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Journal of Education and Training Studies
Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
ISSN 2324-805X E-ISSN 2324-8068
Published by Redfame Publishing
URL: http://jets.redfame.com
64
Effective Classroom Management Training to Promote Better Education:
Changes in Pre-service Teacher Strategies after Triad Debriefing
Laëtitia Delbart
1
, Christophe Baco
1
, Marie Bocquillon
1
, Antoine Derobertmasure
1
1
Methodology and Training Unit, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
Correspondence: Laëtitia Delbart, Methodology and Training Unit, University of Mons, Place du parc, 18, 7000 Mons,
Belgium.
Received: September 8, 2023 Accepted: October 24, 2023 Online Published: November 9, 2023
doi:10.11114/jets.v12i1.6516 URL: https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v12i1.6516
Abstract
Throughout the world, training teachers in effective classroom management strategies is a major societal challenge. It is
important for pre-service teachers to receive feedback on specific classroom management strategies from their trainers
(supervisor and cooperating teacher), using an observation tool and ideally a video recording of their practice. Yet little
is known about the evolution of pre-service teachers' actual classroom management practices during their internships
and the feedback they receive from their trainers. This article therefore presents the evolution of the actual practices of
pre-service French-speaking Belgian teachers observed on two occasions during their internships (Observation 1 and
Observation 2). It also presents the link between the feedback given by the trainers and the intentions to act expressed
by the pre-service teacher during the debriefing following the first observation (O1) and the strategies implemented by
the pre-service teachers during the second observation (O2). To this end, an observation grid inserted into an
observation software was used live in secondary school classrooms, and the debriefings were recorded and then
analyzed. By comparing the feedback and intentions to act expressed during the debriefings with the actual strategies of
the pre-service teachers, it was possible to identify which feedback and intentions to act were actually implemented by
the pre-service teachers, on the basis of observable indicators. The results point to a number of positive developments in
pre-service teachers' practices, and indicate certain avenues for improvement. They also show that pre-service teachers
followed half the feedback given to them by their trainers. The results provide a basis for formulating ways of training
teachers in effective classroom management.
Keywords: pre-service teacher training, effective classroom management, observation, debriefing, triad, cooperating
teacher, supervisor
1. Introduction
1.1 The Importance of Classroom Management
Around the world, training teachers to be highly competent in classroom management in order to promote quality
education is a key issue, as classroom management is one of the main difficulties encountered by both novice and
experienced teachers (e.g., Dufour, 2010; Gagné et al., 2021). This difficulty is even one of the main reasons for the
"reality shock" experienced by novice teachers (OECD, 2018) and one of the main reasons for their early dropout (e.g.,
Jackson et al., 2013). In fact, classroom management is as much a part of the teaching profession as learning
management. While learning management concerns the content to be taught, classroom management refers to the
classroom climate. Several researchers have proposed definitions of classroom management (Gaudreau, 2017;
Bissonnette et al., 2016, Nault & Lacourse, 2016), which translates into reflective, sequential, and simultaneous actions
by the teacher, with the aim of establishing, maintaining, or restoring a climate that fosters student engagement in their
learning and avoids misbehavior detrimental to that learning.
Furthermore, classroom management has a major impact on students' academic success (e.g., Hattie, 2009). In fact, in
well-managed classrooms, where a positive and reassuring climate is in place, students engage in fewer misbehaviors
and more time is devoted to teaching. The conditions are therefore better for learning (e.g., Dufour, 2010). As presented
in the next section, in order to train future teachers in effective classroom management strategies, pre-service training
programs can draw on research into effective classroom management.
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
65
1.2 Effective Classroom Management
Numerous empirical investigations and research syntheses (e.g., Bissonnette et al., 2016; Charlton et al., 2021; Egeberg
et al., 2016; Horner et al., 2010, Knoster, 2014; Korpershoek et al., 2016; Sugai & Horner, 2009; Wills et al., 2023;
Zoder-Martell et al., 2023) have highlighted effective classroom management strategies, i.e., those that "establish and
sustain an orderly environment so students can engage in meaningful academic learning" and "enhance students’ social
and moral growth" (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006, p. 4). There are two types of strategies: preventive and corrective.
Preventive classroom management strategies are implemented to prevent misbehavior and foster a positive classroom
climate (e.g., strategies to establish a positive relationship between teachers and students, explicit instruction of
expected behaviors, etc.) (Bissonnette et al., 2016; Marzano et al., 2003). Nevertheless, these strategies are not
sufficient, and teachers must resort, in certain situations, to "corrective" strategies to manage student misbehavior when
it occurs. Corrective classroom management strategies manage these misbehaviors through a graduated system of
nonverbal strategies (e.g., approaching a disruptive student, putting a hand on their desk, etc.) and verbal strategies (e.g.,
reminding the student of the expected behavior, asking the student to make amends, etc.) (Bissonnette et al., 2016;
Knoster, 2014). Research also points to the ineffectiveness of certain strategies, such as using verbal reprimands without
making the expected behavior explicit, or shouting (Bissonnette et al., 2016; Rhode et al., 1993).
To implement effective classroom management strategies, teachers need to be trained in them, starting with their initial
training. Initial teacher training alternates between the training institution and the professional environment during
internships (Baco et al., 2023). The rest of this text presents teaching internships and the importance of debriefings and
feedback in supporting pre-service teachers’ learning of effective classroom management strategies.
