Causes and Consequences of Iranian Elite Athletes’ International Migrations

Abstract

This study aimed to identify the causes and consequences of international migrations of Iranian elite athletes. This research was conducted using the qualitative method and Glaser grounded theory approach. The statistical population included senior managers in the Ministry of Sports and Youth and national sports federations, expert researchers in this field, professional athletes who have emigrated or were on the verge of emigration, and coaches in professional sports teams in Iran. Twenty-six people were selected through theoretical sampling and snowball methods. The data collection tool was a semi-structured individual interview. The Glaser approach was used to analyse the data, including two main stages of actual and theoretical coding. During the actual coding process, 468 primary statistical codes were identified, and 68 subcategories and 11 main categories were subsequently identified. The categories were divided into three general dimensions: “Factors affecting”, “Consequences”, and “Strategies” concerning “elite athletes’ emigration “; in the theoretical coding stage, the final model of the research was outlined. Identifying the causes and consequences of the emigration of elite athletes can significantly help the authorities to recognise problems in this area and provide appropriate solutions to retain adequate human capital in the country. We attempted to examine and present the causes and consequences of the emigration of Iranian elite athletes in the form of a model.

Full text

Abstract
This study aimed to identify the causes and consequences of international migrations of Iranian elite athletes. This research
was conducted using the qualitative method and Glaser grounded theory approach. The statistical population included senior
managers in the Ministry of Sports and Youth and national sports federations, expert researchers in this eld, professional
athletes who have emigrated or were on the verge of emigration, and coaches in professional sports teams in Iran. Twenty-six
people were selected through theoretical sampling and snowball methods. The data collection tool was a semi-structured indi-
vidual interview. The Glaser approach was used to analyse the data, including two main stages of actual and theoretical coding.
During the actual coding process, 468 primary statistical codes were identied, and 68 subcategories and 11 main categories
were subsequently identied. The categories were div ide d into th ree general di mensions: “Factors aecting”, “Consequences”,
and “Strategies” concerning “elite athletes’ emigration “; in the theoretical coding stage, the nal model of the research was
outlined. Identifying the causes and consequences of the emigration of elite athletes can signicantly help the authorities to
recognise problems in this area and provide appropriate solutions to retain adequate human capital in the country. We attempted
to examine and present the causes and consequences of the emigration of Iranian elite athletes in the form of a model.
Keywords: Elite athletes, grounded theory, migration
Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101, 41–57
DOI: 10.2478/pcssr-2024-0004
Causes and Consequences of Iranian Elite
Athletes’ International Migrations
Mehdi Salimi*1A-E , Mahboubeh Khodaparast2A-E , Parvaneh
Savari Nikou3A-E
*Correspondence: Mehdi Salimi, Associate Professor of Sport Management,
Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran;
Email: m.salimi@spr.ui.ac.ir
Authors’ contribution:
A) conception and design
of the study
B) acquisition of data
C) analysis and interpretation
of data
D) manuscript preparation
E) obtaining funding
Received: 27.03.2023
Accepted: 28.08.2023
1University of Isfahan, Iran
2University of Tehran, Iran.
3Urmia University, Iran
Introduction
Elite and ecient human capital play a fundamental
role in various economic, social, political and cultural
elds in every society (Salimi & Khodaparast, 2018); Also,
human capital is one of the essential factors in develop-
ment, which depends on maintaining human capital. In
other words, human capital is considered as both a means
and a goal of development (Gruzina, Firsova & Strielkow-
ski, 2021) and is dened as knowledge, skills, exper iences,
abilities and knowledge concentrated in people, which has
a positive eect on growth and performance improvement
(He, Wang & Martínez-Fuentes, 2020); therefore, human
capital is vital in order to improve innovation (Salimi
& Khodaparast, 2019).
Currently, one of the crucial factors concerning pov-
erty in developing countries is the lack of ecient and
eective human capital. Moreover, a country that has
a signicant outow of human capital will face major
problems in the long term (Lulle, Janta & Emilsson, 2021).
Emigration – crossing the political borders of countries
and changing residence for a long time (more than one

