Effects of Sustainable Business Networks on the Environmentally Sound Management of Chemicals in Zimbabwe

Abstract

Despite the formulation of policy frameworks and awareness on hazardous chemical management, practical implementation at organisational level remains a challenge in Zimbabwe. Participation in inter-organisational networks has been shown to have a catalytic role in some contexts. Sustainable business networks such as the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) have undertaken programmes to promote safe chemical management and chemical leasing. This research paper assesses the effects of sustainable business networks on circular economy (CE) through implementation of safe chemical management and chemical leasing programmes in Zimbabwe. The research paper is based on forty (40) companies drawn from the industrial, manufacturing and mining sectors in Zimbabwe. A total of 50% of the companies assessed were selected because they participated in the safe chemical management programme called responsible production toolkit training and chemical leasing training during the period of 2018 to 2023, whilst the other 50% selected were not participants in any chemical management initiative to provide a comparison group to enable causal inferences. The study employed direct observation of chemical management practices, interviews with key informants and content analysis. Barriers and challenges identified included high chemical intensity, higher proportion of chemical accidents, inadequate provision of personal protective equipment (PPE), lack of clear policies on chemical management, lack of adequate technical capacity on chemical management, use of foreign languages in some material safety data sheets (MSDS), incompatible chemical storage practices, lack of proper labelling of chemicals, inadequate implementation of chemical compatibility charts and inadequate documentation of successful case studies. Implementation of chemical risk assessment increased from 20 to 70% due to network participation. Chemical inventorying implementation increased from 15 to 50% amongst firms that participated in safe chemical management programmes. Chemical labelling practices increased from 55 to 85% due to increased participation in network-induced chemical management programmes. Chemical leasing implementation remained largely unchanged even with access to training. We conclude that network participation enhanced chemical management practices due to the implementation of the responsible production toolkit. However, the impact of network participation on adoption of chemical leasing is low in Zimbabwe due to external contextual factors such as policy, perception, legal and financial barriers.

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Circular Economy and Sustainability (2024) 4:1047–1067
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-023-00315-9
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Effects ofSustainable Business Networks
ontheEnvironmentally Sound Management ofChemicals
inZimbabwe
TawandaCollinsMuzamwese1
Received: 24 August 2023 / Accepted: 15 October 2023 / Published online: 6 November 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract
Despite the formulation of policy frameworks and awareness on hazardous chemical manage-
ment, practical implementation at organisational level remains a challenge in Zimbabwe. Par-
ticipation in inter-organisational networks has been shown to have a catalytic role in some con-
texts. Sustainable business networks such as the Business Council for Sustainable Development
Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) have undertaken programmes to promote safe chemical management and
chemical leasing. This research paper assesses the effects of sustainable business networks on
circular economy (CE) through implementation of safe chemical management and chemical
leasing programmes in Zimbabwe. The research paper is based on forty (40) companies drawn
from the industrial, manufacturing and mining sectors in Zimbabwe. A total of 50% of the com-
panies assessed were selected because they participated in the safe chemical management pro-
gramme called responsible production toolkit training and chemical leasing training during the
period of 2018 to 2023, whilst the other 50% selected were not participants in any chemical
management initiative to provide a comparison group to enable causal inferences. The study
employed direct observation of chemical management practices, interviews with key informants
and content analysis. Barriers and challenges identified included high chemical intensity, higher
proportion of chemical accidents, inadequate provision of personal protective equipment (PPE),
lack of clear policies on chemical management, lack of adequate technical capacity on chemical
management, use of foreign languages in some material safety data sheets (MSDS), incompat-
ible chemical storage practices, lack of proper labelling of chemicals, inadequate implementa-
tion of chemical compatibility charts and inadequate documentation of successful case studies.
Implementation of chemical risk assessment increased from 20 to 70% due to network partici-
pation. Chemical inventorying implementation increased from 15 to 50% amongst firms that
participated in safe chemical management programmes. Chemical labelling practices increased
from 55 to 85% due to increased participation in network-induced chemical management pro-
grammes. Chemical leasing implementation remained largely unchanged even with access to
training. We conclude that network participation enhanced chemical management practices due
to the implementation of the responsible production toolkit. However, the impact of network
participation on adoption of chemical leasing is low in Zimbabwe due to external contextual
factors such as policy, perception, legal and financial barriers.
* Tawanda Collins Muzamwese
tmuzamwese@gmail.com
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
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Keywords Hazardous chemicals· SMEs· Chemical leasing· Sustainable business
networks
Introduction
Towards Safe Chemical Management
In recent years, the global consumption of chemicals has been on an unprecedented
increase in many developing and transition countries [1]. The multi-purpose nature of
chemicals makes them to be on very high demand for use in different sectors of the econ-
omy. However, their impacts on human health, environment and society are unprecedented
and dangerous if not effectively managed [2]. Currently, chemicals are needed for multifac-
eted industrial, domestic, manufacturing, mining, medicinal and other uses. It is essential
that environmentally sound management of chemicals is promoted at all stages of the value
chain. According to the Global Chemicals Outlook (GCO), the value chain of chemicals,
also referred to as the life cycle of chemicals, consists of five stages—extraction of raw
materials, chemical manufacture, chemical use downstream manufacture, products manu-
facture and products use and reuse [1]. These stages require effective controls in order to
prevent adverse effects on the environment, human health and safety. Immune effects of
chemicals on human systems have been previously cited and it has been confirmed that
chemical exposure can reduce the ability of humans to fight off diseases [3]. Toxicological
effects of chemicals in Zimbabwe have been confirmed, through a study of eight hospitals
[2]. The careful management of chemicals is essential in the quest to attain a circular econ-
omy (CE) as chemicals have an effect on natural systems due to their anthropogenic effects.