1.3 Internships as an Opportunity for Classroom Management Training
While teacher training must base its content (in this case, behavior management) on research findings, it must also
enable pre-service teachers to practice implementing these strategies. To this end, internships are fundamental, and it is
more their quality (and especially the quality of their supervision by professionals) than their length that has an impact
on the professional development of pre-service teachers (Haas et al., 2022). Indeed, to support the trainee's professional
development, it is vital that pre-service teachers receive feedback on their practices from their trainers (Cutrer-Párraga
et al., 2023): the cooperating teacher (the teacher welcoming a pre-service teacher into their classroom) and the
supervisor (the trainer from the training institution). During internships, triad debriefings (between the pre-service
teacher, cooperating teacher and supervisor) are ideally held after the trainers have observed a lesson by the pre-service
teacher (Portelance & Caron, 2017). Relationships within the triad are not neutral. This can have an impact on the
debriefings and professional development of the pre-service teacher. For example, the trainers' expectations and
assessments do not necessarily coincide, and there may also be a hierarchical relationship between the representative of
the training institution and the cooperating teacher (Bullough & Draper, 2004), which can make the pre-service teacher
confused, not knowing which advice to follow.
During debriefings, trainers may adopt a more or less directive supervisory style (Crasborn et al., 2011). In order to
effectively train pre-service teachers in classroom management, these different styles need to be mobilized appropriately,
depending on the needs of the pre-service teacher. For example, directive styles, such as instructional coaching (De
Jager et al., 2002) or modeling (e.g., Cutrer-Párraga et al., 2022), can be very effective in learning different ways of
teaching. Then, the pre-service teacher can mobilize and adapt these strategies to the different contexts they encounter.
To support their observation and prepare feedback, the trainer can be equipped (Banville & Rikard, 2001; Bocquillon,
2020; Bocquillon et al., 2018) as presented in the following section.
1.3.1 The Importance of Equipped Feedback
Feedback, which can be defined as providing information to the learner about their performance (Hattie & Timperley,
2007), is one of the elements with the greatest impact on learning (e.g., Good & Brophy, 2008; Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
In practical teacher training, it is used to improve pre-service teachers’ skills (Van de Ridder et al., 2008). However,
feedback is an interpretive process influenced by many factors, its preparation requires great care and can be equipped.
Several factors influence feedback. For example, communication between trainer and trainee may be limited by the
degree to which they share a common perception of the performance in question (Dye, 2007). This perception can be
influenced by various factors, such as the memory of the trainer and the pre-service teacher, as well as the trainer's
expectations, values, interests, and previous experience (Dye, 2007). Thus, each observer tends to create their
observation system based on ideal teaching practices, some based on research and/or educational theories, and others
based on personal preferences, resulting in highly varied feedback, each depending on the observer (Stuhlman et al.,
2009). Moreover, some feedback is too general and not specific enough, i.e., it does not focus on specific teaching
strategies (Struyk & McCoy, 1993). Yet, according to several authors (e.g., Marzano et al., 2011; Stuhman et al., 2009),
it is more effective to provide pre-service teachers with targeted feedback on specific pedagogical strategies rather than
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
66
general comments on their practices. In order to objectively observe a performance and provide specific feedback to the
pre-service teacher based on their actual practice, the trainer can use an observation grid (Banville & Rikard, 2001;
Bocquillon, 2020). To take this a step further, it is also possible to show the (pre-service) teacher a recording of their
practice and formulate feedback regarding their filmed performance (Bocquillon, 2020; Knight et al., 2015). This is all
the more necessary, as previous research conducted by our team has highlighted that pre-service teachers find it difficult
to describe their practices objectively (e.g. Derobertmasure et al., 2015). Feedback can therefore be prepared on the
basis of actual performance analyzed using a grid of specific observable behaviors whose effectiveness has been
demonstrated (e.g., Good & Brophy, 2008; Stuhlman et al., 2009). This overcomes many of the limitations of the
feedback commonly given to pre-service teachers. This type of equipped feedback is also at the heart of instructional
coaching, a coaching method that can be used in pre-service and in-service training (Rock et al., 2013). Instructional
coaches “(a) partner with teachers to (b) analyze current reality, (c) set goals, (d) identify and explain teaching strategies
to hit the goals, and (e) provide support until the goals are met” (Knight, 2019, p. 7). This includes visiting classrooms
to observe teachers and give them specific advice on how to improve their practice (Hammond & Moore, 2018). This
type of coaching can also be carried out remotely by filming teachers and providing them with advice via
videoconferencing. This advice can also be given on-the-spot, unobtrusively, while (pre-service) teachers are teaching,
as proposed by Rock and colleagues (2013; 2014). Several research studies have highlighted the positive effect of
coaching programs on changing teachers' practices (e.g. Baco, 2022; De Jager et al., 2002; Hammond & Moore, 2018;
Knight, 2019; Rock et al., 20092014), student engagement (e.g. Knight, 2019; Rock et al., 2009; 2014) or student
outcomes (e.g. Gunn et al., 2021).
1.4 Research Questions
Despite the importance of training pre-service teachers in classroom management, very little is known about the actual
classroom management strategies of pre-service teachers and how they evolve over the course of their internships.
Previous research (Bocquillon, 2020) has shed light on the learning management strategies of pre-service teachers.
