to erosion and
salinization of groundwater.
“Beach erosion and harbour construction has deprived our community of the kind of beach it was before.
Traditional activities and experiences such as swimming and spending leisure time at the beach are no longer
the same for the younger generations,” says Azeem, a member of the community.
From a global perspective, fortunately, or unfortunately, most of the biodiversity hotspots are situated in the
Global South. It has also been established that consumption in the North drives depletion in the South to a large
extent, which brings in the concepts of cost-and-benefit sharing and ecological debts. For example, 35,977 ha of
tropical deforestation globally has been attributed to the UK’s consumption of crop, cattle-related, and timber
commodities in 2018, according to official biodiversity indicators of the UK government. In 2006, the area was
80,000 ha. However, the importers are also enabling the livelihoods of many of the depleters, i.e. the trade
agreements. This is a stark representation of the relative ease of tangible costs and benefits overshadowing the
intangible ones, here the economic returns overshadowing the non-economic LnD of biodiversity and ecosystems.
Bleaching of coral reefs. PC: Catlin Seaview Survey

2. Culture, Heritage and Indigenous Knowledge Loss
Climate is changing, so are cultures. These changes are
heavily intertwined with local knowledge and practice.
Culture, heritage along with Indigenous and local
knowledge systems are increasingly vulnerable to loss
from both slow and rapid onset hazards. Disaster
driven displacement brings in loss of sense of identity,
intergenerational knowledge and traditions and
culture. This in turn weakens social cohesion as people
lose touch with traditional ways of life, which can be
devastating for many communities.Culture is more
about beliefs, customs, language and arts of a
particular society and the expression of shared values,
traditions and customs. Cultural heritage is typically
Recommendations: Addressing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Loss
 Coordination among the MEAs and policy framework: Even though research and science has
been working on the interconnectedness of biodiversity and climate change, the actions in practice
are mostly within own territories. Steps have been taken to connect the spheres of climate change
and biodiversity, such as the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services (IPBES) - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) co-sponsored
workshop and these efforts need to be taken further in terms of economic and trade agreements to
address biodiversity and ecosystem loss at a larger scale in a consolidated manner.
 Consumer pays: A major reason for missing the Aichi targets was the lack of financing for the
developing countries. And while global biodiversity financing talks about developed nations
paying for conserving and restoring ecosystems, channeling funds to the developing nations for
compensating the losses and damages incurred due to biodiversity loss is not yet considered.
Though there are still no concrete ideas of how the revolutionary LnD fund mechanism agreed in
COP27 will operate, there must be provisions for compensating for those caused by biodiversity
loss.
 Valuation: Biodiversity is measured in terms of the status of species and gene pool, while
ecosystems are valued using stated- and revealed-preferences methods for its services. The
Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is a global initiative which suggests methods
for measuring ecosystems and biodiversity and concluded that it would be effective to focus on its
instrumental value. The intrinsic values such as the impact on the well-being of farmers who have
lost provisioning services (e.g. crops) is entirely immeasurable, which leads to the next
recommendation.
 Documentation: There is a need for continued documentation, through say case studies,
qualitative research, visual methods, etc., to ensure that the intangible immeasurable losses suffered
by the most vulnerable due to biodiversity and ecosystem loss are not undermined and receive the
required attention in the policy and decision-making realms.
Cohasset Central Cemetary after flooding in 2018. PC: The Patriot Ledger