In Zimbabwe, the usage of chemicals has been witnessed in sectors such as agriculture,
leather, food, beverages, pharmaceuticals, dairy, mining and construction. The usage of
chemicals has been associated with exposure to chemical hazards [1, 4]. This is especially
pronounced in the small-scale mining sectors which contribute to gold production of the
country. Furthermore, fertiliser and chemical processing companies have added to the bur-
geoning chemical management crisis. If improperly managed, chemicals may also result in
deliberate self-poisoning (DSP) [2].
A circular economy facilitates reduction of environmental impacts of economic activi-
ties whilst enhancing economic goals [5]. Pollution prevention can facilitate waste mini-
misation in our society [6]. Due to the inherent risk of chemicals, effective regulations,
policy, technology and novel approaches are necessary in order to attain environmentally
sound management of chemicals. One of the ways of dealing with chemical challenges is
through sharing knowledge and capacity within sustainable business networks. Organisa-
tions require external support and knowledge from networks to enhance their capability
and knowledge on chemical management. Sustainable business networks are recognised as
effective agents for promoting sustainability in organisations [7].
Inter-organisational collaboration can be used as a means of disseminating pollution
prevention, chemical management best practice, information and knowledge [8]. Most
networks that focus on safe chemical management are borne out of the need to man-
age and mitigate the effects of chemicals on natural systems, human health and society.
Without collaboration, it may be difficult for organisations to understand the effects of
chemicals and to develop effective strategies for promoting their sustainable use. Stake-
holder involvement is a key driver for disseminating green technologies in enterprises
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[9, 10]. Network success is also determined by other factors beyond stakeholders who
are working together to attain common goals [11, 12].
Network collaboration exerts pressures on organisations to behave in a certain man-
ner due to coercive, mimetic, normative pressures as proposed by [13] in the elaboration
of institutional isomorphism. With respect to safe chemical management, organisations
can be brought to the same level of environmentally sound management of chemicals
due to the isomorphic pressures.
Inter-organisational collaboration in Zimbabwe draws its early roots in the form of
sustainable business networks which started in 1993 through the formation of the Busi-
ness Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ). This new form of col-
laboration for sustainable development came after the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development which had concluded in 1992 and had a positive impact
on green manufacturing [14]. Ever since that time, the BCSDZ undertook a range of
sustainability projects including specific actions meant to deal with burgeoning con-
cerns towards increased chemical usage. Although networks are well proven to drive
circular economy innovation in SMEs, there is very little research about them in Africa,
as we discuss below their experiences in safe chemical management [15].
From the year 2018 to 2023, the BCSDZ undertook a number of specific chemical
management initiatives ranging from training, capacity building and audits. These activ-
ities were focused on responsible production toolkit as well as chemical leasing. The
responsible production toolkit was developed by the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (UNEP), Accountability, International Chemical Councils Association (ICCA),
BIPRO and International Council on Mining and Metals [4]. Its dissemination has been
through different stakeholders such as National Cleaner Production Centres, industry
associations, networks and organisations on their own. However, there has not been any
study to assess how the responsible production toolkit on safe chemical management is
being disseminated through networks.
Sustainable business networks (SBNs) such as the Business Council for Sustain-
able Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) have undertaken training and capacity build-
ing programmes to enhance the uptake of safe chemical management. Through capacity
building, technical assistance and awareness raising, SMEs can improve their chemical
management practices. However, the effectiveness of such programmes in the context
of collaboration has not been independently assessed. It is not yet clear whether the
collaboration amongst the members is effective in facilitating enterprise-wide chemical
management improvements. Isolating network effects on the long-term chemical man-
agement improvements is a daunting endeavour given the multi-actor context and the
contribution of other stakeholders such as those from regulation, market, technology
and social dimensions. There are gaps in literature regarding the contribution of the
BCSDZ and other like-minded networks to facilitate safe chemical management and cir-
cular economy practices. Great care needs to be taken to avoid exaggerating the attribu-
tion of network activities to enhanced CE performance. Specific indicators have been
identified as appropriate measures of progress. Networks can be agents of prosperity
and transition towards sustainable development [16].
This paper assesses safe chemical management programmes which were
implemented through the BCSDZ network in different sectors between 2018 and 2023.
Specific programmes Responsible Production Toolkit—A Framework for Chemical
Accident Prevention and Chemical Leasing programme activities are assessed in the
study, in the context of network dissemination. The effects of training and capacity
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building delivered through network participation to improve management chemical
hazards are analysed.
Although most registered companies in Zimbabwe have policies to handle, manage, dis-
pose, store and transport hazardous chemicals, there is a growing informal sector which is
chemical intensive. In recent years in Zimbabwe, there has been a spurt in the emergence
of businesses operating as home industries, cottage industries and backyard industries
which are handling high volumes of reactive hazardous chemicals. Some of these small
businesses are controlled by single owners and thereby not interested in chemical manage-
ment practices [17]. This group of companies is not participants of any sustainable busi-
ness networks due to their propensity to dodge regulatory pressure and public scrutiny.
It is envisaged that full implementation of legislation and the promotion of safe chemical
management in these industrial sectors can greatly improve the capabilities of these firms
to manage their chemical substances.
Extending network participation to more SMEs can improve chemical management
practices and ultimately facilitate CE transition. Circular economy transition enables envi-
ronmental and economic benefits and thereby fosters sustainable development [18, 19].
Some SMEs have limited capacity for environmentally sound management of chemical
substances. Earlier studies of SMEs in Zimbabwe confirm that they are not particularly
concerned about Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) practices and are generally owner-
driven [17]. For most SMEs, participation in sustainable business networks is a secondary
issue as compared to business survival. This often results in a missed opportunity for inno-
vating towards sustainable chemical management. Without tacit knowledge, it is difficult
for organisations to attain sustainable development [20]. Network participation is seen as a
window of hope in fostering CE through safe chemical management.