However, the results of this research highlight the need for a more precise study of pre-service teachers' classroom
management strategies. What's more, very little is known about the feedback actually given to pre-service teachers in
internship situations and its effectiveness. The present study, in the field of classroom management, investigates some of
the perspectives proposed by Cutrer-Párraga and colleagues (2023), in the Journal of Education and Training Studies,
who explain that future research should quantify the influence of feedback on teachers' practices. Considering this lack
of research, this article aims to answer the following two research questions:
1. How do pre-service teachers' classroom management strategies evolve on two occasions during their internship
(Observation 1 and Observation 2)?
2. During the second observation (O2), do the pre-service teachers implement the feedback given to them by the
university supervisor and the cooperating teacher and the intentions to act they expressed during the triad debriefing (D)
at the end of the first observation (O1)?
To this end, as part of a training program for pre-service teachers intending to teach in grades 4, 5 and 6 of secondary
school in French-speaking Belgium (which corresponds to the "High School" level in the USA), pre-service teachers
were observed on two occasions. These observations were carried out using an innovative observation tool consisting of
an observation grid developed from the scientific literature on effective classroom management (e.g., Bissonnette et al.,
2016; Marzano et al., 2003) inserted into an observation software program (Vosaic). This tool enables each pre-service
teacher to receive feedback based on precise observations by the supervisor, synchronized to the video of their
performance. It is an adaptation of a tool previously developed by our team (Bocquillon, 2020; Bocquillon et al., 2018).
This adaptation enables more precise observation of the classroom management strategies of pre-service teachers. The
feedback delivered by the supervisor to the pre-service teachers using this tool was also recorded and analyzed, as was
the feedback formulated by the cooperating teacher and the intentions to act formulated by the pre-service teachers (i.e.,
the avenues of improvement they propose to implement in their next lessons), as presented in the methodology section.
This research will provide scientific knowledge on the actual classroom management practices of pre-service teachers
and on the feedback they receive during internships. It will also provide a set of suggestions for improving teacher
training, both in French-speaking Belgium and more widely.
2. Methodology
A multi-case study was carried out as this allows us to articulate the understanding of each case with its context, while
going beyond the focus on a single case (Maes et al., 2019; Mills & Gay, 2019). This is relevant, as the internship
context presents both permanent features (presence of a cooperating teacher, age of pupils, duration of lessons, etc.) and
differences (number of pupils, socio-economic level of the school, etc.) and information on several cases is needed to
identify possible recurrences between observations.
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2.1 Data Collection Methodology
2.1.1 The Participants
As shown in Table 1, this study was carried out with three pre-service teachers (PST) enrolled on a teacher training
program for upper-secondary level: two pre-service teachers in economics and management (one male and one female)
and one pre-service teacher in psychology and education. These three pre-service teachers were the only ones of the
seven pre-service teachers enrolled on this program to meet the inclusion criteria for this research, i.e., the only ones to
have participated in the entire practical training program. The training was carried out in two phases. The first phase
was from September to December, at the training institution, with activities to prepare for the internship (including a
micro-teaching session) and theoretical sessions (including one on classroom management). The second phase ran from
January to June, in the field, with internship visits. This article is based on the two internship visits that were filmed and
followed up by a triad debriefing.
The pre-service teachers completed two 20-hour internships between January and June 2023. These two internships
were organized with different cooperating teachers in different contexts. The supervisor (a teacher at the training
institution and supervisor for two years) (SUP) carried out all the observations and took part in all the debriefings. She
had also been a teacher in upper secondary education for 8 years. The cooperating teachers (CT) had varied lengths of
service as teachers, from 7 years (CT3) to over 30 years (CT2). Two of them had supervised between 1 and 4
pre-service teachers, and one cooperating teacher had supervised between 5 and 10 pre-service teachers (CT1). None of
the cooperating teachers had undergone any specific training in supervising internships.
Table 1. Description of sample
Tria
d
Pre-service teacher Cooperating teache
r
Superviso
r
Sex Studies Length of
service as a
teacher
(in years)
N
umber of
pre-service
teachers
supervised
Length of
service as a
supervisor
(in years)
Length of service
as a teacher in
secondary schools
(in years)
1 Female Psychology and
education
12 5 to 10 2 8
2 Female Economics and
mana
g
emen
t
More than 30 1 to 4
3 Male Economics and
mana
g
emen
t
71 to 4
2.1.2 The Recordings
As shown in Table 2, the filmed lessons have an average duration of 42 minutes and 17 seconds, for a total of 253
minutes 47 seconds. The shortest observation was 38 minutes and 2 seconds (PST3_O11), and the longest was 45
minutes and 38 seconds (PST1_O2). Post-lesson debriefings were recorded in an ecological context and took place in
the classroom, directly after the pre-service teacher's performance. During these exchanges, the supervisor was the only
one to use the classroom management observation grid, which is detailed below. The duration of the exchanges varied
from 19 minutes 37 seconds to 26 minutes 11 seconds, for a total of 68 minutes and 3 seconds. The difference in the
length of post-lesson debriefings can be explained by contextual factors (e.g., length of break, last class of the day, etc.)
(Ben-Peretz & Rumney, 1991).
Table 2. Recording duration
Triad Duration of observation 1 Duration of debriefing Duration of observation 2
1 44 min 11 s 26 min 11 s 45 min 38 s
2 40 min 45 s 22 min 15 s 39 min 39 s
3 38 min 2 s 19 min 37 s 45 min 32 s
Total 122 min 58 s 68 min 3 s 130 min 49 s
1 In the following text, the following abbreviations are used: the number after the triad actor refers to the triad number (pre-service
teacher (PST), cooperating teacher (CT) and supervisor (SUP)). For example, "PST1" refers to the pre-service teacher of triad 1. "O"
refers to the observation. O1 refers to the first observation and O2 to the second.