understood to be built heritage, monuments related to culture such as museums, religious buildings, ancient
structures and sites. However, there are more aspects to culture than just mere monuments. Its about protecting
their roots that define their identities. For instance, in Kamarkhali, Netrokona Bangladesh, a Banyan tree was
washed away in a matter of minutes, due to riverbank erosion and tidal surges. This loss was felt significantly for
the Hindu community living there, but not so much for the other religions. Hence, loss of culture and heritage
does not only account for known monuments, but also to losses of sacred grounds such as burial grounds and
even mere Banyan tree in which a society holds value to a certain group. Many communities hold extensive pride
in their cultural heritage and practices such as fishing and farming, and as such the possible loss of these traditions
in the face of climate change has resulted in significant levels of sadness.
Indigenous knowledge, which can also be referred to as local, folk and traditional knowledge, refers to ‘place-
based knowledge, rooted in the culture and traditions of a particular community’. As mentioned before, local and
indigenous knowledge is more than just about weather and climate, but also in terms of resource use and
management, leadership, social networks and values and beliefs; all of which are critically important to enhancing
adaptive capacity. Given this, it is critical that indigenous knowledge continues to be shared, passed down
between generations, practiced and protected.
Recommendations: Addressing Culture and Heritage Loss
 Culture is not systematically integrated into the global policies like the UNFCCC mandate or the
Paris Agreement, which are two of the main instruments guiding international policy-making.
Hence it is imperative to draw the connection to ensure culture is integrated in the global climatic
agenda, including Assessment Reports and Special Reports of the IPCC etc.
 There is a clear lack of data, research and peer-reviewed publications on the linkages between
culture and climate change, which is a significant barrier to endorse such integration. Developing
this body of research would, furthermore, help countries integrate culture into their Nationally
Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the Paris Agreement, which are legally-binding country
action plans for meeting climate change targets.
 Culture-based approaches can help shift the focus of climate negotiations from competing
interests to shared values and the common good. Culture anchors people to places and to each
other; hence using cultural narratives in the form of art, music, heritage can help bring in the
attention and influence needed to mobilise urgent climate action. Such practice has begun from
COP26 Culture COP which was a successful endeavour to encourage climate and culture
engagement
 Culture can act as the bridge between global ambitions and locally-adapted solutions. Given
the fundamentally ethical nature of the climate change issue, culture can enhance human-centred
and environmentally sustainable models of society that respect the intrinsic linkages between
cultural and biological diversity. Bringing culture into environmental policies, for example, can
incorporate communities’ practices to construct tailormade solutions for climate mitigation and
adaptation strategies.

As captured by Carbon Brief, a 2-day long conference was held earlier this year at the University of East Anglia,
where a group of archaeologists, climate scientists and policy experts discussed how unique cultures and heritage
are fast disappearing because of climate change – and what can be done to properly measure and address this.
Prof Kwasi Appeaning Addo, director of the Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies (IESS) at the
University of Ghana, explained how climate change is already affecting sites of cultural significance in coastal
Ghana, including historic slave forts. In the same Conference, Dr Salma Sabour, a postdoctoral researcher of
heritage loss from climate change at the University of Southampton, explained her work examining climate
impacts in Banc d’Arguin National Park, Mauritania. The coastal desert site is the ancestral home of the Imraguen
people, where they mainly carry out many traditional fishing practices, including blowing on seashells to attract
dolphins, who bring fish with them. However, sea level rise is causing their villages to become inundated with
seawater for months at a time and causing immense levels of fish stock depletion. She told the conference:
“Imagine seeing your village becoming an island for three to six months of the year.”
3. Non economic loss and damage through gendered lens
Climate disasters disproportionately threaten women's and human rights, with over 80% of those displaced being
women and girls. Structural inequalities and unpaid care work leave women vulnerable in the Global South.
Cultural norms and social stigma further marginalize them, leading to risks like hunger, lack of shelter, and limited
opportunities. After extreme disasters, women who are already marginalized due to lack of education and
employment opportunities, often end up seeking work as domestic laborers and face abuse and lack of protection.
Women are often denied land ownership and economic support which in turn increases their vulnerability.
Gender-based vulnerability to climate change and disasters is also influenced by unequal resource access, limited
mobility in rural areas, and socio-cultural norms that hinder women's skills and information acquisition for hazard
avoidance.
Vulnerable groups, particularly
women responsible for
household food and water
management, are adversely
affected by floods and droughts.
Women and girls often bear the
burden of fetching contaminated
water from distant sources,
resulting in health issues and
social consequences.
Climate change can lead to
increased health risks including
mortality and morbidity.
Environmental hazards
intensified by climate change exacerbate
illness susceptibility. The spread of
infectious diseases is linked to climate and weather changes, and imposing pressure on women, i.e. when it comes
to take care of the family. For instance, women in the remote Upazilla of Gaokandia in Netrokona, Bangladesh,
have reported how the disconnect on roads and communication hinders expecting mothers in times of delivery
and many times the birthing mothers have no choice but to give birth in adverse conditions during extreme events.
In saline intrusive areas in coastal parts of Bangladesh, young girls often face health issues during menstrual
cycles because of the use of saline water for bathing and cleaning purposes. Perpetual use of saline water further
impacts skin and pigmentation, for which families rush towards child marriage options, otherwise they will not
Women pay a higher price during floods. PC: Mohammad Ponir Hossain/ Reuters