This paper presents the opportunities and challenges associated with hazardous chemi-
cal management in Zimbabwe and the effects of network participation on selected chemical
management practices. Barriers faced in promoting sustainable innovations are clarified by
[21] in the context of industrial symbiosis. Previously, technical assistance activities have
been promulgated through UNIDO, UNEP, Environmental Management Agency (EMA),
Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ), independent consult-
ants and non-governmental organisations (NGOs); but there still remains gaps in the full
implementation of chemical management practices at the shop-floor level. The effective-
ness of network collaborative activities on chemical management has not been adequately
researched in Zimbabwe.
Legal Framework forHazardous Chemical Management inZimbabwe
Most of the legal and policy instruments in Zimbabwe are complimentary to its interna-
tional obligations from Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). Zimbabwe rati-
fied Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) governing environmentally sound
management of chemicals such as the Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement
of Chemicals and their waste, the Rotterdam Convention, and the Minamata Conven-
tion. These MEAs form the basis of formulating national legal and policy frameworks on
chemical management. Full implementation of such commitments and mainstreaming into
national legislation requires improvement. In addition, sustainable business networks pro-
moting these legal requirements have not been adequately researched to assess their effec-
tiveness in transforming chemical management practices.
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Globally, it has been recognized that policy and legislation are essential components of
promulgating behaviour change in different countries. Policy is seen as a response to envi-
ronmental deviance. Hazardous chemical management requires a robust policy framework
to guide industry and other stakeholders that use chemical substances. In this regard, Zim-
babwe has formulated various policies and regulations to control deviant behaviour and
ensure sound environmental management of chemical substances [22–25].
Policy instruments are therefore crafted by governments to guide the conduct of indi-
viduals, organisations and stakeholders alike. Chemical management in Zimbabwe is regu-
lated by several laws which govern the conduct of organisations and individuals [24, 25].
These Acts and Statutory Instruments present guiding principles for those in the chemicals
value chain. Sustainable business networks have a key role in raising awareness and techni-
cal capacity on the legal and policy requirements.
The Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment Number 20 of 2013 recognises environ-
mental rights in Sect. 73. Furthermore, the Environmental Management Act 20:27 pro-
vides a guiding framework on environmental issues, including the management of chemi-
cals. This regulation requires organisations to apply for hazardous chemical permits. The
permits apply to the production, distribution, transport, storage, recycling and handling of
hazardous chemicals and materials. The licence or permit is issued by the Environmental
Management Agency (EMA) and renewed on an annual basis.
Several statutory instruments have been established to ensure that environmental
sound management of chemicals is adhered to. The Environmental Management (Hazard-
ous Waste Management) Regulations S.I. 10 of 2007 and Hazardous Substances Control
Regulation S.I. 268 of 2018 are more specific regulations on the critical issues governing
chemical management in Zimbabwe [25]. These regulations stipulate that no person is
allowed to generate, store, sell, transport, use, recycle, discharge or dispose of hazard-
ous waste to the environment except under licence. The regulations also further stipulate
the need for all chemicals being transported to be clearly labelled and to have a consign-
ment note. In cases of accidental spillage, it is the duty of the party that causes the spill-
age to carry out clean-up activities. The storage, handling and transport of incompatible
chemicals are strictly prohibited. Other key regulations governing chemical management
in Zimbabwe include the Factories and Works Act 14:08 of 1976 and the Rhodesia Gov-
ernment Notice (RGN) 263, which require the provision of personal protective equipment
to employees who are exposed to chemical substances and also regulate dangerous sub-
stances and processes [22].
Despite the existence of legal instruments governing hazardous chemical management
in Zimbabwe, there are challenges in the actual practice on the shop-floor and there is need
to strengthen implementation of hazardous chemical legislation [17]. Networks of organi-
sations present solutions that can help to alleviate some of the challenges being faced in
implementing legal requirements. Participation in networks can cause progressive influ-
ences on organisations to adopt practices which are environmentally sound [8, 26]. Sev-
eral empirical studies outside Africa demonstrate the effect of network participation on
improved sustainability performance within organisations [27, 28].
Role ofNetworks inPromoting Safe Chemical Management
Adoption of sustainability practices such as safe chemical management practices requires
specialised knowledge within organisations [20]. This knowledge may not be inherent within
the idiosyncratic organisations. Becoming a member of a sustainable business network can
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contribute to improved awareness on the toxicology of chemicals. Empirical studies in differ-
ent country contexts confirm the effect of network participation on the ability of organisations
to implement green innovations [14, 16, 26, 27, 29–33].
Networks have key abilities to provide capacity building, training, awareness and promo-
tion of novel strategies effective in dealing with chemical hazards. Despite their growth, net-
works also face barriers and challenges such as financial, technical, differences in perception,
conflicts and culture amongst other obstacles [33, 34]. Networks thrive to attain measurable
outcomes within the confines of their chosen thematic focus and their governance is a deter-
minant of their success or failure [35]. Apart from collaboration, networks also may have
divergent and opposing views of specific issues of concern [36].
New business models, such as chemical leasing, have been popularised and accelerated
by sustainable business networks: National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) (which
have evolved beyond merely looking at cleaner production assessments) [37] and the Global
RECP-Net which was formed to strengthen collaboration on RECP. Material efficiency mod-
els are essential in reducing cost and environmental impacts [38]. These business models can
be effectively applied to chemical management through dematerialising chemical substances
and shifting towards the functions and services offered by the chemicals. Organisational inno-
vation in the area of chemical management can be influenced by a number of factors which
are context-specific. These factors may include policy, regulation, financing, technology and
external intermediary institutions such as sustainable business networks. Chemical leasing is a
subset of safe chemical management. It is a performance-based business model to implement
safe management of chemicals. It was selected because it is a new business model in Zimba-
bwe and there has been no independent study to assess whether it is making an impact or not.