42
Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
year) (Castelli, 2018) – is a long-term decision that depends
on many factors, such as income, politics, education and
qualit y of life (Qin & Zhu, 2018). International migration
is mainly related to the population that migrates from
economically less developed regions to advanced regions
(Chamie, 2020). This migration pattern, directly and
indirectly, aects countries’ economic and social devel-
opment capabilities and often leads to more migration
(Remeikiene & Gaspareniene, 2019). On the other hand,
this phenomenon can hinder development and progress in
these count ries in three ways: costs of losing and replacing
human resources, and damage to human capital and social
capital (Ungruhe & Agergaard, 2020).
As development progresses, human capital is strength-
ened (Salimi & Khodaparast, 2021), connections with
international networks increase, aspirations increase,
credit constraints decrease, and all these changes lead to
increased migration. It seems that the most important of
these factors is the increase in the level of education and
international communication, which both stimulates and
facilitates migration (Clemens & Postel, 2018); most no-
tably, empirical studies generally show that highly skilled
people are more likely to migrate than unskilled people
(Oleribe & Fuente, 2022). Therefore, the emigration of
highly educated people from developing countries can have
an impact on the total human capital in these countries. On
the other hand, lack of job satisfaction and low quality of
life in the country of origin increases the desire to migrate
abroad (Torrisi & Per nagallo, 2020). Also, the existence of
opportunities and positions for career growth and the exis-
tence of incentives will directly aect the impact of brain
drain (Wanniarachchi, Kumara & Jayawardana, 2022).
The phenomenon of elite emigration is formed by
the competition of countries to benet from people’s
knowledge. To the extent that, in some cases, they even
give these people citizenship of the country in exchange
for skills (De Haas, Natter & Vezzoli, 2018). The ocial
and unocial statistics presented regarding the extent of
the phenomenon of elite migration from Iran indicate the
fact that, currently, the departure of elite human forces is
widespread and has become a problem in the country as
people migrate to foreign countries in search of greater
security or a better life (Jantan, Falahi & Sey, 2015).
According to the latest ocial statistics provided by the
United Nations, Iran ranks third among the 72 developing
countries in the world for brain drain of its population
(Javadzadeh, 2015).
Elite emigration is not limited to lawyers, engineers
or academics; it has also expanded in sports. Spor ts em-
igration refers to the departure of athletes and coaches
from their countries to continue their professional careers
abroad (Jansen & Engbersen, 2017). In recent years, the
migration of elite Iranian athletes to developed countries
has been on the rise, so much so that the emigration of 28
national team athletes from various disciplines, including
individual sports, coupled with the emigration and asylum
of national referees and coaches in 2019, is a matter of
concern. This trend has continued in subsequent years
(Zivari et al, 2023). However, it is essential to note that the
migration of elite athletes is not always detrimental to the
home country. Their participation in more extensive and
signicant sports arenas can bring valuable knowledge
and experience back to their country of origin, enhancing
the performance of national teams and inspiring young
athletes. However, this only materializes when the athletes
return to their home country, sharing what they have
learned or achieving accolades for their homeland (Spaaij,
Luguetti & Ugolotti, 2022). The current research delves
into the permanent emigration of elite Iranian athletes,
which has signicantly increased in recent years, even
leading to changes in their citizenship. Such a scenario
could deprive Iran of these inuential human assets, and
by suggesting unfavorable conditions in Iran, it might
weaken the country’s national brand on a global scale.
Various social, political, economic, cultural and athlet-
ic factors lead elite Iranian athletes to consider migrating
to other countries and, in some cases, even changing their
nationality (Rojo, Marques & Starepravo, 2022). Among
these, economic conditions play a particularly signi-
cant role. The nancial challenges faced by Iran, much
of which are related to the sanctions imposed in recent
years, have had wide-ranging negative impacts across
various sectors of the country. Sport is no exception to
this, especially since the primary sports structure in Iran is
state-funded, with most of its nancial resources provided
by the government. This situation has led many sports
organizations in the country to face budgetary and nan-
cial constraints, aecting various aspects of professional
sports, including the facilities and equipment provided,
allowances, contract amounts, hiring foreign coaches and
players, and so on. All of these factors have contributed to
the dissatisfaction of elite Iranian athletes (Khodaparast,
2023). Additionally, Iran’s political, social, and cultural
environment can be another signicant inuencer on the
migration decisions of these athletes; the country largely
retains traditional and religious norms, which result in
specic behavioral and speech restrictions on individuals.
Notably, a signicant portion of the emigration involves
female athletes, who face even more important cultur-
al and religious constraints in Iran, such as mandatory
wearing of the hijab or certain sports being perceived as
male domains. This issue is even more pronounced in
the country’s smaller towns and signicantly inuences
the decision to migrate (Bagherzadeh & Shariati, 2021).
Furthermore, these restrictions on women’s sports have
resulted in many discriminations compared to men’s
sports, leading to increased dissatisfaction among female
athletes. Moreover, Iran’s sports ocials and managers

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
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43
neglect many sports disciplines, even those that bring
medals. Discriminatory and unfair allocation of resources,
attention, opportunities, and nancial and non-nancial
support is made primarily for a few popular sports, with
soccer at the forefront. All these factors can signicantly
impact the migration decisions of elite Iranian athletes
(Khodaparast, Soltan Hoseini & Salimi, 2018).
Existing research on refugees and forced migrants
includes a wide range of issues, experiences and impacts
and is closely related to political developments and pol-
icy-making (Spaaij et al., 2019). Ryba, Elbe and Darpa-
tova-Hruzewicz (2020) believe that the liberalisation of
immigration policies in many developed countries has
facilitated the speed of transnational migration for peo-
ple who want accommodation or temporary residence
for work, a better lifestyle, and safer working and social
conditions. In this way, the international migration of
athletes in various sports elds has increased. Orlows-
ki, Wicker & Breuer (2016) also believe that the work
migration of athletes is aected by economic, social,
political, competitive, geographical and cultural factors.
Among these issues, we can mention nancial issues,
lack of meritocracy, problems in international laws and
world federations, social freedoms, immigration laws of
immigrant-receiving countries, the neglect of the athletes’
conditions by the federations, the existence of non-sports
managers, the indierence of ocials, the ineciency of
managers and the lack of spiritual support. Also, Chao
Lee, Mei Ko & Han Huang (2021) showed in their research
that the combi nation of “attractive” factors such as nan-
cial benets, job opportunities, similarities in language
and culture, and self-improvement and “repulsive” factors,
including institutional regulations, salary gaps, and lack
of opportunities for career development, have driven the
migration of Taiwanese professional baseball players.
Given the growing number of elite athletes emigrating
from Iran in recent years, which has become a signicant
and widely discussed topic among ocials, media, and
the Iranian public, this study examines the reasons for
and consequences of such migration. The emigration
of a country’s elite athletes, like the emigration of oth-
er professionals, is associated with various causes and
outcomes. One cannot deem it an entirely negative or
positive phenomenon because human capital, especially
young and skilled labour, plays a crucial role in a country’s
economic, social, and cultural growth and development.
Their migration to other countries can provide opportuni-
ties to participate in major sporting arenas, interact with
dierent prominent sports personalities, achieve interna-
tional recognition, acquire new training and experiences,
enhance the performance and training of national teams,
and motivate the country’s young athletes. These are all
positive outcomes of elite athletes’ migration. However,
the migration of Iranian elite athletes in recent years has
predominantly been for permanent departure, acquiring
new citizenship, and representing another country in com-
petitions. This means that, despite Iran investing heavily
in nurturing these valuable human resources, other nations
benet instead when it is time to reap the benets. Par t of
the countr y’s national wealth and resources is transfer red
abroad, which has consequences in various sectors of the
country and can potentially tarnish the national prestige
and the global standing of the country’s brand. On this
basis, the study aims to explore the primary reasons for the
emigration of Iranian elite athletes and the most signicant
implications it can have for the country. The ndings will
be presented in a conceptual model.
Research Method
Current research uses the method of a descriptive sur-
vey. In this research, a qualitative approach and Grounded
Theory method was used as the most scientic method
of this approach, since in order to identify the indicators
related to the subject of the research, it was necessary to
analyze data that were collected in an unstructured for m
(Amin, Sukamdi & Rijanta, 2021). The Grounded The-
ory method includes three approaches: the ‘systematic’
approach associated with Strauss and Corbin, the ‘emer-
gent’ approach related to Glaser, and the constructivist
approach presented by Charmaz (Qureshi & Unlu, 2020).
This research used Glaser approach, also called Classical
Grounded Theory (Sing & Estefan, 2018).
The emergent approach in Grounded Theory is
achieved by passing through three main steps of coding:
open coding (freely coding the text of the interviews or
other data to nd the main category), selective coding
(coding focused on the main category) – these rst two
steps are called substantive coding – and theoretical cod-
ing (connecting the main category to other selected cate-
gories) (Chun Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019). In the Grounded
Theory method, data collection and open coding co-occur
(Mokgohloa et al., 2021). In fact, the open coding process
begins after the completion of the rst interview; the
data are analyzed and a label is considered for each one
(Charmaz & Thornberg, 2021); then they are conceptually
grouped, and nally basic codes (categories and their
characteristics) are produced as the output of this stage. In
this coding stage, accessible data collection continues until
the eects of the main category, which is the participants’
main concern, appear. In order to choose a category as
a main category, several criteria can be considered, the
most important of which are: being cent ral, being related
to other categories, continuous repetition in data, and
spending more time to reach saturation (Rieger, 2019).
In the selective coding stage, one of the open codes
is chosen as the main category, and other basic codes

