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Meat-Eating & Human Evolution
Abstract
When, why, and how early humans began to eat meat are three of the most fundamental unresolved questions in the study of human origins. Before 2.5 million years ago the presence and importance of meat in the hominid diet is unkown. After stone tools appear in the fossil record it seems clear that meat was eaten in increasing quantities, but whether it was obtained through hunting or scavenging remains a topic of intense debate. This book takes a novel and strongly interdisciplinary approach to the role of meat in the early hominid diet, inviting well-known researchers who study the human fossil record, modern hunter-gatherers, and nonhuman primates to contribute chapters to a volume that integrates these three perspectives. Stanford’s research has been on the ecology of hunting by wild chimpanzees. Bunn is an archaeologist who has worked on both the fossil record and modern foraging people. This will be a reconsideration of the role of hunting, scavening, and the uses of meat in light of recent data and modern evolutionary theory. There is currently no other book, nor has there ever been, that occupies the niche this book will create for itself.
... Human infants can be regarded as being an intermediate between fully precocial and altricial developed species at birth (Portmann, 1941;Martin, 2007). Precocial species predominantly undergo prenatal brain growth, with an approximate 2.5 fold increase from birth to adult size (Stanford and Bunn, 2001). Furthermore, precocial offspring are fully competent with regard to thermoregulation, and show more complete organogenesis, functioning olfaction and vision, and full postural and locomotor function at birth (Martin, 2003). ...
... Furthermore, precocial offspring are fully competent with regard to thermoregulation, and show more complete organogenesis, functioning olfaction and vision, and full postural and locomotor function at birth (Martin, 2003). Altricial species undergo on average a 7.5 fold increase in brain size from birth and are born with very immature and incomplete organ systems, including non-functioning eyes and ears, and develop postural and locomotor function postnatally (Stanford and Bunn, 2001;Martin, 2003). Human infants are born without full motor functions, but have sensory awareness and more fully developed organ systems. ...
Perinatal brain injury is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in humans. Birth
asphyxia and pre-term birth cause patterns of brain damage that depend on sex, and
gestational age at the time of insult. Where asphyxia or prematurity cause brain damage the
hippocampus, an area brain critically important in learning and memory, is often affected.
Using spiny mice we have investigated the clinically relevant insult of late gestation
fetal hypoxia and metabolic acidosis on the neonatal hippocampus. We used
electrophysiological and immunohistological techniques to investigate synaptic function
hippocampal plasticity after birth asphyxia and pre-term birth. We also determined if an
endogenous neurosteroid, allopregnanolone prevent hippocampal dysfunction in the
context of birth asphyxia.
... Modern humans (Homo sapiens) have spent some 300,000 years as small, mobile bands of hunter-gatherers, situating animals firmly within their localized cosmologies. The eating of animal source foods is therefore tightly coupled to human biosocial evolution (Stanford and Bunn, 2001). After a transition period from foraging to more settled communities, new societal models emerged during the Neolithic era and eventually organized themselves around the concept of domestication (Scott, 2017). ...
... They have emerged from what Deleuze and Gauttari (1987) named 'machinic' assemblages of bodies (carcasses, marrow, nutrients, hands, brains, skin, bone, animals, spears, fire, stone, ochre, etc.) and collective assemblages of enunciation (e.g., in dance, song, rite, myth, or painting). For a discussion on how the appearance of scavenging, hunting, and meat eating are to be considered as 'solutions' to (ecological) 'problems' within the hominin record, we refer to Stanford and Bunn (2001) and Andrews and Johnson (2019). ...