Ultimately, the use of business models such as chemical leasing is envisaged to reduce the
high chemical intensity in Zimbabwean industry. This research looks at both chemical leas-
ing and safe chemical management as there were multiple interventions during the period of
2018–2023 in the BCSDZ, hence the need to assess them all.
This research specifically assesses the effects of network participation on safe chemical man-
agement practices of organisations. In particular, the research assesses the following questions:
i. What is the role of sustainable business networks in facilitating safe chemical manage-
ment in SMEs in Zimbabwe?
ii. What are the legal and policy frameworks enabling safe chemical management in
Zimbabwe?
iii. What are the effects of network participation on the eventual chemical management
practices in Zimbabwe?
iv. What are the effects of specific programmes—Responsible Production Toolkit—A
Framework for Chemical Accident Prevention as well as Chemical Leasing Pro-
grammes.
v. What barriers and challenges affect network participation on safe chemical manage-
ment?
Materials andMethods
The research is based on the safe chemical management projects undertaken by BCSDZ
between 2018 and 2023, namely Responsible Production Toolkit—A Framework
for Chemical Accident Prevention as well as Chemical Leasing. Data collection was
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undertaken using qualitative and quantitative methods. Key informant interviews, obser-
vations and content analysis of corporate documents drawn from members of the Busi-
ness Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe and non-members. In order to
ensure that the observations were systematic, a checklist was used. Evaluation of train-
ing records and secondary data related to chemical management practices was carried
out in order to further understand the effects of network on safe chemical management.
A total of 3 physical training and capacity building networking events were attended
by the researcher and included chemical leasing, responsible production and industrial
hazardous waste training.
Content analysis of 20 network member companies was undertaken in order to iden-
tify trends in their chemical management practices. This was in order to ensure that
there was a group of organisations from industrial sectors which were involved in the
usage of chemicals. The criteria for selecting organisations for the safe chemical man-
agement study included the following:
a) Organisations which were in industrial, manufacturing and mining sector
b) Organisations which used chemicals in any part of their production processes
c) Organisation with interest and willingness to participate
d) Organisations which were members of the Business Council for Sustainable Develop-
ment Zimbabwe (BCSDZ)
e) Organisations based in Harare, the capital city of Zimbabwe.
A comparative group of 20 organisations with organisations which did not belong to
the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) was selected
to assess its chemical inventorying, chemical risk assessment practices and chemical
labelling practices. The criteria for selecting this group were based on the following
factors.
a) Organisations which were in industrial, manufacturing and mining sector.
b) Organisations which used chemicals in any part of their production processes.
c) Organisation with interest and willingness to participate.
d) Organisations which were not members of the Business Council for Sustainable Devel-
opment Zimbabwe (BCSDZ) and did not belong to any sustainable business network.
e) Organisations based in Harare, the capital city of Zimbabwe.
The comparative group did not participate in chemical management training activi-
ties such as the responsible production toolkit or chemical leasing training. Their chemi-
cal management performance was also assessed qualitatively and document review was
undertaken in the same method and approach as compared to the group of organisations
in the network. In order to ensure consistency in the case studies, the interview ques-
tions were kept consistent. Yin [28] elaborates on how to effectively evaluate case stud-
ies majoring on depth rather than breadth.
Information was analysed using qualitative analysis methods and common thematic
patterns were established (chemical risk assessment, chemical inventorying and chemical
labelling) in order to provide a framework for analysing data. Data was analysed using
descriptive statistics. In order to ensure data validity and reliability, the research imple-
mented triangulation of data and triangulation of sources. This process was also meant
to prevent any form of biases in the information provided about chemical management.
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Existing chemical management practices within organisations were also assessed using the
best-practice requirements stipulated by the responsible production toolkit.
Results
Effects ofSustainable Business Networks andChemical Management inZimbabwe
Participation in sustainable business networks demonstrated improvements in chemical
risk assessment, chemical inventorying and chemical labelling as shown in Fig.1. Detailed
analysis of the different dimensions of chemical management is further explained in the
“Effects on Chemical Risk Assessments” section and “Effects of Networks on Chemical
Inventorying Practices” section, respectively.
Effects onChemical Risk Assessments
Before the implementation of the safe chemical management programmes offered by the
network, 50% of the firms involved in networks were not carrying out chemical risk assess-
ment despite the hazards that were posed by the usage of chemicals in their production
processes. Some 30% of firms belonging to networks had integrated chemical risk assess-
ment to some extent through the generic risk assessment process that was implemented at
their various companies. Although partially implemented, the risk assessment did not fully
address the demands of chemical hazards. This means that for those companies, there was
no exclusive risk assessment focused on chemicals, but rather chemicals were considered
as part of the general risk profile of the organisation where applicable. A proportion of
20% of network members was carrying out chemical full-risk assessments. However, this
Fig. 1 Effects of network participation on selected chemical management practices in Zimbabwean industry
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proportion of organisations undertaking full chemical risk assessment increased to 70%
due to participation in safe chemical management training facilitated by the BCSDZ in the
form of responsible production training.
Effects ofNetworks onChemical Inventorying Practices
Through the training received during the responsible production toolkit, we noted that
only 15% were implementing chemical inventorying practices, 45% were partial chemical
inventorying and 40% were not implementing chemical inventorying. Despite some of the
organisations implementing international environmental standards; there were no specific
tools tailor-made to the quantification of hazardous chemicals and their waste. In some
cases, there was partial inventorying and also the use of estimates in characterising chemi-
cal quantities. Due to participation in safe chemical management programmes, the number
of firms undertaking chemical inventorying increased to 50%.
Figure1 shows the effects of network participation on improved chemical management
practices of firms. It can be observed that chemical labelling, inventorying and chemical
risk assessment improved after implementation of network-induced chemical management
programmes.