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
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2.2 Analysis Methodology
2.2.1 Observation Grid for Classroom Management Strategies
When the supervisor comes to observe the pre-service teacher, they code (Struyk & McCoy, 1993) the classroom
management strategies implemented by the pre-service teacher on the basis of an observation grid inserted into an
observation software program (Vosaic). The term "coding" means that the supervisor identifies all the classroom
management strategies and classifies them in one of the categories of the observation grid described below. The Vosaic
software was chosen based on the typology of Bocquillon and colleagues (2022), as it enables live video to be coded
and recorded simultaneously. In this study, the supervisor used two Apple® tablets (iPad): one to record the video and
the second to code simultaneously. All data (video and code) was synchronized on the tablet which filmed the
pre-service teacher's performance without an Internet connection (via Bluetooth). The result of the video-synchronized
coding was used by the supervisor during the post-lesson debriefings to provide feedback to the pre-service teacher
based on their actual performance. Figure 1 shows the device used to record and code the performance of the
pre-service teachers live in ecological situations (secondary school classrooms).
Figure 1. Device presentation (Bocquillon et al., 2022a, p. 514)
The observation grid is an operationalization of the scientific literature on effective classroom management (e.g.,
Bissonnette et al., 2016; Marzano et al., 2003; Hollingsworth & Ybarra, 2009) carried out to information saturation
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967). It follows previous work on observing the pedagogical strategies of pre-service teachers (e.g.,
Bocquillon, 2020). It includes two sub-groups of categories: preventive strategies and corrective strategies used by
teachers. These strategies are broken down into categories, sub-categories and modalities (if necessary) as shown in
Figure 2. The numbers in brackets indicate the number of modalities in each sub-category. The grid is also used to
record student misbehavior, which provides a better understanding of classroom management strategies implemented by
pre-service teachers.
Preventive strategies fall into four categories: managing resources (e.g., the teacher gives clear and precise instructions
on the time required to complete an activity), setting clear expectations (e.g., the teacher explicitly teaches a behavior
expected in class), developing social relationships with students (e.g., the teacher uses students' first names) and
keeping students on-task (e.g., the teacher randomly designates students to respond to their requests, allowing as many
as possible to do so). Corrective strategies are classified into three categories: indirect strategies (e.g., the teacher
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
69
Teacher's strategies
Preventive
strategies
Managing
resources
Managing space
Managing time (2)
Managing logistics
Setting clear
expectations
Teaching rules
Giving feedback
Developing
relationships
Using positive social strategies
Using negative social strategies
Keeping students
on-task
Grabbing students' attention
Managing participation (6)
Supervising activities
Corrective
strategies
Using indirect
strategies
Using non-verbal strategies
Intentionally ignoring a misbehaving student
Using direct
strategies
Using effective verbal strategies
Using verbal reprimands
Using strategies outside the classroom
Using punitive
strategies
Students' misbehavior
Minor misbehavior
Major misbehavior
approaches a disruptive student), direct strategies (e.g., the teacher reminds the student of the expected behavior) and
punitive strategies (e.g., the teacher yells at a student) (e.g., Bissonnette et al., 2016; Marzano et al., 2003; Rhode et al.,
1993). In order to enable the most accurate and comprehensive coding possible of the pre-service teacher's professional
practice, the grid also includes ineffective strategies, such as punitive strategies (e.g., the teacher yells at a student
following misbehavior) and negative social strategies (e.g., the teacher humiliates a student). By including these less
effective strategies in the observation grid, we are able to provide more comprehensive feedback to the pre-service
teacher, and offer them suggestions for improvement in their professional practice. The complete grid (Delbart et al.,
2023) is available at the following address: https://web.umons.ac.be/app/uploads/sites/103/2023/10/WP03-2023.pdf
Figure 2. Schematic view of the observation grid
2.2.2 Evaluation of Intentions to Act and Feedback Implementation
Following a previous study (Baco, 2022), in order to assess whether the trainers’ feedback and the pre-service teachers’
intentions to act were implemented by the pre-service teacher during the second observation, the debriefings conducted
at the end of the first observation were recorded. Then, all the feedback given by the trainers and the pre-service
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
70
teachers’ intentions to act were listed. After that, the feedback and intentions to act were classified into two categories:
those concerning observable behavior (e.g., the use of the student’s first name when naming) and those concerning
non-observable behavior (e.g., “the lesson went well” (SUP, D_PST1, 22 min 14) or another aspect of practice other
than classroom management (e.g., elements pertaining to learning management, such as the types of strategies
implemented to check student understanding). Next, all feedback and intentions to act on observable classroom
management behaviors expressed during the debriefing were collected and characterized using the grid presented in the
previous section. Finally, in O2, the implementation or lack of implementation of feedback or intentions to act on
observable classroom management behavior was identified based on the filmed performances. For example, if during
the debriefing, the trainer told the pre-service teacher to designate fewer students among the volunteers, the number of
designations among the volunteers was compared from one observation to the next (O1 vs. O2) in order to identify
whether or not the feedback was implemented during the second observation.