44
Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
may be the characteristics of that main category or be
related to it. At this stage, coding is done only for the
main and related categories, and unrelated data are not
considered (Biaggi & Mbaleka, 2018). In other words, this
stage begins when the main category is determined, and
subsequent sampling is carried out to develop the theory.
This stage continues until the main category and related
categories are saturated, and saturation occurs when more
and newer features are not obtained from the data (Kosar
& Kasapoglu, 2021). The theoretical coding stage also
conceptualizes how categories relate to each other and
usually occurs when sorting and integrating notes (Piet-
erse, 2020). Note-taking takes place in all stages of basic
research and includes the researcher’s ideas about con-
cepts, features and how they relate. After data saturation,
the notes are sorted to provide a conceptual framework
for the theory, so that the relationship between the main
category and other categories is revealed. In general, two
stages of open and selective coding deal with classifying
the data; And the theoretical coding stage connects the
categories obtained in the previous stages. Also, this
stage determines the relationship of the categories with
the central category, and thus the nal theory is formed
(Allen & Davey, 2018).
The statistical population of this research includes
people who are experts, have opinions, or have experi-
ence in the eld of the research topic, such as high-rank-
ing managers in the Ministry of Sports and Youth and
national sports federations, expert researchers in this
eld, professional athletes who have emigrated or are
on the verge of emigrating and coaches of professional
sports teams in Iran. Since in qualitative research, the
goal is to nd people with a wealth of information in the
eld of the research topic, incidental sampling is usually
avoided (Naderifar, Goli & Ghaljaie, 2017). In the cur-
rent research, the theoretical sampling method (one of
the main features of the Grounded Theory) (Foley et al.,
2021) and the snowball sampling method were used. The
researchers undertook the sampling with the theoretical
saturation index in mind. To start, several managers re-
lated to the eld of emigration of elite athletes and several
elite athletes who have emigrated or are on the verge of
emigration were selected through theoretical sampling,
and semi-structured interviews were conducted with them.
The interview method is used to collect data because, in
Grounded Theory method, interviews provide the most
desirable kind of data (Abdullah Alamri, 2019). Following
this, those who were interviewed were asked to introduce
other people who could provide additional data concerning
the research subject (snowball sampling). These people
were also interviewed. This process continued until the
researcher discovered that the data received was becom-
ing repetitive and more data would not be obtained. In
qualitative research called the theoretical saturation index
(Hennink & Kaiser, 2022).
In accordance with the steps and processes mentioned
above, 26 research community participants were inter-
viewed. During the interviews, repetition in the received
information was observed from the 19th interview, and
the data reached theoretical saturation from the 22nd
interview. To be sure, however, the interview continued
until the 26th person. Part of the data was also collected
through articles, authoritative books, authoritative sci-
entic and news sites, and library studies. Table 1 shows
the demographic characteristics of the statistical sample
of the research.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the statistical sample of the research
Specialty frequency Frequency
percentage
Education Work experience (years)
bachelor master PhD 1-10 11-20 >20
Migrated professional athletes 4 15.38 1 21 1 3 -
Professional athletes on the
verge of emigration 6 23.08 13 2 2 4 -
Deputies of the Ministry of
Sports and Youth of Iran 415.38 - - 4 - 13
Presidents of National Sports
Federations of Iran 2 7.70 - - 2 - 1 1
Deputies of National Sports
Federations of Iran 311.54 -12 - 2 1
Coaches of Iranian
professional sports clubs 311.54 - 2 1 1 1 1
Research professors in the
eld of athlete migration 415.38 - - 4 - 13
Total 26 100 2 8 16 413 9

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
45
Trustworthiness is used to measure validity and reliabil-
ity in qualitative research. It consists of four more detailed
concepts: credibility, transferability, conformability and
dependability (Coleman, 2021). In order to check the cred-
ibility, the research ndings were studied by the research
participants. They studied the presentation and the proposed
model, and their opinions were applied. In order to check
the transferability in the various stages of data coding,
sucient information regarding the applicability of the
research ndings in other scientic elds was deter mined.
Also, to achieve conformability, the manuscripts and notes
related to the research were given to another researcher, his
ndings were compared with the current research ndings,
and the necessary similarity was conrmed. Retesting
methods and the percentage of agreement observation
were also used to check the compatibility or dependabil-
ity of the research. For this purpose, ve interviews were
selected from among the conducted interviews and, in the
retest method, each of them was coded twice with a 15-day
interval between tests by the researcher. In the percentage
of agreement observation method, two knowledgeable
researchers in the eld were invited to participate in the
research as coders. In each interview, similar codes were
marked as agreement, and dissimilar codes were marked
as disagreement. Finally, with the help of the following
formula, the accuracy and reliability of the research were
evaluated. The results obtained are shown in Table 2.
According to Table 2, the reliability obtained in the
retest method and the intrasubject agreement method us-
ing the mentioned formula is 85% and 80%, respectively,
which is higher than 60%. Therefore, coding trustwor-
thiness is conrmed.
Findings
In the open coding phase, 468 primary codes were
identied. Table 3 shows parts of the text of several in-
terviews and the primary codes extracted from them as
examples.
Table 2. Calculation of reliability by retest method and intra-subject agreement method
row
Interview
title
Number of codes Number of
agreements
Number of
disagreements Reliability (percentage)
Retest
Intra-
subject
agreement
Retest
Intra-
subject
agreement
Retest Intra-subject
agreement Retest Intra-subject
agreement
1second 41 38 18 16 5 687% 84%
2 ninth 28 26 12 10 4 6 85% 76%
3 eleventh 32 41 14 17 4 7 87% 82%
4 nineteenth 34 39 16 16 2 7 94% 82%
5twenty-
second 26 32 11 14 4 4 84% 87%
Total 161 176 69 71 23 34 85% 80%