Before participation in safe chemical management programmes promoted by the Busi-
ness Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe, within the sample of companies that
participated in the Responsible Production—A Framework Safe Chemicals Management
training, the number of companies practicing effective chemical labelling was 55% and
those not undertaking effective chemical labelling were 45%. Due to the network activi-
ties and capacity building, uptake of chemical labelling increased to 85% and those not
undertaking safe chemical management reduced to 15%. The programme of training organ-
isations on safe chemical management managed to enhance uptake of labelling practices
in order to provide a high level of awareness on chemical toxicity. Network participation
improved chemical labelling practices.
Following technical capacity building and training offered by the Business Council for
Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ), there was an improvement in the chemical
management practices at the company level. Some of the improvements included a higher
level of awareness, improved chemical labelling, development of chemical compatibility
charts, documentation of standard operating procedures, installation of emergency equip-
ment and provision of personal protective equipment (PPE). The adoption of environmen-
tally sound management of chemicals varied widely from company to company. Participat-
ing organisations cited the contribution from the sustainable business network as playing a
significant effect in their chemical management practices.
Sustainable business networks showed ability to enable attainment of safe chemical
management and a circular economy. A model of collaboration on safe chemical
management was provided by the Business Council for Sustainable Development
Zimbabwe. Training courses on safe chemical management were undertaken, bringing
together organisations from different industrial sectors. The training covered aspects
related to chemical production, chemical handling, chemical disposal, and other aspects of
chemical disposal.
Without the technical knowledge from the network, the level of awareness was low
in the participating organisations. The network participation enabled higher adoption of
chemical risk assessment, chemical inventorying and adoption of the Globally Harmonised
System on the labelling and classification of chemicals.
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In comparison to the group of firms which were members of the Business Council
for Sustainable Development, Fig. 2 shows results from firms which were operating
idiosyncratically without network participation. Their chemical management practices
were lower than those of firms involved in training and capacity building of the
Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe. Specifically, the chemical
risk assessment was undertaken by 5% of the organisations, chemical inventorying was
undertaken by 10% and chemical labelling was undertaken by 25% of the organisations.
Within the control group, 95% of organisations were not undertaking chemical risk
assessments, 90% were not undertaking chemical inventorying and 75% were not
undertaking effective chemical labelling. This demonstrates that the network participation
had a significant effect on the capacities of organisations to implement safe chemical
management practices.
However, it should be noted that the results show that even without network participa-
tion, chemical management practices are possible. Other factors which may contribute to
anecdotal chemical management capabilities include government pressures, market pres-
sures and international standards. The group of organisations which did not participate in
networks still undertook safe chemical management at a lower level.
Even with a lower chemical management footprint, the idiosyncratic organisations
still have some form of chemical management. This could be due to other activities such
as group requirements, regulatory pressures and awareness of employees. However,
this capacity can be fast-tracked through network participation. These results show that
although inherent capabilities to manage chemicals exist within organisations, these capa-
bilities can be increased and enhanced by network participation and collaboration. The
existence of industrial clusters in the country should be a key driver towards the promotion
of safe chemical management through the various cluster meetings and legal compliance
audits including chemical management audits.
Fig. 2 Selected chemical management practices in Zimbabwean industry for organisations not participating
in sustainable business networks
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The research notes that chemical service business models are still unpopular in
Zimbabwe. Organisations are also not willing to take risks with unfamiliar models
for chemical management. However, through networks of the BCSDZ, organisations
started to participate in training and capacity building related to chemical management.
Chemical leasing business model should be fully explored, due to its potential to reduce
environmental impact and save costs. Chemical leasing pays for the services of chemicals
and not for their quantities. In the organisations that were assessed, the implementation
of chemical leasing was uncommon. The organisations were mostly concerned about
purchasing chemicals rather than paying for their services.
Figure 3 demonstrates that the number of organisations not implementing chemical
leasing is high. A total of 18 out of the 20 selected companies failed to implement chemical
leasing. Even after receiving training, there was no significant improvement in chemical
leasing implementation. The situation is even dire in organisations that are non-members
of the sustainable business network, as 20 out of the 20 selected organisations did not
implement chemical leasing at all. There may be an urgent need to address the barriers
associated with its implementation as well as to facilitate policy support and incentives
towards its implementation in Zimbabwe.
Challenges toImplementing Environmentally Sound Management ofChemicals
The challenges to successful implementation of environmentally sound management of
chemicals in Zimbabwean industry are multi-faceted. This research identified these chal-
lenges as attributable to weak network development, financial barriers, limited collabora-
tion, policy and organisational factors. This paper shows that some companies have not
yet implemented chemical management systems, but those which collaborate show higher
chemical management capabilities, especially related to the chemical risk assessment and
chemical risk inventorying. These findings confirm earlier research by [15] that collabo-
ration enables SMEs to overcome barriers related to attaining sustainable development.
Although barriers are common amongst the two different groups of companies, network
Fig. 3 Effects of collaboration on adoption chemical leasing business models
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members had a better capability to overcome barriers in comparison to idiosyncratic firm,
due to the availability of information, technology and knowledge in networks. After par-
ticipation in networks, the barriers were reduced in collaborative organisations.
Lack ofFormal Environmental Management Systems
Lack of environmental management systems such as ISO 14001 in selected industries
reduced their potential for chemical accident prevention. Some companies interviewed
considered ISO 14001 and other environmental standards to be cumbersome and expensive
and hence failed to establish an effective way of identifying chemical hazards in the work-
place. Standards allow identification of environmental aspects such as chemical usage.