be able to marry off their dark-skinned daughter anywhere. Hence, both social stigma along with impacts of
climate change multiplies female’s vulnerabilities to a greater extent.
There has been several cases of both internal and cross-border migration due to coastal events, shoreline erosion,
flooding, and agricultural disruptions, causing displacement. Such migration, while a survival response,
disproportionately affects women in least developed countries, due to socio-economic status and access
limitations, and further contributes to ecosystem disruption. A gender perspective allows assessing loss beyond
financial aspects, considering societal roles and knowledge.
4. Adverse impacts on mental health and wellbeing
The convergence of climate change and its associated disasters has brought to light a range of non-economic
losses and damages (NELD), among which mental health impacts are emerging as a pressing concern. As climate-
related events intensify in frequency and severity, vulnerable populations are increasingly exposed to health risks,
including heat-related illnesses, waterborne diseases, malnutrition, and psychological distress. These non-
economic losses and damages, particularly the psychological toll, compound the challenges faced by affected
communities. While the immediate health effects of these events may vary, the ripple effects on mental well-
being are profound and enduring. Events like hurricanes, floods, wildfires, industrial accidents, and conflicts
trigger distressing emotions, exacerbating stress, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
among affected communities. Particularly affecting children, women, and individuals in low and middle-income
countries, the mental health repercussions can manifest immediately, remain latent, or extend across generations,
Recommendations: Addressing gender-sensitive losses and damages
 Losses and damages impact women differently than men. Hence there is a clear need to connect with
National and International Policy Frameworks like the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction,
emphasizing women's participation and capacity-building. Assessments should encompass
vulnerabilities and capacities of both genders and other vulnerable groups. Hence it is important for
parties to align L&D mechanisms with gender-sensitive disaster risk reduction and climate change
adaptation, ensuring ample funding beyond adaptation.
 Gender-disaggregated data collection is essential to understand the gendered dimensions of loss and
damage caused by climate crisis. A 2012 UNDP report emphasizes integrating gender into disaster risk
management for Small Island Developing States, involving gender-disaggregated data collection and
analysis to uncover disparities in activities, needs, resource control, and decision-making between
genders.
 Using insights from adaptation and disaster risk reduction, it's important to identify social indicators
that drive vulnerabilities during crises. This includes understanding non-economic losses, diverse
capacity needs, and coping strategies of men and women in specific contexts.
 Furthermore, ensuring women’s equitable participation in decision‐making and L&D activities,
assessing gender‐differentiated vulnerability and prioritized needs, integrating women’s particular
vulnerability in the L&D accounting processes, providing gender‐sensitive training are relevant for
the development of a loss and damage work programme within the UNFCCC. Gap analysis and way
of addressing the non-economic losses and damaged from gendered perspective are important to start
from now on.

emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies that address immediate psychosocial support and long-term
mental health services within the broader framework of climate change adaptation and mitigation.
The international policy landscape has increasingly recognized the intricate relationship between mental health
and NELD resulting from climate change. This recognition is underscored by several key agreements and
frameworks that emphasize addressing mental health concerns within the broader context of climate adaptation
and mitigation strategies. The international policy landscape concerning climate change and health reflects a
growing recognition of the interplay between non-economic loss and damage (NELD), mental health, and well-
being.
Recommendations: Addressing loss of mental health and well being
 There is a critical need to amplify efforts to mainstream mental health considerations within international
policies related to climate change, disaster risk reduction, and sustainable development. This entails
incorporating mental health support as an integral component of adaptation and mitigation strategies,
allocating funding for mental health programs, and building capacity to address psychosocial dimensions
effectively. Evidence from reports of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage (WIM)
Excom, which specifically addresses NELD, underscores the urgency of addressing mental health issues
within climate-induced loss and damage contexts.
 However, gaps persist, including limited mental health integration in climate policies, insufficient funding
for mental health programs, and inadequate attention to psychosocial well-being of vulnerable
populations. Addressing these gaps through comprehensive integration, funding allocation, capacity
building, research, and global collaboration is essential to ensure a holistic response to the mental health
implications of climate change-induced loss and damage, fostering resilience and well-being globally.
 A comprehensive approach encompasses several key elements, including conducting vulnerability
assessments to understand the nuances of mental health impacts, integrating mental health
considerations into broader policy frameworks, establishing robust community-based support systems,
and advancing education and research efforts. Strengthening the connection between mental health and
climate change is paramount and requires collaboration among policymakers, researchers, and mental
healthcare professionals. Integrating mental health within climate action strategies demands cross-sector
cooperation to achieve a holistic and equitable response. This integration would provide a holistic
framework to address the physical and psychological dimensions of climate-induced loss and damage,
ensuring the well-being and resilience of affected populations on a global scale.