3. Results
This section presents the results in two stages. First, the evolution of pre-service teachers' classroom management
strategies is presented. Secondly, the evaluation of the implementation of trainers’ feedback and pre-service teachers'
intentions to act is presented.
3.1 The Evolution of Effective Classroom Management Strategies
Since the lessons varied in length (see Table 2), the results presented below were calculated for a standardized
40-minute lesson, so that observations could be compared from one lesson to the next (Bocquillon, 2020). On average,
during a lesson of standardized duration of 40 minutes, pre-service teachers implemented between 18 (PST2_O2) and
129 (PST3_O1) classroom management strategies, for an average of 99 classroom management strategies per lesson
during O1 and 61 strategies during O2. As the discussion shows, this significant variation between pre-service teachers
is due to contextual factors.
3.1.1 General Analysis of Pre-Service Teachers’ Classroom Management Strategies
During the two observations, all the pre-service teachers mostly opted for preventive strategies, as these accounted for
between 95% (PST3_O2) and 100% (PST2_O1; PST2_O2) of the classroom management strategies implemented.
Nevertheless, as shown in Figure 3, differences between the pre-service teachers can be highlighted. Pre-service
Teacher 1 used preventive strategies even more than corrective ones during the second observation (94 strategies or 99%
of the strategies implemented by PST1) compared to the first observation (104 strategies or 97% of the strategies).
Pre-service Teacher 2 used only preventive strategies in both observations. Pre-service Teacher 3 uses fewer preventive
strategies in the second observation (O2=67) than in the first (O1=126). However, if we take into account the proportion
of preventive classroom management strategies in relation to all classroom management strategies, the difference is less
marked, as preventive strategies represent 95% of the strategies mobilized during O2 versus 97% during O1. The
following figure shows the distribution of the different types of preventive strategies.
Figure 3. Distribution of classroom management strategies for each pre-service teacher per observation
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
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3.1.2 Focus on the Types of Preventive Strategies
Keeping students on-task is the preventive management category most used by all the pre-service teachers (in both
observations), with an average of 72 strategies in O1 and 49 strategies in O2. An analysis of the occurrences shows that
all the pre-service teachers use fewer strategies to keep students on-task during the second observation (e.g., 91
occurrences (PST1_O1) and 77 occurrences (PST1_O2)). Nevertheless, if we analyze the proportion of strategies in this
category, compared with all the preventive strategies implemented, we see that Pre-service Teachers 1 and 2 used it
consistently (84% (PST1_O1) and 82% (PST1_O2)). Only Pre-service Teacher 3 used more strategies to keep students
on-task during O2, rising from 73% to 88%.
Developing social relationships with students was the second most used preventive management category, with an
average of 20 strategies in O1 and nine in O2. Generally speaking, all the pre-service teachers used fewer strategies
aimed at developing social relationships with the students in O2. This was particularly true for Pre-service Teacher 2
(O1=14; O2=2) and Pre-service Teacher 3 (O1=33; O2=6).
Managing resources was a strategy used less frequently by the pre-service teachers than the above-mentioned strategies,
with an average of four strategies in O1 and O2. Observations differ for each pre-service teacher: we noted an increase
in the use of this strategy for Pre-service Teacher 1 (O1=4; O2=7), a constancy in the use of this strategy for Pre-service
Teacher 3 (2 occurrences in each observation) and a slight decrease in this strategy for Pre-service Teacher 2 (O1=5;
O2=4). Nevertheless, if we analyze the proportion of this strategy compared with all the preventive strategies
implemented, we see an increase in the use of this strategy by all the pre-service teachers (e.g., 8% for PST2_O1 and 22%
for PST2_O2).
Finally, the pre-service teachers did not implement any strategies related to setting clear expectations, whether it was
teaching rules, procedures, and routines, giving feedback on student behavior or reinforcing appropriate behavior.
Figure 4. Distribution of types of preventive strategies by pre-service teacher per observation
3.1.3 Focus on Corrective Strategies
As previously indicated, the pre-service teachers used few corrective strategies. Pre-service Teacher 2 used none at all
during the two observations. Pre-service Teacher 1 mobilized these strategies less during the second observation (O1=4;
O2 =1). Only Pre-service Teacher 3 used this type of strategy consistently, with three occurrences for each observation.
The diversity of corrective strategies implemented was greater during the first observation for both Pre-service Teacher
1 and 3. For example, during the first observation, Pre-service Teacher 1 used indirect strategies by making a gesture to
restore silence in class during a read-aloud activity (finger over mouth) and by moving around the classroom to get
uncooperative students to take note of the subject seen in their class diaries.
During O1, Pre-service Teachers 1 and 3 used an effective verbal strategy: reminding students of the expected behavior.
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
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Pre-service Teacher 1 reminded a student of the expected behavior during the oral summary at the end of the lesson:
"Would you please turn over your file" (O1, 40 min 39), and Pre-service Teacher 3 also reminded students of the
expected behavior when supervising a group exercise.
During both observations, Pre-service Teachers 1 and 3 used verbal reprimands. Pre-service Teacher 1 used this strategy
once during each observation, while for Pre-service Teacher 3 there was a slight increase during O2 (O1=2; O2=3).
These reprimands took the form of a simple call to order, such as "Guys, let's calm down, please" (PST3_O1, 19 min
36), but did not specify the behavior expected of the students (in this case, listening to the teacher's instructions for
carrying out an exercise). None of the pre-service teachers intentionally ignored a misbehaving student or used
strategies outside the classroom (such as removing the student from the class) or punitive strategies.