Low Priority ofChemical Management
Low prioritisation of environmental health and safety functions in selected companies also
reduced the potential for safe chemical management. Whilst we note that some enterprises in
Zimbabwe have incorporated environmental management into the corporate structure, there is
still evidence that in some companies, it is still non-existent and there is no clear delegation of
duties related to hazardous chemical management at the corporate level. This situation was very
prevalent in SMEs and organisations of a smaller scale due to a higher level of informality.
Poor Governance ofChemicals andSustainability‑Related Issues
Governance structures and the delegation of responsibilities at the corporate level were
observed to be a challenge in enabling chemical safety. Another key challenge identified
was the low awareness on the nature and properties of chemicals. Furthermore, low techni-
cal capacity on principles of hazardous chemical management was another drawback that
should be addressed through sectoral and thematic projects addressing technical capacity
in chemical management and continued capacity building. This barrier was most common
in organisations without network collaboration.
Limited Financial Resources
Limited financial resources to institute hazardous chemical management programmes were
also cited as a challenge to achieving environmentally sound management of chemicals.
Very few if any financial institutions in Zimbabwe offer financing on chemical manage-
ment. It is therefore important to ensure that funding schemes are established that encourage
efficient process automation and reduce chemical spillages, thereby reducing the amount of
time the employees are exposed to the chemical substances. Collaboration with banks and
financial institutions could be a key strategy to scale up safe chemical management.
Use ofForeign Languages inCommunicating Chemical Hazards
Language barriers affected the scaling up of safe chemical management in enterprises. Due
to the fact that some of the chemical substances were being imported from other coun-
tries, there emerged an issue of the use of foreign languages on some chemical labels
and MSDSs. Lack of understanding of the chemical composition and the emergency
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preparedness requirements specified by an MSDS posed further problems due to the failure
to take precautionary measures. In cases where the MSDSs exist, there were also issues
regarding limited understanding and interpretation of MSDSs.
Limited Infrastructure
Inadequate infrastructure for chemical management was regarded as a major drawback
towards safe chemical management. The paper notes that some sites have inadequate level
of preparedness to chemical emergency situations, e.g. malfunctioning emergency showers,
lack of bund walls for temporary storage of chemicals, inadequately ventilated chemical
storage facilities and limited automation of the chemical dispensing and handling process.
Lack ofAdequate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
The other challenge that affected the scaling up of hazardous chemical management
includes the access to personal protective equipment (PPE) which was limited in some
industries. Personal protective equipment such as work suits, rubber gloves, goggles,
safety shoes, leather aprons and other relevant PPE is still not fully provided and uti-
lised in selected industries. Companies should ensure that their employees are well pro-
tected. Where PPE is provided, training on proper usage and supervision is required.
Low Implementation oftheGlobally Harmonised System ontheLabelling
andClassification ofChemicals (GHS)
The Global Harmonised System on Chemical Labelling and Classification (GHS) is not yet
fully implemented at the shop-floor in Zimbabwe and this is a critical challenge in forward-
ing the agenda of environmentally sound management of hazardous chemicals.
Through this research paper and practical implementation with SMEs, we note that in
order to inculcate an environmental sound management of chemicals philosophy, there is
a need to make sure that key documentation including standard operational procedures
(SOPs) Material safety data sheets (MSDS) is also translated to local languages where
practicable. Earlier studies by [17] confirm that some SMEs are not effective in implement-
ing procedures for occupational safety and health.
Opportunities forImplementing Environmentally Sound Management ofChemicals
Existence ofaLegal andPolicy Framework
There were several opportunities identified in the research, for the environmentally sound
management chemicals. Firstly, a clear legal framework, which already exists, was cited as
having the potential to yield significant benefits at the shop-floor level if fully implemented
and enforced. Proper enforcement of chemical management practices is an urgent requirement.
The existence of vast information and literature regarding the safe management of chemicals
was cited as a potential means for scaling up safe chemical management. The development
of sustainable business networks such as the Business Council for Sustainable Development
Zimbabwe was cited as an effective knowledge management system and information dissemi-
nation channel to all enterprises. Scaling up the network participation was identified as a plat-
form for there can be widespread change in the current practices of chemical management.
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Existence ofInstitutional Frameworks andStakeholder Networks
An institutional framework and a variety of stakeholder networks were seen as providing
vast opportunities for full implementation of environmentally sound management of chem-
icals. There are well-established stakeholders in Zimbabwe dealing with chemical manage-
ment issues including the National Cleaner Production Centre (NCPC), Business Council
for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe, industrial clusters and independent service pro-
viders such as consultants. However, some key informants stated that these stakeholder
networks were not being fully utilised to their fullest potential. Collaboration amongst the
stakeholders was cited as a necessary step required to step up safe chemical management.
The Zimbabwe National Cleaner Production Centre, through its cleaner production
programme, implemented cleaner production projects in various economic sectors such
as cable manufacturing, battery manufacturing, electroplating, leather tanning, foundries,
chemical processing, plastic manufacturing and pharmaceuticals amongst other economic
sectors. Some of the identified cleaner production options were related to chemical safety.
Various options have been suggested but most were hindered by financial capability to
invest and maintain the options. Up-scaling these measures still requires improvements.
This opportunity was underutilised and greater effort was noted as essential to scale up safe
chemical management in Zimbabwe.
The Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ),1 which is a
leading network for sustainability in Zimbabwe, brought together various members from
the industry, government and research in the form of a Public Private Partnerships such as
the Green Industry Initiative. The initiative promoted safe chemical management, energy
efficiency, renewable energy, efficient water utilisation and waste management. Due to
lack of funding, the opportunity was not fully harnessed. However, further opportunities
exist through information dissemination on hazardous waste management. The BCSDZ has
implemented initiatives such as the Green Industry Initiative which has a component of
safe chemical management.