Humanity’s main societal and epistemic transitions also mirror changes in its approach to the food system. This particularly holds true for human–animal interactions and the consumption of animal source foods (red meat especially, and to a lesser degree dairy, eggs, poultry, and fish). Hunter-gathering has been by far the longest prevailing form of human sustenance, followed by a diffuse transition to crop agriculture and animal husbandry. This transition eventually stabilized as a state-controlled model based on the domestication of plants, animals, and humans. A shift to a post-domestic paradigm was initiated during the 19th century in the urbanizing populations of the Anglosphere, which was characterized by the rise of agri-food corporations, an increased meat supply, and a disconnect of most of its population from the food chain. While this has improved undernutrition, various global threats have been emerging in parallel. The latter include, among others, a public health crisis, climate change, pandemics, and societal class anxieties. This state of affairs is an unstable one, setting the conditions of possibility for a new episteme that may evolve beyond mere adjustments within the business-as-usual model. At least two disruptive scenarios have been described in current food discourses, both by scientists and mass media. Brought to its extreme, the first scenario relates to the radical abolishment of livestock, rewilding, a ‘plants-only’ diet, and vegan ideology. A second option consists of a holistic approach to animal husbandry, involving more harmonic and richer types of human–animal–land interactions. We argue that – instead of reactive pleas for less or none – future thoughtscapes should emphasize ‘more of the better.’
... Taphonomic debates revolving around these topics are essential in understanding features of human evolution, considering how current theories argue meat-eating to be a fundamental component of our evolution [8][9][10][11]. The concept of butchery contains a multitude of different implications beginning with resource acquisition [8,[12][13][14][15], as well as the cognitive technical capacities to manufacture the instruments used for such activities [16][17][18][19][20]. Dates of cut marks at 3.3 Ma implicate Australopithecine populations to be the first users of tools and butcherers in hominin pre-history [1], however authors are yet to come to an agreement as to whether these individuals were physically capable of such practices [16][17][18][19][20]. While an argument has been proposed to say that natural edges of unknapped stones could be used for butchery practices [1], other authors argue that experimentation is yet to be found that supports this claim [3]. ...
... BSM analysis remains to be a very important component of taphonomic studies, whereby their identification and in-depth analysis can reveal multiple components regarding early hominin populations [11][12][13][14][15], their development [6,7,23], and their associated paleoecologies [14,24,28]. Nevertheless, issues imposed by equifinality have led to complications in their identification and interpretation [1][2][3][4][5], requiring more objective and empirical methods that can be used for BSM classification and characterization [21][22][23][24][25][26][27]30,58]. ...
Featured Application: Cut mark identification and analysis is a fundamental component for archaeological investigation. Cut mark analysis, however, has been the root of great debates, with some authors claiming to have the oldest cut marks in or outside of Africa. If these marks were to truly be anthropic in nature, then the repercussions of these findings would produce a paradigm shift for our understanding of human evolution. Unfortunately, the majority of methods available for cut mark classification are namely qualitative in nature. Here we provide a new, highly powerful artificially intelligent neural network classification model that can be used to quantitatively and more objectively overcome these issues, using 3D digital microscopy, Deep Learning and Geometric Morphometrics to obtain up to 100% accuracy in some cases. Abstract: The concept of equifinality is currently one of the largest issues in taphonomy, frequently leading analysts to erroneously interpret the formation and functionality of archaeological and paleontological sites. An example of this equifinality can be found in the differentiation between anthropic cut marks and other traces on bone produced by natural agents, such as that of sedimentary abrasion and trampling. These issues are a key component in the understanding of early human evolution, yet frequently rely on qualitative features for their identification. Unfortunately, qualitative data is commonly susceptible to subjectivity, producing insecurity in research through analyst experience. The present study intends to confront these issues through a hybrid methodological approach. Here, we combine Geometric Morphometric data, 3D digital microscopy, and Deep Learning Neural Networks to provide a means of empirically classifying taphonomic traces on bone. Results obtained are able to reach over 95% classification, providing a possible means of overcoming taphonomic equifinality in the archaeological and paleontological register.
... Mammals also are well known as flagships species for conservation efforts because they of their charismatic nature [11] and role as bioindicators of forest and land cover types [12]. Some mammals provide valuable benefits to humans as well, such as food and nutrition, recreation, education, and income [13,14,3]. Mammals are the most common game species in the world. ...