46
Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
Table 3. Examples of open coding of interviews
Extracted Initial CodesPart of the interview texts
Parts of
interviews with
elite athletes who
have migrated or
are on the verge
of emigration
1. Lesser importance and attention by
ocials towards women’s sports
in Iran
2. Limited opportunities and
advancement in some sports for
women due to cultural, religious,
and social conditions in Iran
3. The issue of female athletes’ dress
code and hijab in Iran
4. Discriminations related to training
facilities, contract amounts, and
television broadcasts of men’s and
women’s sports events in Iran
In Iran, the importance given to men’s sports and the
support they receive in various sectors is much less for
women. For instance, the contract amounts for women
in sports are signicantly lower than for men. Training
facilities and sports camp programmes for women are far
more limited. The rewards that female athletes receive
compared to their male counterparts are much lower;
the television broadcast of women’s matches is weak
due to their dress code and hijab. Hence, fewer sponsors
support women’s sports in Iran. In many cities in Iran,
due to traditional beliefs and specic religious and social
conditions, active participation of women in some sports
is impossible. All these issues are among the signicant
reasons that some elite female athletes in Iran are
encouraged to migrate and acquire a new nationality.
1. Concerns of elite athletes regarding
retirement and their living
conditions in Iran
2. Ocials’ neglect of elite athletes
and their feelings in Iran
3. The potential for further growth
and progress of elite athletes by
migrating to another country
As an athlete, when I compare my personal and
professional living conditions with those of athletes of
the same discipline and level in a developed country, my
motivation to migrate and leave Iran intensies. This is
because that individual’s social position and personal and
professional situation seem much better than mine.
1. Emphasis on strict political beliefs
and tendencies in Iranian sports
2. Ocials’ neglect of athletes’ eorts
in Iran
A professional athlete in Iran trains for years to participate
in a signicant sporting event. However, when faced with
an Israeli opponent, the managers and ocials compel him
to withdraw from the competition, erasing the results of all
his eorts.
1. Emphasis on hardline political
beliefs and tendencies in Iranian
sports
2. Ocials’ negligence towards
athletes’ eorts in Iran
A professional athlete in Iran trains for years to participate
in a signicant sporting event. However, when faced with
an Israeli opponent, the managers and ocials force him
to withdraw from the competition, rendering all his eorts
fruitless.
1. Elite athletes’ belief in the adverse
political and managerial conditions
in Iran
2. Negative impact of permanent
emigration of elite athletes on
Iran’s national brand
3. Inuence of friends on the issue
of permanent migration of elite
athletes from the country
Many of my athletic and non-athletic friends have
migrated, even accepting citizenship of a new country,
or are preparing for permanent migration. This could
tarnish Iran’s reputation in other countries, further
motivate Iranian youths to migrate, and emphasize the
incompetence of the country’s managers and politicians.
1. State control over Iranian sports
and its heavy reliance on the
government budget
2. Economic issues of the country
and insucient budget allocation
to sports
3. Structural and legal problems
concerning privatization of sports
in Iran
Sports in Iran depend heavily on the government, and the
laws and conditions for privatization are pretty stringent
and complicated. Moreover, the country’s economic
problems mean that the budget allocated for sports is
insucient. This situation results in the dissatisfaction
of elite Iranian athletes and increases their inclination to
migrate from the country.
Sections of
interviews with
sports coaches,
heads and
deputies of sports
organizations, and
research scholars
on the migration
of athletes

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
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47
In the second coding phase, the overlapping codes
obtained in the previous step were merged, and 68 sub-
categories and 11 main categories were identied. The
obtained categories can be divided into three general
dimensions, the rst dimension of which is “factors
aecting the emigration of elite athletes”, the second
Extracted Initial CodesPart of the interview texts
1. Policies of many countries to
attract top athletes from other
nations and develop their sports
2. Support from international sports
organizations on the migration and
change of nationality of athletes
Many countries aiming to strengthen their sports
sector adopt policies to attract elite athletes from other
nations, luring them with attractive oers. Meanwhile,
international sports organizations also provide signicant
support concerning the migration and change of athletes’
nationalities. This has further exacerbated the emigration
issue among our country’s athletes.
1. Inequity and discrimination among
dierent sports disciplines in Iran
2. Weakening of Iran’s sports talent
pool in some disciplines
3. Deterioration of national sports
prowess in Iran
In Iran, most of the budget and attention is directed
towards football, neglecting other sports disciplines like
Taekwondo, wrestling, etc., which also win medals. This
inequality and discrimination can motivate athletes from
these disciplines to migrate from Iran. Consequently, the
country’s sports talent pool and national sports prowess in
these areas become weakened.
Table 4. Categories and subcategories of “Factors aecting the emigration of elite athletes” in the selective coding
stage
Category row Concept
Political-
legal factors
1
Existence of simple and specic laws regarding emigration (facilitation of issuing visas,
obtaining citizenship of countries, etc.) and the support of international sports and non-sports
organizations for this issue
2The policy of developed countries in attracting elite athletes to strengthen the power of their
national sport and weaken the national sport power of developing countries
3Applying political and economic sanctions against Iran by other countries and weakening the
global status of this country’s national brand
4Limited Olympic quota and other international competitions in some sports for each country
5Political instability in Iran
6
The strong dependence of sports on the government in Iran, the allocation of insucient funds
for it, and the existence of complex and challenging laws regarding the transfer of various parts
of sports to the private sector
7
The ineectiveness of the management system in Iran and the dominance of personal
relationships, and the emphasis on political tendencies in the selection of managers and ocials
in sports and non-sports in the country
8Strict political and religious laws and pressures in Iran‘s social and sports environment
(such as forcing Iranian athletes not to compete against opponents from Israel)
9The neighbourhoods of Iran with immigrant countries
10 Failure of the Iranian government to provide the necessary support incentives to investors
in the professional sports sector and elite athletes who start sports businesses in the country.
dimension is “the consequences of the emigration of
elite athletes”, and the third dimension is “control solu-
tions of elite athletes’ emigration”. Next, Table 4 shows
the categories and subcategories related to “factors af-
fecting the emigration of elite athletes” in the selective
coding stage.