3.2 Implementation of Feedback and Intentions to Act
As shown in Figure 5, the supervisor gave more feedback than the cooperating teachers. The pre-service teachers, for
their part, formulated very few intentions to act (maximum 3, PST1). Of the intentions to act formulated by the
pre-service teachers, two concerned classroom management and were observable. Of the 59 elements of feedback
provided by the supervisor (all triads combined), 27 related to classroom management and were observable. As for the
cooperating teachers, of the 39 elements of feedback provided (all triads combined), nine concerned classroom
management and were observable. The following text presents the aspects of classroom management covered by the 38
observable feedback elements and intentions to act. It also presents the proportion of feedback and intentions to act
implemented by the pre-service teachers during the second observation.
Figure 5. Distribution of observable and non-observable feedback and intentions to act for the three triads
As shown in Figure 6, 85% of observable feedback or intentions to act concerned preventive classroom management
(N=32) and 15% concerned corrective classroom management (N=6), all actors combined. Of the 32 elements of
feedback or intentions to act relating to preventive classroom management (all observations taken together), 23
concerned keeping students on-task, six concerned the development of social relationships with the students, two
concerned managing resources and only one concerned setting clear expectations. As for feedback or intentions to act
on corrective classroom management, three concerned direct strategies and three indirect strategies (all observations
taken together).
Half of the observable elements of feedback and intentions to act formulated by each of the actors were implemented
during the second observation. In fact, one of the two pre-service teachers' intentions to act was implemented, as were
five of the nine elements of feedback from the cooperative teachers and 13 of the 27 elements of feedback from the
supervisor. The rest of the text shows the distribution of feedback and intentions to act which were followed or not
followed by the pre-service teachers, according to the different classroom management strategies.
3.2.1 Focus on the Pre-Service Teachers' Intentions to Act
Of the three pre-service teachers, only Pre-service Teacher 1’s intentions to act were observable. They expressed two
intentions to act: to interview as many students as possible (PST1_D, 1 min 37) and not to stand with their back to the
students in order to better supervise the class (PST1_D, 25 min 20). Of these two intentions, only one was implemented,
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
73
as they carried out more supervision of learning activities, through more movement around the classroom during group
activities and made more eye contact when explaining subject matter or instructions, going from a single occurrence in
O1 to seven occurrences in O2. With regard to the second intention to act, although Pre-service Teacher 1 implemented
strategies based on feedback from the supervisor and the cooperating teacher for designating students, notably by
diversifying designation techniques, we noted that during O2, they questioned the students less (O1=90; O2=70).
3.2.2 Focus on Feedback
Of the 36 elements of feedback formulated by the supervisor and the cooperating teachers, 21 dealt with keeping
students on-task, 10 of which are implemented by the pre-service teachers. The feedback implemented by the
pre-service teachers mainly concerned designating students (7 out of the 10 feedback elements). For example, during
O2, Pre-service Teacher 1 managed student participation more effectively, in particular by introducing a random
designation system (O2=8) as well as reducing spontaneous speaking (O1=59; O2=41;) and designation among
volunteer students (O1=14; O2=5). Pre-service Teacher 2 also took into account feedback on participation management.
Indeed, they continued to designate students who did not frequently speak to check the progress of each student's work
(O2=2). As far as Pre-service Teacher 3 is concerned, they were advised during the debriefing to avoid designating
students one after the other, following the layout of the benches in the classroom when correcting individual exercises,
and this system of designation was abandoned during O2. However, Pre-service Teacher 3 did not implement all the
feedback formulated by the cooperating teacher and the supervisor regarding the designation of students. Indeed, O2
shows that they did not vary the ways in which they designated students, and that they did not involve all the students,
given that students spontaneously spoke 34 times during one lesson (i.e., 62% of Pre-service Teacher 3's designations
during O2). Of the 21 elements of feedback concerning keeping students on-task, nine concerned supervising activities.
Pre-service Teachers 1 and 3 implemented the feedback made by the supervisor and the cooperating teachers (N=3 for
both pre-service teachers), unlike Pre-service Teacher 2 who did not implement the six feedback elements given by the
supervisor and the cooperating teacher concerning the supervision of activities. Indeed, during O2, this was the only
pre-service teacher to mobilize fewer strategies related to class supervision (O1=5; O2=2).
The second most frequent category of feedback concerns the development of positive relationships with the students. Of
the six feedback elements given, four were implemented by the pre-service teachers. These elements of feedback mainly
concern referring to students by their first names and were followed up by Pre-service Teachers 1 and 2. Only
Pre-service Teacher 3 did not continue to use this strategy during the second visit (O1=34; O2=4), contrary to what was
requested by the cooperating teacher and supervisor.
Six elements of feedback made by the cooperating teachers and the supervisor concerned corrective strategies. These
feedback elements were given to Pre-service Teachers 1 and 3 as minor student misbehavior was observed by the
supervisor (PST1_O1=1; PST3_O1=5). The supervisor advised both pre-service teachers to use a graduated behavior
management system, with indirect strategies as a first resort to deal with minor misbehavior. They also advised
Pre-service Teacher 3 to explain the behaviors expected to the students when managing misbehavior. However, this
advice was not followed by the pre-service teachers, who opted for verbal reprimands without reminding students of
expected behaviors as the only strategy to manage misbehavior (PST1_O2=1; PST2_O2=3).