The “forest city” concept prioritizes green area management in the new Indonesian capital (IKN) of Nusantara, with key aspects including the protection of forested areas, restoration of deforestation and degradation areas, and monitoring of wildlife species. This study aimed to identify existing mammalian fauna in the IKN by direct and in-direct observation. Line transects were used for direct observation, and camera traps, cage traps, harp traps, mist nets, and documented animal sign were used for in-direct observation. Focal survey areas for this study included old and young secondary forests and forest plantations found in the area delineated for IKN. These sites included the Grand Forest Park of Bukit Soeharto, Bukit Bangkirai, and areas inside the PT Inhutani and PT ITCI Hutani Manunggal concessions within Mentawir village and the Gunung Parung region. Across these sites, from 2020-2023 a regular survey was conducted at 74 points in 9 focal areas to update and clarify historical mammalian data. The results showed that natural forested areas are very
important for mammalian fauna, especially in old secondary forest. We found 52
species of mammal, including seven species of primates (e.g., Maroon Langur
(Presbytis rubicunda), Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus), Bornean Gibbon
(Hylobates muelleri), Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang)), four species of wild cats
(e.g., Clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi), Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata)), and
five species of ungulates (e.g. Sambar (Rusa unicolor), Bornean Yellow Muctjac
(Muntiacus atherodes)). There are many species that depend on forests in the
IKN that need to be protected, and live monitoring using technologies, such as
simple 4G camera traps, GPS collars, and bioacoustics recorders will be very
helpful for forest protection, wildlife management, and minimizing human wildlife
conflict during IKN development.
... What individual differences might be associated with the desire to eat meat ( Figure 1A)? Although our desire for meat is deeply ingrained, both culturally and biologically (Stanford & Bunn, 2001), people nevertheless vary in their commitment to and enjoy ment of eating meat (Piazza et al., 2015). Individuals scoring high on such measures consume more meat and endorse more justifications for eating meat, such as claiming that meat is necessary for good health (Piazza et al., 2015). ...
Most people abhor animal cruelty but choose to eat meat. To resolve feelings of conflict associated with this so-called “meat paradox”, meat-eaters appear to downplay the capacity of animals to think and feel. However, the strength of animal mind denial seems likely to vary between individuals—according to one’s concern for animal welfare or enjoyment of meat, for instance. Across two pre-registered studies (S1: N = 355, S2: N = 251), we examined personality traits, attitudes, and beliefs that may predict the strength of animal mind denial in relation to the meat paradox. Results suggest that those lower in openness/intellect or emotion regulation ability, or higher in meat-commitment, deny animal mind more strongly when reminded of the link between meat eating and animal suffering. We discuss the degree to which these findings align with dissonance-based explanations for animal mind-denial in response to the meat-paradox.
... The evidence shows TASFs and animal source foods more broadly was present in hominin diets for over two million years and were driving factors of important physiological changes [8][9][10][11]. The two distinguishing elements of the gatherer-hunter-fisher diet relative to modern Homo sapiens were greater energy supplies from TASFs and diet diversity [9]. One estimate concludes approximately one-third of dietary energy intakes in gatherer-hunter-fisher diets came from meat consumption [12]. ...
Background. Animal source foods are under scrutiny for their role in human health, yet some nutritionally vulnerable populations are largely absent from consideration. Methods. Applying a Population Intervention/Exposure Comparator Outcome (PICO/PECO) framework and prioritizing systematic review and meta-analyses, we reviewed the literature on terrestrial animal source foods (TASFs) and human health, by life course phase. Results. There were consistent findings for milk and dairy products on positive health outcomes during pregnancy and lactation, childhood, and among older adults. Eggs were found to promote early childhood growth, depending on context. Unprocessed meat consumption was associated with a reduced risk for anemia during pregnancy, improved cognition among school-age children, and muscle health in older adults. Milk and eggs represent a risk for food sensitivities/allergies, though prevalence is low, and individuals tend to outgrow the allergies. TASFs affect the human microbiome and associated metabolites with both positive and negative health repercussions, varying by type and quantity. Conclusions. There were substantial gaps in the evidence base for studies limiting our review, specifically for studies in populations outside high-income countries and for several TASF types (pig, poultry, less common livestock species, wild animals, and insects). Nonetheless, sufficient evidence supports an important role for TASFs in health during certain periods of the life course.