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Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
Category row Concept
Socio-
cultural
factors
1Weak patriotism of elite athletes
2Tendency to live in a modern environment (versus a semi-modern and traditional environment)
3Insucient sports communities in Iran
4Cultural and religious restrictions and lack of social and civil liberties in Iran (issue of hijab,
closed space and imposed patterns of behaviour)
5 Low value of sports activities among people in the community
6The weak social status of elite athletes and the lack of attention of ocials and mass media in
Iran towards their achievements and honours
7Discriminating religious, ethnic and gender attitudes regarding elite athletes and not appreciating
their feelings in Iran
Economic
factors
1The lack of stability and vagueness of the economic future in Iran and the budget and income
problems of the country’s sports organizations
2Lack of allocation of necessary facilities regarding the personal and professional life of elite
athletes in Iran
3The dierence in welfare and income status in Iran and advanced countries and the presentation
of signicant nancial and non-nancial oers by advanced countries to elite athletes
Professional
factors
1The lack of meritocracy and the existence of nepotism in dierent parts of professional sports in Iran
2Severe dierences of opinion of elite athletes with the management structure of federations,
national team coaches and other sports ocials of the country
3Lack of knowledge and awareness of sports ocials about the primary and vital needs of sports
centres and elite athletes
4
Injustice and discrimination inside and outside the eld of sports (unequal distribution of
facilities, opportunities and extreme attention of sports managers to popular media sports such as
football and lack of attention to other medal-winning sports)
5Lack of access of elite athletes to coaches and training courses commensurate with the high level
of championship sports
6Lack of distribution of sports facilities, equipment and technical infrastructure following the
high level of championship sports and based on the real needs of elite athletes
7Have a better chance of participating in the Olympics and other world competitions in the
destination country
8Lack of planning of federations concerning the presence of elite athletes in world tournaments
9 Lack of professional and coherent leagues with the ability to generate income in some sports
10 Inability of the country to host major sporting events such as the Olympics, World Cup, etc.
11 Lack of an organized, purposeful and coherent system for talent identication and talent
management following international standards and indicators in the country’s sports
12 Ambiguity in the future of sports and careers for elite athletes
Personal
factors
1Kinship relationships in the destination country
2Reduction of national interests and aliations and dissatisfaction with the political and social
structure of the country, and lack of feeling of freedom
3Proving sports abilities to others and ensuring a promising sporting future in the destination country
4Lack of development of individual life indices in the country
5 Learning new experience
6Problems related to the national identity (citizenship) of elite athletes in the country
7Elite athletes’ concerns about retirement and providing comfort and welfare conditions for
themselves and their families in Iran
8Observing the favourable conditions of Iranian elite athletes in teams of other countries as an
incentive to emigrate
9The dierence between people in the degree of positivity to phenomena, the hierarchy of needs
and the tendency to hedonism

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
49
Table 4 identies ve set of factors – political-le-
gal, cultural-social, economic, professional and per-
sonal – as the main categories aecting the emigra-
tion of elite athletes, including 41 subcategories.
Table 5 displays the categories and subcategories re-
lated to “consequences of elite athletes’ emigration”
in the selective coding stage in the form of four main
categories – sports consequences, economic conse-
quences, social-cultural consequences and securi-
ty-political consequences, from a total of 12 extracted
subcategories.
Table 6 also shows the categories and subcategories
related to “elite athletes’ emigration control solutions”
in the selective coding stage, in the form of two main
categories of incentive solutions and policy solutions from
15 extracted subcategories.
Table 5. Categories and subcategories of “Consequences of emigration of elite athletes” in the selective coding stage
category row concept
Sports
Consequences
1Weakening the power of national sports in Iran
2 Weakening the sports gene bank of Iran
3Impairing the popularity and acceptance of elite athletes and public dissatisfaction with
this group in Iran
4Deprivation of opportunities from other domestic athletes through spending material and
non-material resources to nurture elite athletes who have immigrated to Iran
Economic
consequences 1Loss of nancial resources of the country of origin when investing in the upbringing of
elite athletes and large sums of money leaving the country when using them
Social-cultural
consequences
1Inducing a sense of hopelessness and social frustration in the community and youth in Iran
2Increasing the emigration rate among elite youth through validation of the migration
phenomenon in Iran
3Reducing the eect of athletes’ validation on cultural and social issues in Iran
4Placing athletes from one country against each other in a foreign tournament and creating
psychological pressure on the people of that country
Security
- Political
Consequences
1 Inducing the feeling of ineciency in the political and managerial system of the country
2Weakening the national brand of the country in the world through losing elite athletes as
cultural ambassadors and identity-making tools of the community
3Political activities of elite athletes against their country when immigrating to a country
with a political regime opposed to Iran
Table 6. Categories and subcategories of “Strategies to control the emigration of elite athletes” in the selective coding
stage
Category row concept
Incentive
strategies
1Considering the appropriate facilities regarding military service (such as reducing the
time or even eliminating it, etc.) for elite male athletes
2Providing professional facilities related to continuing education, employment, housing,
etc. for elite athletes
3Development of individual and social life indices
4Membership of elite athletes in the general assemblies of the relevant sports federations
5Employing elite athletes in programmes related to the development of sports at the
basic levels and improving the status of a sport