5. Non Economic loss and damage induced by climate displacement
The major impacts of climate
change such as rising sea levels,
extreme weather events, and
environmental degradation can
cause the displacement of people
or populations, referred to as
climate-induced mobility.
According to World Bank
1
, due to
climatic phenomenon, 143
millions of people in global south
will be displaced (both internal and
transboundary) by 2050. The
prolonged impacts of climate
change can trigger the loss and
damage of homes and livelihoods
as well as social and cultural
connections, leading to decisions
to migrate for safety and security.
This movement can include both
short-term displacement, such as temporary evacuation during a disaster, and long-term migration, such as
relocation due to persistent changes in environmental conditions. For example, prolonged droughts can severely
affect agricultural productivity and threatening food security, as a result, communities facing such impacts might
make the decision to relocate as a coping strategy to preserve their safety and well-being. This is because the
gradual accumulation of risks and vulnerabilities eventually become unmanageable for these communities. With
climate change often amplifying the risks over time, certain areas become increasingly hazardous for human
habitation due to factors like sea-level rise, soil degradation, or water scarcity. Hence human mobility is one of
the strong linkages on how economic losses give rise of non-economic impacts.
When the adaptation efforts fall short, people escape from climate-vulnerable areas as survival strategy (CPRD
2015)
2
along with nothing but memories. When people are forced to move abruptly due to climate-related factors,
they may resort to poorly planned mobility decisions, which can further exacerbate risks for both the migrating
population and the host communities. If the movements are not well-planned or coordinated, they may even
perpetuate or exacerbate vulnerabilities in new locations. For instance, migrants may settle in areas that are
ecologically fragile or lack essential services, leading to unsustainable land use practices and inadequate
infrastructure. This can increase the vulnerability of both the migrants and the host communities to future climate
impacts.
Climate-induced mobility can also lead to psychological and emotional stress for those forced to leave their homes
and neighborhoods. People may experience feelings of loss, grief, and disconnection from their cultural and social
roots, as they leave behind cultural heritage, traditions, and social networks. Displaced individuals and
1
World Bank. (2021). Groundswell Report. World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/09/13/climate-
change-could-force-216-million-people-to-migrate-within-their-own-countries-by-2050.
2
Center for Participatory Research and Development (CPRD), 2015, Climate-Induced Displacement and Migration: Policy Gaps and
Policy Alternative
https://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/groups_committees/loss_and_damage_executive_committee/application/pdf/briefing_paper_cli
mate_induced_displacement_and_migration.pdf
Relocating due to loss of home caused by riverbank erosion. PC: Shahin Alom

communities may also experience a loss of identity. In this way, their communities can be fractured, and the
disruption can erode social cohesion and weaken the sense of community, resulting in the loss of a supportive
social structure. Climate-induced mobility also disrupts livelihoods, especially in cases where people rely on
natural resources, agriculture, fisheries, or other climate-sensitive industries. This loss of income and economic
stability contributes to huge losses for the migrating families. Displaced individuals, especially children and
youth, may also experience disruptions in their education and limited access to opportunities in terms of human
capital. This can hinder their personal development and their future prospects.
Overall, the complex and multifaceted impacts of climate change on individuals, communities, and societies can
be brought into light through the linkages between climate-induced mobility and non-economic losses. These
linkages underscore the importance of considering not only the economic consequences but also the broader
social, cultural, and psychological dimensions when addressing the challenges posed by climate-induced
displacement.
NELD Policy Landscape
The concept of Non Economic Loss and Damage is part of the wider discourse on Loss and Damage. The term
Loss and Damage itself still does not hold an official definition, and are often politically motivated. Hence,
defining and understanding an intangible aspect of it is something much more difficult, which makes it all the
more challenging when it comes of active decisions on policy making. Reflection of NELD values in monetary
terms is problematic. To fully understand the non economic nature of the losses, it is important to first consider
what purpose an assessment of NELD is to serve. For example, if the value of traditional knowledge ranks high
from the perspective of a certain community, then adaptation measures should be taken to preserve and
incorporate those knowledge into locally led adaptation practices.
The context of NELD values need to be accounted for in any framework dedicated to addressing loss and damage.
This raises the question of how to reflect values that differ across cultures in a setting that is applicable to all. A
Recommendations: Addressing climate induced displacement
1. The concept of Climate-Resilient Migrant-Friendly Towns (CRMFT) can be a mutually beneficial
approach to address climate displacement. Due to their proximity, these secondary cities share
similar socio-cultural traits with migrants' places of origin. CRMFT aims to foster social integration
and cohesion between existing residents (host) and migrants and help preserve livelihoods by
offering adapted economic opportunities. The towns will prioritize health, education and well-
being through essential services, therefore preventing the emergence of informal settlements and
promoting long-term sustainability with efficient resource management.
2. In climate-resilient migrant-friendly towns, diversified farming enhances resilience to changing
climates, ensuring food security for residents and migrants. Upgraded water systems boost water
resilience, addressing scarcity issues. Early warning tech aids disaster preparedness, saving lives
during climate-related extreme events. Cultural practices and storytelling pass down traditional
knowledge, fostering sustainable practices and maintaining identity. These interventions aim to
enhance the overall well-being and resilience of both existing residents and migrants, creating more
sustainable and harmonious communities in climate-resilient migrant-friendly towns.