... Throughout history, humans have considered meat to be a fundamental part of their diet (Stanford & Bunn, 2001). Although it is a valuable source of nutrients, it is clear that excessive consumption of this protein source has a negative environmental impact (Gonzalez et al., 2020), as well as eating too much meat can be harmful to people's health and lead to health problems such as obesity. ...
There has been no research into the acceptability of the food quality of plant-based meat conducted in the province of Sultan Kudarat. Thus, the researchers were encouraged to produce plant-based meat substitutes, specifically vegan meatballs. The goal of this study was to learn about the level of acceptability of plant-based meatballs in terms of food quality, as well as to determine whether there is a significant difference in the overall acceptability of each formulation developed. The experiment was set up using the study's product formulation and a quantitative-descriptive research design was used. The evaluators tasted and evaluated the vegan-meatballs after they were made according to a specific procedure. To evaluate the products, adult consumers were chosen at random near the researchers' residence in Sultan Kudarat province. The results revealed that all three vegan-meatball formulations received a high level of acceptability in each food quality, with formulation 1 having the highest computed mean and lowest standard deviation, making it the most preferred of the three formulations. Furthermore, no significant differences in the overall acceptability of the three formulations were found, implying that the study's null hypothesis was accepted. The researchers strongly recommend that the formulated products, particularly formulation 1, be consumed as an alternative to real meat products as well as other meat alternatives be produced and consumed as a substitute for meat.
... The utilization of cashew apple for Various products have previously been developed and these include juice, wine, syrup jam and host of others. Regarding to the use of cashew apple for meat, there are not many researches mentioned throughout history, humans have considered meat to be an essential part of their diet (Stanford and Bunn, 2001). The consumption of meat has been key for human evolution as it has been linked to the brain growth and development within prehistoric Homo sapiens (Williams and Hill, 2017). ...
Cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale) is a cash crop mainly grown for its nuts. The dried apple is a good source of protein and non-digestible fibre that is essential to prevent many diseases as it helps in bowel movements to remove waste and non-digestible food materials from human system. The dried apple was obtained from extracting juice from the whole apple before drying. The use of apple which is a by-product can be an opportunity for diversifying activities on the farm. The farmers' revenue can increase through various opportunities which, exist for using cashew apples. However, these opportunities are presently not utilised adequately since most farmers are of the peasant status and has no knowledge on how to process the apple. Due to its high rate of perishability, cashew apples will not require to be transported over long distances and need to be processed, if possible, at the farm settlements. Simulated cashew meat was processed by subjecting cashew apple to juice pressing, blanching, salting and different methods of drying. The products obtained were subjected to physiochemical analysis, sensory evaluation and shelf-life studies. The percentage values for pH, moisture, crude protein and crude fiber contents were 4.71, 9.33, 18.31 and 14.32 respectively. The meat-like substance developed from cashew apple was very similar to dry meat. The sensory analysis revealed that there were no significant differences between processed cashew meat when compared with dry meat. The products were stable at room temperature for three months, studies on going to extend the shelf life further. Production of simulated cashew meat as a substitute for both meat consumers and vegetarians had come as a way of adding value to cashew apples that waste away in our cashew farms during peak seasons.
... The fundamental human niche is often described by reference to bipedalism, encephalisation, tooth morphology (especially size reduction), manual dexterity, extended life history and refined tool production and use [75][76][77][78][79], especially the obligate reliance on extractive material culture [80,81]. Classically, this package of evolved traits has been linked to a gradual amplification of food quality throughout early human evolution, epitomized by the 'expensive tissue hypothesis' and cognate accounts [82,83], and aided by key behaviours such as the manipulation of fire [84][85][86][87], collective foraging [88][89][90][91][92] and the invasion of carnivore niches [93][94][95][96]. These features are supplemented by the evolved pan-ecology of humans [67], climaxing with Homo sapiens as a 'global species' and sporting adaptations to almost all terrestrial habitats [97,98]. ...