50
Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
In the third step of data analysis, which is the theo-
retical coding stage, the researcher seeks to combine and
integrate the categories and subcategories obtained in
the actual coding stage in a communication model. This
coding stage allows the researcher to think analytically
about the possible link between the categories.
In the Glaserian approach to the Grounded Theory
method for combining actual codes, patterns have been
introduced that are not unique and that even signicantly
overlap with each other. Also, one family can strength-
en another family and create a new family. In fact, in
each of the coding groups, without providing a specic
schematic pattern, Glaser refers to a set of words, each
of which can be a guide in combining the actual codes
and leave the researcher free to combine the catego-
ries and model without determining the way the words
are linked.
For instance, four examples of a coding family are:
1. The 6 C`s Family: a set of words related to causes
or factors, results or consequences, contingen-
cies, text, conditions and covariances.
2. Type family: a set of words that refer to types,
such as forms, styles, classes, etc.
3. Process family: a set of words that refer to pro-
cesses, such as stages, phases, chains, progres-
sions, etc.
4. Cultural family: This family includes a set of
words that refer to cultural phenomena, such as
social norms, social values, social beliefs, etc.
(Xudong & Liang, 2020).
With the investigations carried out by the researcher
regarding the relationship of categories and subcategories
with each other, it seems that in the current research, the
“6C’s family” provides the possibility of integrating the
Category row concept
Policy
strategies
1Approving laws related to nancial and non-nancial support of the government to elite
athletes of all sports and reassuring them
2Formulating long-term and structured programmes by the country’s sports managers
regarding the development of sports talents in various elds
3
Handing over a signicant part of Iran’s sports to the private sector, providing special
concessions from the government to investors in this area, and less involvement of
politicians in sports decisions
4Codied plans for federations and sports clubs for more revenue and nancial
independence
5Focusing on and adhering to meritocracy in dierent parts of the country’s sports and
avoiding family connections and personal decisions
6Familiarizing elite athletes with the rules, regulations and legal principles of
professional sports
7Providing special privileges and facilitating the rules for starting a sports business
through the elite athletes
8Providing programmes to strengthen the sense of patriotism of elite athletes
9More attention of mass media and ocials to elite athletes and their involvement in the
country’s sports decisions
10 More justice among elite athletes in various sports and not focusing solely on football
Figure 1. Glaser 6C family model (Neill & Coyne, 2018)

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
51
categories in the best possible way. The following gure
shows this framework.
Finally, the model obtained from the research is
demonstrated in Figure 2.
Discussion and Conclusions
The issue of the emigration of elite athletes, who are
a symbol of a nation in international forums, as a socio-
logical phenomenon is aected by various factors and will
have various consequences and reections on the growth
and development process of countries. According to the
current research ndings, among the factors inuencing
the emigration of elite Iranian athletes, some factors are
seen as more signicant and prioritized by the interview-
ees. This is because most interviewees emphasized these
factors and dedicated more interview time to them. These
factors are, in order, economic factors, political-legal
factors, socio-cultural factors, professional factors, and
personal factors. With regards to each of these categories:
• For economic factors, the interviewees highlight-
ed the “lack of stability and uncertainty of the
economic future in Iran, as well as budgetary
and revenue challenges faced by the country’s
sports organizations.”
• Concer ning the political-legal factors, the inter-
viewees pointed out the “imposition of political
and economic sanctions against Iran by other
countries and the diminishing of Iran’s national
brand on the global stage.”
• Regarding socio-cultural factors, they mentioned
the “cult ural, religious, and spir itual restr ictions,
the diminishing of social and civic freedoms,
such as issues related to the hijab, the restrictive
societal environment, and imposed behavioral
patterns.”
• For professional factors, the interviewees empha-
sized the “lack of meritocracy and performance
orientation, as well as the prevalence of nepotism
across various sectors of professional sports in
Ira n .”
• In terms of personal factors, they spoke of the
“desire to prove one’s athletic abilities to others
when placed in the right conditions and the assur-
ance of a bright sports future in the destination
cou n t r y.”
A detailed examination of these factors has been car-
ried out in the continuation of the research.
As mentioned, the most critical component related to
economic factors is the “lack of stability and uncertainty
of the economic future in Iran and the budgetary and
Figure 2. Pattern from data analysis in the theoretical coding stage

52
Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
income issues of the country’s sports organizations” as
this issue weakens and reduces the income opportunities,
welfare and facilities related to the scientic and sports
elites of this country. Also, bad economic conditions can
broadly indicate the unfavourable state of the country in
other political, social and cultural dimensions, because if
a country is economically in a suitable growth condition,
it shows less corruption among the rulers and politicians,
more cultural and social development of the society and
the correct implementation of the laws. It also shows the
eciency of the various organizations and institutions of
the country, which can signicantly reduce the desire of
elite athletes to emigrate from the country. In addition, the
country’s economic stability is an important issue in the
phenomenon of the emigration of Iranian elite athletes. In
countries like Iran, where the economy is in an unstable
state, prices and ination increase and purchasing power
and the level of well-being decrease, causing dissatisfac-
tion among dierent sections of society, including elite
athletes. Moreover, in the country’s inationary condi-
tions, the value of the national currency decreases with
the increase in the exchange rate. Therefore, instability
in the economy increases the risk of dierent econom-
ic activities in dierent sectors, including sports, after
which the volume of production activities, services, and
investment in various sports sectors will decrease and
lead to more dependence of sports on government budgets
and job insecurity for Iranian elite athletes. This causes
their unemployment and lack of sucient income, both
at working age and in retirement. They take jobs that are
lower status than they expected, which, in addition to the
economic eects, has a damaging psychological eect.
The athletes in this study believe unemployment or having
a low income is a signicant deterrent in Iran. Especially
in disciplines with no organized league, athletes cannot
consider sports their primary source of income and see
their professional future as unstable. Additionally, they
stated that during their presence in training camps and
competitive trips to other countries, they distinctly feel the
dierence in welfare conditions. The inadequate nancial
and economic infrastructure in Iran also diminishes the
limited nancial support from the government for sports.
In such circumstances, they tolerate economic pressures
to a certain extent, but when they reach a point where
continuing in these conditions no longer seems logical,
deciding to migrate becomes the most logical solution.
Political-legal factors are among other factors aect-
ing the emigration of Iranian elite athletes. For example,
sanctions have created problems for this country in various
sectors, including professional sports and related actions.
Problems such as not being able to issue bank guarantees
and transfer money abroad, problems in issuing visas for
the participation of Iranian athletes in some world tour-
naments, the suspension or unclear status of important
sports contracts and memorandums with other countries,
problems related to the import or export of sports goods,
and the termination of cooperation of many companies or
organizations with the country’s sports are all issues that
can lead to a decline in the quality of Iranian sports. Along
with the negative publicity in the international media,
this adds to the weakening of Iran’s national brand at the
global level and creates more motivation for the emigra-
tion of Iranian elite athletes. In addition, to strengthen or
improve the state of their national sports, some countries
have sought to establish more accessible rules and poli-
cies regarding the acceptance of elite immigrant athletes
and granting them citizenship. Also, international sports
organizations, such as the International Olympic Com-
mittee or international sports federations, also support
this issue in many cases.
The incompetence and ineciency of Iran’s man-
agement system can be another essential political-legal
factor aecting the emigration of elite athletes in this
country. This factor, along with the harmful eects it will
bring to various aspects of the country’s administration,
has led to the presence of politicians and their political
tendencies in the country’s sports and their interference
in the elections of sports organizations and boards. In
doing so, politicians try to appoint people follow their
demands and policies, rather than considering the needs
of the athletes of that discipline. This issue can threaten
the professional future of elite athletes with poor deci-
sions, such as banning participation in an important and
global event or not competing and facing an athlete from
a country with policies contrary to their own country. As
a result, some athletes prefer to migrate to other countries
and compete for those countries in order to maintain and
improve their professional future. Indeed, according to
the views of some sports directors, deputies and research
professors who participated in this study, what leads to
the dominance of strategic thoughts in the eld of sports
and its further growth and progress is managerial stability
and the elimination of political interference, which are
rarely seen in Iran’s sports.
On the other hand, sports in Iran strongly depend on
the government, and due to its spread in various pub-
lic, championship and professional sectors, more than
the budget allocated for it is needed, especially in the
championship and professional sectors. In the meantime,
a tiny share of sports has been given to the private sector
and the amount of government support for this sector is
minimal. There are also complicated rules for this han-
dover, which makes the process very time-consuming,
tiring and expensive, so that many investors have less
desire to invest in and support professional sports and its
income-generating benets have not been well presented
to them. The continuation of these conditions strengthens
the dependence of sports on the government and reduces