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Figure 6. Distribution of elements of feedback and intentions to act, implemented or not implemented, according to the
type of classroom management strategies
Note:
The color (black or gray) indicates whether the feedback or intention to act was implemented. Black indicates that the
feedback or intention to act was not implemented.
4. Discussion
The first research question of this study deals with the evolution of classroom management strategies implemented by
pre-service teachers on two occasions during their training period (O1 and O2). The analysis of the classroom
management strategies implemented by the pre-service teachers highlights certain positive developments in their
professional practice, as well as avenues for improvement in their practices and the training program.
4.1 Preventive Classroom Management
In both observations, the pre-service teachers implemented preventive strategies to try to avoid misbehavior and foster a
positive classroom climate. According to the scientific literature, effective teachers intervene before misbehavior occurs
and use strategies that promote good behavior (e.g., Bissonnette et al., 2016; Knoster, 2014; Simonsen et al., 2008). It is
therefore positive to see that the pre-service teachers who took part in this research used these strategies on a regular
basis. Indeed, these strategies represented between 95% (PST3_O2) and 100% (PST2_O1) of the classroom
management strategies they implemented.
What's more, following the debriefings with the supervisor and the cooperating teachers, the pre-service teachers
changed the way they designated students in order to implement more effective strategies. For example, Pre-service
Teachers 1 and 2 left less room for spontaneous student input (e.g., PST1_O1=59; PST1_O2=41). Similarly, all three
pre-service teachers were less likely to designate students as volunteers. The scientific literature shows that designating
only volunteers, or allowing students to speak spontaneously at will, does not enable the teacher to obtain active
participation from the whole class and to check the understanding of all students. Indeed, volunteer students generally
have little difficulty with the question asked by the teacher and know the answer (e.g., Gauthier et al., 2013;
Hollingsworth & Ybarra, 2009). Similarly, Pre-service Teacher 3 stopped designating students one after the other,
following the layout of the benches in the classroom, as advised by the supervisor, as this designation technique does
not retain students' attention or enable the teacher to check their understanding, given that students know when they are
going to be questioned (Good & Brophy, 2008). The second observation showed the implementation of effective student
designation strategies, such as the use of a random designation system. Indeed, Pre-service Teacher 1 started using this
designation system following the first debriefing. According to several authors (e.g., Gauthier et al., 2013;
Hollingsworth & Ybarra, 2009), this strategy keeps students engaged during learning activities, as they can be
questioned at any time, and it allows the teacher to check the understanding of all students.
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Still, as far as keeping students on-task is concerned, developments were noted in student supervision. Pre-service
Teachers 1 and 2 used more student supervision strategies during the second observation (e.g., PST1_O1=1;
PST1_O2=7), including sweeping the class with their eyes and moving between benches during the individual or group
exercises. Constant classroom supervision keeps the students engaged in the task which reduces the likelihood of
misbehavior (Simonsen et al., 2008).
Although the pre-service teachers implemented many preventive strategies, they did not implement a preventive
strategy considered fundamental in the scientific literature, namely explicit instruction of expected behaviors (e.g.,
Simonsen et al., 2008).
4.2 Corrective Classroom Management
The scientific literature shows that effective teachers mainly use preventive strategies, but when misbehavior occurs, the
teacher must implement corrective strategies so that this misbehavior does not spread to the rest of the class (e.g.,
Knoster, 2014; Simonsen et al., 2008). Knoster (2014) found that the most effective teachers implement around 80%
preventive strategies and 20% corrective strategies. Our observations show that the pre-service teachers were not
sufficiently implementing corrective strategies when students misbehaved in their classrooms. This situation could
prove problematic, as according to Bissonnette and colleagues. (2016), in order to maintain an orderly environment, the
teacher must not remain indifferent to even minor misbehavior and allow a form of complacency to develop in the
classroom. Furthermore, the observations showed that Pre-service Teachers 1 and 3 tended to use less effective and less
diversified corrective strategies during the second observation. Indeed, whereas during the first observation they used
effective direct and indirect corrective strategies, such as proximity control or reminding students of the expected
behavior, during the second observation, they resorted mainly to verbal reprimands. However, according to Marzano
and colleagues (2003), verbal reprimands are not very effective strategies, because although they may stop undesirable
behavior immediately, they do not teach students the expected behavior. We also note that despite the use of verbal
reprimands, the number of misbehaviors almost doubled during Pre-service Teacher 3’s second observation (O1=5;
O2=9). This use of verbal reprimands may be explained by a problem in understanding the feedback given by the
cooperating teacher and the supervisor. According to Tochon (1996), trainers and pre-service teachers do not always
have the same understanding of certain educational science concepts. In this case, Pre-service Teacher 3 may not have
fully understood the feedback given by the supervisor, who emphasized that they could intervene to stop student
misbehavior, but that they should also remind the students of the expected behavior.
These observations also highlight the fact that the pre-service teachers did not implement a graduated classroom
management system that first favors the use of indirect strategies. Yet it is vital that teachers plan and implement a
coherent classroom management system, identifying any misbehavior that may occur and establishing rules and
formative consequences for transgressions (Simonsen et al., 2008; Sugai & Horner, 2009). Planning the management of
misbehavior enables the teacher to teach the expected behaviors to students at the start of the year, and to inform them
of the consequences of breaking the rules. This system enables the teacher to avoid making decisions on the spot and
allows them to propose sanctions that are well thought-out and measured in relation to the misbehavior committed
(Bissonnette et al., 2016; Rhode et al., 1993).
