A Vindication of Eibl-Eibesfeldt’s Concept of Tötungshemmungen (Conspecific Killing Inhibitions)? Human Ethology, Military Psychology, and the Neurosciences

Abstract

I present the literature pro and con the concept of ‘killing inhibitions’ in humans and animals as formulated by students of preindustrial warfare such as Turney-High, Quincy Wright, and Keeley; (human) ethologists and primatologists such as Lorenz, Tinbergen, Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Sommer, Vogel, Ghilglieri, and Wrangham; students of contemporary military psychology/psychiatry and combat motivation such as Grossman, Bourke, Gabriel, and Shalit; and neuroscientists such as Koenigs et al. and Miller et al.

Full text

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9#
2
“Wir wollen festhalten, daß die individualisierte
Aggression des Menschen durch eine Reihe von
angeborenen Verhaltensweisen wirksam unter
Kontrolle gehalten wird. Die Hemmung, einen
Mitmenschen zu töten, ist in allen Kulturen ausgeprägt,
und will man sich über sie hinwegsetzen, wie etwa im
Krieg, dann bedarf es besonderer Indoktrinierung,
damit die mitmenschlichen Appelle, die Mitgefühl
wecken, nicht wahrgenommen werden. Mitleid als
subjektives Korrelat zur Tötungshemmung wird in
allen Kulturen empfunden und überall durch die
gleichen Signale ausgelöst. Aggressionshemmungen
sind uns demnach angeboren. Das Gesetz »Du sollst

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nicht töten!« ist bereits in dieser Anlage begründet. Mit
der Erfindung der Waffe und damit der Möglichkeit
zum Totschlag bedurfte es zusätzlicher kultureller
Kontrollmuster“ (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1975: 121).
3
“Der Krieg ist weder auf entartete, fehlgeleitete,
tierische Instinkte noch auf Nekrophilie oder andere
pathologische Entartungen des menschlichen
Antriebslebens zurückzuführen. Es handelt sich nicht
um eine funktionslose Entgleisung, sondern um eine
spezifisch menschliche Form der
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Zwischengruppen-Aggression mit deren Hilfe
Menschengruppen um Land und Naturgüter
konkurrieren” (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1975: 222).
4
“Den Krieg schließlich erklären wir keineswegs aus
einem uns angeborenen Aggressionstrieb. Er ist das
Ergebnis der kulturellen Evolution, die allerdings
durchaus auf der stammesgeschichtlichen Evolution
aufbaut und diese weiterführt... Im Prozeß der
kulturellen Pseudospeziation schlossen sich
Menschengruppen voneinander ab, als wären sie
Vertreter verschiedener Arten. Die dem Menschen
angeborenen Aggressionskontrollen, die innerärtliche
Aggression wie beim Tier entschärfen, wirken damit
nur mehr im Innergruppenkonflikt. Der Zwischengrup-
penkonflikt nahm Züge an, die an den
zwischenartlichen Konflikt bei Tieren erinnern, er
wurde destruktiv... (1975: 200-201). [Der Krieg] hat
sicher selektiv in Richtung auf Aggressivität hin
gezüchtet... Der Krieg hat damit die Auslese von
Kampflust und Aggression zumindest für eine lange
Zeit der menschlichen Geschichte begünstigt. Der
Mensch wurde aber in diesem Zusammenhang nicht
nur auf Kampftüchtigkeit, sondern auch – wie Bigelow
(1970; 1971) betont – auf Kooperationsfähigkeit und
Intelligenz selektiert, und zwar in der Konkurrenz der
Gruppen” (1975: 217).

10 !"#$%&'()*+*,-&."++/(0%1&234251&2677&
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5
“Als Primaten haben wir nie eine ‘angeborene
innerartliche Tötungshemmung’ besessen, einen
‘biologischen Normenfilter, der zu töten verbietet’ hat
es in unserer Naturgeschichte nie gegeben, und es
bedarf zum Töten des Menschen durch den Menschen –
sei dies im Krieg oder bei anderen Gelegenheiten –
keiner Indoktrinierung, die den Gegner ‘quasi zum
Nichtmenschen’ stempelt ”.
6
“Im Krieg übernimmt der Staat oder eine andere von
der Gemeinschaft anerkannte Institution – das kann
auch ein Gott sein! – die Verantwortung für das Töten,
der einzelne ist (offiziell) von dieser schweren Bürde
entlastet. Sogenannte ‘höhere Ziele’,
Gemeinschaftszwecke ‘entbinden’ im Krieg von
persönlicher Verantwortung, sie ‘entmoralisieren’ die
Handlungen des einzelnen... Und derartige, den
Einzelkämpfer von seiner persönlichen Verantwortung
‘befreienden’ Institutionen sind offenbar fähig, den
Menschen so zu ‘entkernen’, das er ungeheuere
Verbrechen begeht, Untaten, die sonst kaum vollbracht
werden würden!”
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7
“Unverständlich für den normalen Menschen ist das
Überschießen der Aggressionen in Ausnahmezuständen
der Raserei. Mit Schrecken und Grauen liest man von
Massakern an den Besiegten, von Orgien des
Blutrausches, die einen an Tötungshemmungen
zweifeln lassen. Früher versetzten sich Krieger durch
Tanz und Gesang in einen Zustand der Euphorie und
Gruppenraserei (Dementia pugnax). D.M. Warburton
(1975) vermutet, daß dabei halluzinogene hypothala-
mische Hormone freigesetzt wurden. Das plötzliche
Wegfallen der Angst nach der endgültigen
Überwinding des gegnerischen Widerstandes mag
dann zu einer nicht mehr beherrschbaren Freisetzung
aggressiver Impulse führen” (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1984).

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“Ein Mensch, der sich normalerweise aus instinktiven
oder anerzogenen Hemmungen dagegen sperrt, einen
Menschen anzugreifen und zu töten, verliert
offensichtlich diese Hemmung, wenn man es ihm im
Namen seines Kollektivs befehlt und vorgibt zu
verantworten... Die kritiklose Bereitschaft zur
Ausführung befohlener aggressiver Akte erscheint als
das wichtigste Korrelat der Aggression in Hinblick auf
die Erklärung organisiert-durchgeführter
Grausamkeiten, denn die Masse der Menschen ist am
Krieg bloß als Teil einer organisierten Gesellschaft
beteiligt” (Schuh & Mees, 1972).

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Author's Note
A previous version of this article was presented
at the XIX Biennial Conference of ISHE,
Bologna, July 13-18, 2008. The original paper
presented six arguments pro and six arguments
con the concept of “natural born killers”,
derived from the study of warfare in
preindustrial societies, combat motivation and
war atrocities in contemporary soldiers,
military psychology/psychiatry, and the
neurosciences.
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!"#$%&'()*+*,-&."++/(0%1&234251&2677 31
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Johan M.G. van der Dennen, PhD, studied
behavioral sciences at the University of
Groningen, and is at present a Senior Researcher
at the Section Political Science of the Department
of Legal Theory, formerly the Polemological
(Peace Research) Institute, University of
Groningen, the Netherlands. He has published
extensively on all aspects of human and animal
aggression, sexual violence, neuro- and
psychopathology of human violence, political
violence, theories of war causation,
macroquantitative research on contemporary
wars, ethnocentrism, genocide and war atrocities,
and the politics of peace and war in preindustrial
societies. In 1995 he published The Origin of War:
The Evolution of a Male-Coalitional Reproductive
Strategy on his ongoing research (more than 30
years now) on the politics of peace and war in
preindustrial societies, violent intergroup
competition in animals, and the origin of war in
hominid/human phylogeny.
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