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
53
their dynamism, making generating income in sports
a severe problem. This issue reinforces the motivation of
many elite athletes to emigrate from the country.
Iran’s social-cultural factors also inuence the emigra-
tion of elite athletes from this country because a society
that is not in a suitable position in this regard is bound to
be indierent to the status of sport and its elite athletes.
Currently, sport is considered as one of the essential in-
dicators of development in any society, and neglecting it
is considered a weakness of that society’s culture. The
existence of such conditions has caused the feelings and
wishes of elite athletes not to be appreciated as the coun-
tr y’s human capital, and the ocials and mass media have
been indierent towards them. As a result, it discourages
them from their own society and can be the basis for the
decision of elite athletes to migrate to other countries.
Another signicant factor inuenced by cultural-social
aspects is the weakening sense of patriotism and nation-
alism that aects the emigration of elite Iranian athletes.
According to participants in this research, there has been
an increase in societal indierence and a departure from
collective identity in recent years, which can impact indi-
viduals’ perceptions of their national identity. The feelings
of individuals, including elite Iranian athletes, towards
their society and country are more inuenced by a sense
of injustice, social satisfaction, and public trust than by
personal factors. Consequently, it might be argued that the
current state of Iranian societ y diminishes the elite athletes’
perception of their national identity, reduces the diculty of
detaching from national and identity ties, makes migration
hardships more bearable, and thus leads to an increase in
the migration of elite Iranian athletes to other countries.
Also, in countries such as Iran, there are many cultural,
religious and political restrictions that reduce the social
and civil liberties of people, including elite athletes. Im-
posed behavioral patterns also emerge. According to the
athletes participating in the study, they must adhere to
specic behavioral patterns during competitions, camps,
and deployments that have no connection to their athletic
performance and go against their wishes, thereby curtail-
ing their freedoms. Most of the athletes in this research
believe restrictive societal rules are a signicant factor in
their decision to migrate from Iran. Requirements stem-
ming from the type of governing system in Iran, found
mainly in countries with religious governance, have led
to a clause in the constitution named “upholding Islamic
values.” This clause, alongside “protecting the system’s
interests,” has imposed various restrictions on many of
the personal freedoms of the Iranian populace, including
elite athletes. Diering interpretations of these clauses
have sometimes prevented the formation of women’s
teams, hindered sending teams to certain competitions,
forced athletes to refrain from competing with certain
countries and obliged athletes to follow specic behaviors.
Therefore, it could be said that insisting on these non-tech-
nical issues has not been ineective, even when it comes
to discrimination against minorities, ethnicities, sports
branches, and women’s sports, leading to an increase in
the migration of elite Iranian athletes from the country.
Issues like the mandatory observance of the Islamic hi-
jab for women athletes, the implementation of imposed be-
haviour patterns and the closed space that, in many cases,
encourages elite athletes to live in a modern environment
and away from traditional and religious prejudices, is the
basis for their migration to other countries. It should be
noted that all of these restrictions in Iran are much greater
for women than for men. Female professional athletes in
this country are paid much less than male professional
athletes. There are many problems and limitations on
professional sports facilities and equipment, and women
need to be better supported by the government and the
private sector. Also, as regards Iran’s political and reli-
gious conditions, the issue of women athletes’ clothing
when participating in international sports competitions is
of great concern to ocials and managers. In some cases,
their participation in some international competitions
is prevented. This issue can waste years of the athlete’s
eort and make her angry and upset. The attention of the
authorities to the wearing of the hijab by female athletes
has caused proper media coverage of their sports events
in the country, and this issue itself is one of the import-
ant reasons that fewer nancial sponsors are willing to
support women’s sports in the country. Even after years
since the issue of women entering sports stadiums was
raised, many women in Iran are not allowed to enter sports
stadiums. Only in a small number of large cities and only
for selected competitions are a limited number of women
allowed to participate, and this depends on meeting the
conditions set for them in terms of clothing. In recent
years, all of these issues have caused the dissatisfaction of
many women in this country and their protests. It is also
known to be one of the factors that have deprived Iran of
the possibility of hosting many sports events.
Other factors aecting the emigration of Iranian elite
athletes are professional factors, the most important of
which is non-compliance with a system of meritocracy
and the relationship-oriented system in the country’s
sports, which is a signicant problem in management and
search for talent in professional sports. It is also considered
an obstacle to its development. Most of the researchers,
administrators, deputies and sports coaches participating
in this study emphasized that managing organizational
environments, including sports organizations, inherently
requires a comprehensive understanding of the nature
of the groups and the duties of those under supervision,
which in turn requires general and specialized skills and
competencies. They stated that the existing management
system in Iranian sports organizations disregards the