4.3 Implementation of Feedback and Intentions to Act
The second research question in this study investigates the pre-service teachers' implementation of feedback given by
the supervisor and cooperating teachers and their intentions to act during a triad debriefing (D) at the end of the first
observation (O1). The results indicate that of the 38 observable elements of feedback and intentions to act formulated,
19 were implemented. This is in line with the results of several studies that have shown positive changes in teachers'
practices following debriefings in which the trainer had formulated advice for them to modify their practices (e.g., Baco,
2022; De Jager et al., 2002).
However, some elements of feedback and intentions to act were not implemented. This is in line with the findings of De
Jager and colleagues (2002), who showed that the teachers in their study improved some of their strategies but failed to
implement all the targeted teaching strategies. These results can be explained by a number of factors. First of all,
pre-service teachers have to deal with a lot of different things that happen quickly during their internships (Doyle, 2006).
As novices, they cannot manage everything at once, and have to make choices among the events to be dealt with.
This situation can also be explained by contextual reasons. For example, Pre-service Teacher 2 implemented fewer
strategies related to developing positive relationships with the students during the second observation (O1=14; O2= 2)
because some of the students were absent. Similarly, Pre-service Teacher 3 was the one who most frequently used this
strategy, with 33 occurrences during the first observation. However, during the second observation, this strategy was
used only six times, which may be explained by the fact that they knew the students in this class less well. This situation
may ultimately be explained by a certain resistance to change. Cutrer-Párraga and colleagues (2023) identify two
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
76
reasons for this resistance: either some teachers are engaged in the process of adjusting their professional identity and
need time to modify their practices, or they prefer to wait and see how this strategy works out with their colleagues.
The analysis of the debriefings also reveals that the triad's different actors did not share speaking time equally. Indeed,
the pre-service teachers expressed few intentions to act during the debriefings. There are several possible explanations
for this. Firstly, the pre-service teacher is placed in a situation of evaluation. This may mean that they do not speak
authentically to ensure certification (Perrault & Levené, 2019). Secondly, pre-service teachers want to receive feedback
during the debriefings (Hoffman et al., 2015). On the other hand, several researchers (Baco, 2022; Ben-Peretz &
Rumney, 1991; Cutrer Párraga et al., 2023) highlight the fact that during debriefings, (pre-service) teachers receive a
great deal of feedback. This abundance of feedback can overwhelm the pre-service teacher, who is unable to implement
all the feedback given.
5. Limits and Further Research
While this study has identified, on the basis of observable indicators, a link between the feedback given by the trainers
(supervisor and cooperating teacher) and the classroom management strategies implemented by the pre-service teachers
during the second observation, we cannot identify a causal link between the trainers' feedback and the implementation
of certain classroom management strategies by the pre-service teachers. In fact, pre-service teachers may implement
certain classroom management strategies for other reasons (e.g., reading a book, advice from a relative, etc.). In order to
determine the causal link between feedback from trainers and the strategies implemented by pre-service teachers, an
experimental methodology (with comparison of an experimental group and a control group) should be implemented.
Future research could also explore the use of the observation tool described in this article by the pre-service teachers
themselves. Indeed, it would be interesting to suggest that pre-service teachers analyze videos of their practices using a
grid inserted into observation software, as proposed by Dye (2007). Such research could investigate whether the use of
such a tool enriches the reflexive analysis (Derobertmasure, 2012) of pre-service teachers.
The results obtained enable us to formulate avenues for improving the training system, which could in turn be the
subject of research. For example, given the difficulties experienced by pre-service teachers in managing student
misbehavior, it would be interesting to enrich the micro-teaching activities with situations in which they would be
required to manage student misbehavior.
6. Conclusion
The results of this research have enabled us to gain a better understanding of the evolution of classroom management
strategies implemented by pre-service teachers in an internship situation. Half of the feedback formulated by their
trainers (supervisor and cooperation teachers) at the end of a first observation was implemented by these pre-service
teachers during a second observation. These encouraging results support initiatives to set up effective classroom
management training programs based on the observation of pre-service teachers' actual practices and triad debriefings.
They also provide a basis for formulating ways of improving this type of training program. Triadic debriefings, based
on precise video-synchronized observations of the pre-service teacher's practice, represent a promising avenue for
training teachers in classroom management. This is a major societal challenge, both for teacher retention and for the
learning of the students entrusted to them.
Acknowledgments
We would also like to thank the pre-service teachers and cooperating teachers who took the time to participate in this
study. We greatly appreciate the valuable contributions of our language department for proofreading this manuscript.
Authors contributions
All authors were responsible for study design and revising. Delbart was responsible for data collection. All authors
drafted the manuscript and revised it. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
This article was written in the context of the first two authors' theses, including Christophe Baco's, which is financed by
the F.R.S-FNRS.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Informed consent
Obtained.
Journal of Education and Training Studies Vol. 12, No. 1; January 2024
77
Ethics approval
The Publication Ethics Committee of the Redfame Publishing.
The journal’s policies adhere to the Core Practices established by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).
Provenance and peer review
Not commissioned; externally double-blind peer reviewed.
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not
publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
Data sharing statement
No additional data are available.
Open access
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Copyrights
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal.
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