catalogue of standard NELD indicators could be the basis for such recognition, which will not only identify losses
but also help to score vulnerabilities which can further help to inform policy decisions.
A potential blueprint of NELD valuation framework could guide the implementation of policy principles at the
international level. It could ensure an effective treatment of NELD according to their key characteristics.
1. Assessment stage: Set rules for assessment rather than rules for what counts as NELD The normative
dimension of climate change sets in heavily in the NELD discussion as to whose perception counts when
it comes to deciding what to count as an adverse impact. An ideal way would be to acknowledge that harm
has been experienced and refrain from pre-defining what precisely is considered harmful.
2. Preventive stage: Include NELD in decision-making on adaptation
In order to prevent or minimise NELD from occurring, considerations of NELD as part of adaptation
planning are key. In the case of potential NELD, perception or value based instruments would be the most
effective form of adaptation pathway as they are designed and well understood by the impacted
communities.
3. Enabling stage: Enable communities to avoid NELD
Actions should be taken that enable communities to buffer against those adverse impacts. Even in this
stage, it is best to identify the gaps and needs from the communities and provide them with the support
that will be beneficial for them.
4. Assess efficacy of actions to share good practice
In order to promote transparency and accountability, actions taken to prevent NELD should be assessed
following implementation. Results should be made public and good practices should be made visible.
Based on further conceptual work, descriptions should be provided that facilitate replication.
5. Reactive stage (actual incurred NELD): Establish central independent body to receive NELD claims
An ideal framework would consist of central independent body to receive and recognise NELD claims
and would handle them according to the responses required on the ground.
6. Community integration stage: Accept members of the public as actors experiencing NELD
In order to best understand and address NELD needs on the ground, it is important to integrate members
of the community, to promote locally led practices. This would be in recognition of the fact that NELD
are experienced by different communities in different ways, and such recognition would guard against the
misrepresentation of communities through national governments.
7. Communications stage: Engage in the communication of NELD, and involving communities
Raising general awareness of NELD among the public is likely to trigger positive effects. This is
imperative both in terms of the impacted communities, as they lack even the mere understanding of
climatic impacts, and in terms of research and policy action. With more awareness of local communities
about the various kinds of NELD, they can share their stories and also design innovative ways to address
them. Similarly, more research will strengthen the evidence base for the NELD debates and mobilise
sensitivity of decision-makers.
8. Integrate NELD in Policy Documents: Integrate NELD in vulnerability assessments and preventive
adaptation planning
Integrating NELD into risk and vulnerability assessments needs to become standard practice if NELD is
to be integrated into measures that help to avoid the risk of loss and damage. Assessments should reflect
values rather than only commodities at risk and be context-specific. The choice of valuation methods
should consider what goal the information will serve. In order to reflect the context dependence of values,
the planning and implementation of adaptation measures need to be adapted to context.

Conclusion
Although the literature explicitly addressing NELD is scarce, there is much knowledge directly relevant to the
field of NELD. A value based approach will improve understanding the different value dimensions of NELD
items and how the material and non-material spheres relate to one another will help in identifying appropriate
approaches to address losses and damages.
Systematically integrating NELD into research and policy-making on climate change would have be an efficient
way to endorse national and international cooperation. Besides, developing a comprehensive framework, as
discussed above, can offer an opportunity to effectively avoid and address NELD. The concept of non-economic
loss and damage is such that it is impossible to pre-define and prescribe. Hence, the only way it needs to be
addressed is under the umbrella of major theme based impacts (i.e. loss of biodiversity, loss of culture, impact on
mental health, gender based adversities and human mobility) as discussed in this brief and case and context-
specific ways and approaches to address them.
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