54
Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
necessary expertise and principles for management. How-
ever, the dominance of non-technical and non-perfor-
mance-based criteria leaves no room for the activities of
specialized individuals. In fact, the selection of managers
in the eld of professional sports based on the existence
of relationships, rather than competence, has led to the
weakening of the count ry’s spor ts management str ucture.
Their lack of understanding of the professional sports
environment and the primary and vital needs of elite
athletes is basis for the emergence of many injustices
and discriminations within and outside of disciplines in
the sports environment. In addition, it causes unequal
distribution of facilities, opportunities and their extreme
attention to some popular media elds such as football
and little attention to other areas of sport. To the extent
that it is even possible in some elds, coherent and or-
ganized professional leagues will not be created. Such
issues increase dissatisfaction and disagreement between
athletes and the authorities and provide the conditions for
elite athletes to migrate after receiving attractive nancial
and welfare oers from other countries.
Various personal situations are also a key factor aect-
ing the phenomenon of elite athletes’ emigration from Iran.
One of the most important is the athlete’s eort to prove
himself and his sports capabilities to others if he is placed in
more favourable conditions, achieves more sports successes,
and critici zes the existing conditions in his country. More-
over, Many Iranian elite athletes have migrated to gain new
experiences and stand alongside other famous athletes and
coaches, improving their work and professional resumes
and the favourable living and working conditions of other
elite athletes and their success, which gives them stronger
motivation. Another important issue related to the personal
aspects of emigration is having better and more personal
and family comfort, prosperity and gaining condence
in the future. Even during retirement, it reduces related
worries and leads to a more peaceful life, which is a pow-
erful motivator for elite athletes to migrate. Consequently,
according to the participants in this research, it can be said
that personal factors can play a signicant role in choosing
the path to achieve professional goals. Individuals have
varying character traits, such as their degree of optimism,
their hierarchy of needs, an inclination towards hedonism,
levels of motivation, and emotional dependencies. These
factors can inuence their decision to pursue professional
goals in a dierent environment.
The migration of elite athletes can bring many positive
and negative consequences in various economic, sports,
cultural-social and security-political dimensions for the
country of origin and destination. Currently, the economic
development of countries depends on their human capi-
tal more than any other factor. Human capital is known
as the most crucial tool for achieving development in
a country, in such a way that if a country has sucient
natural resources and capital, but insucient and ecient
human resources, it will not be successful. Cer tainly, one
of the most inuential human capitals for any countr y and
symbols in international forums are its elite athletes. The
activity of elite athletes at the championship and profes-
sional level is a place where huge sums are exchanged at
the global level in the sports industry. If a country does
not succeed in maintaining its elite athletes, after spending
money on their education and training, it will not be able
to perform correctly and attract the sports elites of other
countries. In this way, a one-way ow will be formed to
the benet of the immigrant-receiving countries, mostly
developed countries, and to the detriment of the immi-
grant-sending countries, mostly developing countries.
Over many years, this issue, along with other factors
aecting the economy of a country, can slow economic
growth in developing countries and deepen the gap be-
tween them and developed countries, due to developing
countries exporting their elite human capital to advanced
industrial countries in order to accelerate the economic
growth and development of those industrialized countries.
Another issue concerning the emigration of Iranian
elite athletes is the social-cultural consequences for the
country. Elite athletes usually attract the attention of
people. Many of their actions, behaviours and words are
broadcast in the media and many young people choose
them as their role models. If they decide to emigrate for
a brighter personal future and express dissatisfaction
with the country’s internal conditions to justify their
move, they can induce a sense of despair in the country
and strengthen social frustration among young people,
leading to an increased rate of migration, particularly
among young people and the elites.
The security-political consequences are another critical
eect of the emigration of Iranian elite athletes. These
people, as essential human capital and cultural ambassa-
dors of the country, have induced a sense of ineciency
of the political and administrative system of the country
among their fellow citizens and globally. This can signi-
cantly reduce the status of Iran’s national brand, which
is determined by a set of political, cultural, social and
economic factors. Because the state of a country, politi-
cally and managerially, will determine the performance
of politicians and ocials in other economic, cultural
and social dimensions. If the political and managerial
dimension of the country is weak, other dimensions will
not have suitable and acceptable conditions. As a result,
the continuation of these conditions increases the desire
of elite athletes and other country elites to migrate.
According to the above, in order to deal with the phe-
nomenon of the emigration of Iranian elite athletes, dif-
ferent incentives and policy solutions could be employed.
Incentive strategies provide internal and external incen-
tives to Iranian athletes and top sports talents in order to

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2023, 101,
41–57
55
encourage them to stay in the homeland. These incentives
include the provision of facilities related to employment,
housing and marriage, men’s military status, continuing
education in related elds, the membership of elite ath-
letes in the general assemblies of sports federations of the
relevant elds, and so on. It is possible to help develop
sports talents and gain honour for the country with the
proper education and training of elite athletes from the
beginning of their activities, as well as the development
of individual and social life indicators, providing them
with professional facilities and familiarizing them with
professional laws, regulations and legal principles.
Political strategies can also be ver y eective in dealing
with the emigration of elite athletes. Among the most
meaningful solutions, we can enumerate the approval
of laws related to providing more nancial, livelihood
and social welfare facilities for elite athletes and the ap-
proval of laws related to nancial and spiritual support
of professional sports. When an issue becomes law, its
implementation becomes necessary and many obstacles
are removed from its implementation. In addition, the
government should consider special conditions and priv-
ileges for investors in professional sports so that it can
transfer a large part of the country’s sports to the private
sector, create a more competitive environment in sports,
and provide more nancial income for sports. Other im-
portant and eective strategies are less involvement of
politicians in professional sports aairs and emphasis on
meritocracy instead of family connections. In this way,
qualied people take over the management of dierent
sports sectors of the country and can make appropriate
plans for their growth and development with their knowl-
edge, by treating athletes of dierent elds with more
justice, imagining a hopeful future for them in terms of
personal and professional life, and encouraging them to
stay in the country and make it proud.
Competing interests
None of the authors have nancial, interpersonal, or
other connections to other people or organizations that
would create a conict of interest.
Funding
There was no external funding for this study.
Acknowledgements
Our sincere thanks go out to all the interviewees who
generously shared their time and ideas.
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