Availability ofConsultants andTechnical Expertise onChemical Management
Consultants were also cited as an opportunity for networks to mainstream safe chemi-
cal management practices. These consultants were members of the industry associations
and business networks. Independent service providers have been involved in the process
of mainstreaming environmentally sound management of chemicals throughout the value
chain. Their role and opportunity for providing technical information in chemical man-
agement were identified as a key catalyst to chemical management transformation in Zim-
babwe. These consultants have carried out training courses in transport, medical labora-
tory, manufacturing, mining and construction based on the responsible production toolkit
framework for chemical accident prevention in SMEs2. The study notes complementarities
between the activities of the sustainable business networks and consulting organisations.
1 BCSDZ is a Regional Networking Partner of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development
(WBCSD) and has been implementing sustainability programmes for more than 30 years in Zimbabwe.
The BCSDZ is also an institutional member of the African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and
Production (ARSCP).
2 The responsible production toolkit is a training package which has information on how SMEs can effec-
tively manage hazardous chemicals.
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Discussion
Chemical hazard risk assessment framework requires improvement and enforcement in
Zimbabwe. Some organisations were not yet fully implementing the process of hazard
identification, risk assessment and determination of controls. In cases where risk assess-
ment was done, it anecdotally addresses issues of chemical risk assessment. This resulted
in tasks that involved chemical handling being carried out at times without proper hazard
characterisation. There is a need for more capacity building of SMEs in safer production
processes. Networks should emphasise chemical risk assessments in their capacity building
programmes.
Without network participation, there was low adoption of chemical inventorying
amongst small to medium sized enterprises handling chemicals. We noted that about
50% SMEs in this study were not carrying out chemical inventorying activities. This
becomes a challenge when there is a need to account for chemicals or when there is
a need to characterise the amount of chemical waste or to determine efficiency of the
production process. However, network participation improved chemical inventorying
practices. Collaboration activities of the Business Council for Sustainable Development
Zimbabwe resulted in an improvement in the inventorying and chemical management
practices in Zimbabwe.
The provision and usage of personal protective equipment still need to be improved in
most organisations. Some organisations are still facing challenges in providing adequate
PPE for employees handling hazardous chemicals in their production process and this
increases the level of exposure to the hazardous chemicals. In some cases, the wrong PPE
was being prescribed, for example where there is exposure to solvents and volatile organic
compounds, we noted the prescription of dust masks which were not very effective against
chemical vapours and gases. Personal protective equipment for chemical management
should be suitable for the task to be undertaken.
Stakeholder engagement and community participation in issues of chemical manage-
ment are still low. Despite the requirement by the responsible production framework to
engage stakeholders in chemical management, most industries rather prefer to implement
chemical management programmes in isolation and mainly centralised at the organisational
level. This could be interpreted as being caused by fear of being scrutinised or publicised
by members of the public with respect to chemical management practices.
Most organisations are concerned about their public relations and standing in society,
so they would rather operate in a discreet manner than in the proximity of the public eye.
It can be noted that in some cases, communities were left out and were mainly informed
after major events such as spillages occurred. It is essential to strengthen legal and policy
frameworks on the need to inform the community about the imminent hazards associated
with the usage of particular chemicals.
Limited technical capacity to implement chemical management and hazardous waste
management programmes is a key challenge in Zimbabwe, but network participation
improves the situation. The research paper noted that several SMEs lack in terms of
organisational structure and responsibility for personnel that have responsibility for
chemical management. Although some had appointed Safety, Health, Environmental
and Quality (SHEQ) Officers and Managers, the technical capacity on the fundamen-
tals of chemical management amongst these employees requires significant improve-
ment. The lack of consistency of training curricula of SHEQ Officers and Managers
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resulted in their varying capacity to tackle chemical toxicology issues affecting their
organisations.
Training programmes based on responsible production toolkit helped to improve the
behaviour of firms. Employees handling hazardous substances can be brought to a level
of compliance and attain a proactive culture in SMEs. Through observing production pro-
cesses before and after the responsible production toolkit, there is a major difference in the
practices by the employees and the culture in the organisation regarding the production,
handling, transport, usage and disposal of hazardous chemicals. The training programmes
on responsible production, which were enabled by network participation, facilitated an
improvement in the chemical management practices of organisation. The research shows
that sustainable business networks can facilitate transition towards safe chemical manage-
ment and ultimately a circular economy. However, these findings may not be identical for
new and emerging chemical business models.
However, training on chemical leasing through BCSDZ network failed to stimulate a
surge in implementation of chemical leasing in Zimbabwe. Organisations in Zimbabwe are
still not yet fully well-equipped and not adequately ready to implement chemical leasing.
Presence of organisations in the chemical manufacturing sector presents paradoxes, where
they prefer to sell chemicals rather than the services that they offer.
Other existing challenges noted during the research point to the need to strengthen
knowledge on material safety data sheets (MSDS). Material safety data sheets should be
available at the point of chemical usage and well understood by the chemical users. Whilst
we note the ability of the companies that were analysed through this research in their abil-
ity to recognise the importance of material safety data sheets, there however seem to be
challenges regarding their dissemination and use. Material safety data sheets serve a very
important function in determining the properties, behaviour, emergency procedures and
toxicity of chemicals. However, in selected Zimbabwean firms, not all chemicals were
accompanied by their MSDSs, and at times where they exist, there is no adequate knowl-
edge at the level of the chemical users. This is a key area requiring improvement. Some of
the leading deficiencies related to a limited capability to interpret toxicological data such
as lethal dose 50 and the non-observable effect concentration (NOEC). Chemical informa-
tion and parameters of hazard character need to be further elucidated by sustainable busi-
ness networks.
Storage of chemicals according to compatibility requires widespread adoption
amongst Zimbabwean stakeholders. The research observed that most decisions to store
chemicals were inspired by the availability of space alone rather than a consideration of
chemical compatibility. Some of the SMEs interviewed during this research indicated
their lack of knowledge regarding the formulation and usage of chemical compatibility
charts and the storage of chemicals was at times indiscriminate of the chemical proper-
ties of the chemical. This is an area of concern which will require improvement through
network training, enforcement of legal provisions and enhanced awareness. However,
the process of ensuring that chemicals are stored according to compatibility rules was
greatly improved through the adoption of the principles of the responsible production
toolkit.
Cottage and backyard industries should be monitored to avoid environmental impact
of chemicals in residential areas. Several SMEs operating in backyard or cottage indus-
tries did not have adequate capacity to manage their chemical processes hence the need to
closely supervise their operations and implement regulatory requirements where necessary.
Those actors who coordinate sustainable business networks should also include smaller
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enterprises in their network activities to enable inclusivity and universal capacity develop-
ment in safe chemical management.
With regards to chemical risk assessments, inventorying and labelling, barriers were
related to technical assistance, whereas barriers related to chemical leasing were influ-
enced by economic instruments and policy regimes at the national level. Despite indi-
vidual actions directed at the company level on chemical leasing, in reality, adoption
remained low.
Conclusions
In conclusion, we clearly note that collaboration amongst organisations results in improve-
ment in safe chemical management in the industry. Through the network collaboration of
the Business Council for Sustainable Development and adoption of the responsible produc-
tion toolkit, chemical management performance of SMEs improved. However, the adop-
tion of chemical leasing practices remained low, despite network participation. In order to
prevent chemical accidents, there is a need to strengthen network collaborations amongst
organisations, enforce legislation on chemicals, undertake factory inspections and follow
up with industries, transporters, farmers and other chemical users. Stricter control of toxic
chemical importation and transit at ports of entry should be instituted so as to eliminate
extremely hazardous chemicals at the port of entry. Every stakeholder should be reminded
that improper usage, handling and transport of chemicals can cause accidents, serious
injuries, and death due to their fatal nature. All stakeholders therefore have to collaborate
through networks and clusters of industries in raising awareness and providing a frame-
work for safe chemical handling, usage and transport. We recommend the development
and implementation of additional sustainable business networks basing their safe chemi-
cal management training on the responsible production framework to address some of the
issues and challenges raised in this paper.
It can also be concluded that SMEs have the potential to implement hazardous chemical
management programmes if they are given the adequate support through external stake-
holders such as networks, capacity and financial assistance, and if appropriate, policy and
legal mechanisms are fully enforced. The usage of PPE and its provision are key areas
of improvement which SMEs should strive to implement even without supervision of the
regulatory bodies. The achievement of good chemical management practices in Zimbabwe
and other developing countries requires multi-stakeholder collaboration and Sustainable
Business Networks in order to ensure that there is adequate implementation and buy-in
amongst the stakeholders.
Chemical leasing dissemination through networks is still in its infancy and requires
novel approaches to ensure that it is taken up at the enterprise level. Localisation and
contextualisation of chemical management initiatives such as promoting material safety
data sheets in local languages rather than foreign languages can yield better effects in
safe chemical management in Zimbabwe.
i) What is the role of sustainable business networks in facilitating safe chemical manage-
ment in SMEs in Zimbabwe?
Sustainable business networks play a significant role in raising awareness and provid-
ing technical assistance on safe chemical management. They also enable exchange of
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information amongst organisations with respect to new business models of chemicals
such as chemical leasing and dematerialised chemical management business models in
organisations.
ii) What are the legal and policy frameworks enabling safe chemical management in Zim-
babwe?
In Zimbabwe there are various regulations governing the implementation of safe
chemical management. The most significant regulations include the Environmen-
tal Management Act 20:27 and Hazardous Substances Control Regulations Statutory
Instrument 68 of 2018. Although these laws exist, we conclude that they need stronger
implementation. There were also international standards such as ISO 14001:2015 Envi-
ronmental Management Systems which acted as voluntary policy initiatives to promote
safe chemical management. Very limited economic instruments such as taxes and sub-
sidies exist to influence environmentally sound management of chemicals in Zimba-
bwe. The policy framework, voluntary standards and emerging sermon type and aware-
ness instruments individually and collectively contributed to improved safe chemical
management.
iii) What are the effects of network participation on the eventual chemical management
practices in Zimbabwe?
The research concludes that network participation has a positive effect on safe chemi-
cal management practices such as chemical inventorying, chemical risk assessment and
labelling of chemicals. Training of companies using the responsible production toolkit
resulted in improved awareness amongst organisations. However, with regard to chemi-
cal leasing business models, there was no major difference between networked organ-
isations and those not in networks. Network participation failed to evoke changes in
service-based chemical management business models.
iv) What are the effects of specific programmes—Responsible Production Toolkit—
A Framework for Chemical Accident Prevention as well as Chemical Leasing Pro-
grammes?
The responsible production toolkit had a positive effect on the chemical management
practices of organisations which were members of the sustainable business network
called the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ). How-
ever, there was no major improvement in both organisations belonging to networks and
those that did not belong to networks, with regard to the adoption of chemical leasing
business models. The research concludes that chemical leasing remains an elusive busi-
ness model in Zimbabwe, with or without collaboration.
xxii) What barriers and challenges affect network participation on safe chemical man-
agement?
The barriers affecting network participation on safe chemical management included
financial barriers and lack of technical capacity to implement environmentally sound man-
agement of chemicals. Furthermore, low prioritisation of safe chemical management, lack
of effective structures to manage chemicals and language barriers posed challenges to the
realisation of environmentally sound management of chemicals.
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Declarations
Conflict of Interest The author declares no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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Authors and Aliations
TawandaCollinsMuzamwese1
1 Department ofTechnology andGovernance forSustainability (CSTM), University ofTwente,
Enschede, Netherlands
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3.
4.
5.
6.
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