Today's biodiversity crisis fundamentally threatens the habitability of the planet, thus ranking among the primary human challenges of our time. Much emphasis is currently placed on the loss of biodiversity in the Anthropocene, yet these debates often portray biodiversity as a purely natural phenomenon without much consideration of its human dimensions and frequently lack long-term vistas. This paper offers a deep-time perspective on the key role of the evolving human niche in ecosystem functioning and biodiversity dynamics. We summarize research on past hunter–gatherer ecosystem contributions and argue that human–environment feedback systems with important biodiversity consequences are probably a recurrent feature of the Late Pleistocene, perhaps with even deeper roots. We update current understandings of the human niche in this light and suggest that the formation of palaeo-synanthropic niches in other animals proffers a powerful model system to investigate recursive interactions of foragers and ecosystems. Archaeology holds important knowledge here and shows that ecosystem contributions vary greatly in relation to different human lifeways, some of which are lost today. We therefore recommend paying more attention to the intricate relationship between biodiversity and cultural diversity, contending that promotion of the former depends on fostering the latter.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘Ecological novelty and planetary stewardship: biodiversity dynamics in a transforming biosphere’.
... From ancient time, humans have considered meat to be an essential food source (Stanford and Bunn, 2001). Worldwide, beef, pork, and chicken products are in high demand, with the United States and Australia topping the charts (Ritchie, 2019). ...
Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) have been discussed in the food and research communities for decades, but have recently become a hot topic. To determine future research opportunities for PBMA and to investigate the current state of scientific research, the factors that led to its development, its history, the key technologies required for production, and the resulting consumer attitudes are discussed. Concerns about the environment, human health, and animal welfare have been driving factors behind the development of PBMA. PBMA improves functional characteristics and sensory characteristics. There is a continued need for improvements in consumer acceptance of PBMA, but it remains unsatisfactory. Environmental concerns, human health concerns, and animal welfare concerns all contributed to the promotion of PBMA development.
... From the ancient period, meat has traditionally been considered as a necessary component of the human diet [1]. Consuming meat played a very crucial role in the development of prehistoric Homo sapiens and has become a dominant food item for the human diet in many regions of the world, with unforeseen consequences [2]. ...
A growing number of health-conscious consumers are looking for animal protein alternatives with similar texture, appearance, and flavor. However, research and development still needs to find alternative non-meat materials. The aim of this study was to develop a mushroom-based minced meat substitute (MMMS) from edible Pleurotus sajor-caju (PSC) mushrooms and optimize the concentration of chickpea flour (CF), beetroot extract, and canola oil. CF was used to improve the textural properties of the MMMS by mixing it with PSC mushrooms in ratios of 0:50, 12.5:37.5, 25:25, 37.5:12.5, and 50:0. Textural and sensory attributes suggest that PSC mushrooms to CF in a ratio of 37.5:12.5 had better textural properties, showing hardness of 2610 N and higher consumer acceptability with protein content up to 47%. Sensory analysis suggests that 5% (w/w) canola oil showed the most acceptable consumer acceptability compared to other concentrations. Color parameters indicate that 0.2% beetroot extract shows higher whiteness, less redness, and higher yellowness for both fresh and cooked MMMS. This research suggests that MMMS containing PSC, CF, canola oil, and beetroot extract could be a suitable alternative and sustainable food product which may lead to higher consumer adoption as a meat substitute.
... For most of our evolution and history as hunter-gatherers this was pre-solved as our diet was so meat based both as a source of micronutrients and for calories particularly in temperate zones so catastrophes would have caused localised or seasonal famines rather than chronic or widespread or lifelong malnutrition [151][152][153][154][155]. High intake of nicotinamide from hunting may have been important to the evolution of large cooperative brains with pellagra being an atavistic example of evolution in reverse gear. ...
Pellagra is caused by a dietary deficiency of milk and meat leading to insufficient nicotinamide (vitamin B3), the precursor to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). “Pellagra sine pellagra” was well recognised and may be common as supplementation was never globally implemented and a screening test never developed. Meat and milk intake varies 30-fold globally so there are perhaps 2 billion at risk of deficiency. Such patients will have physical and cognitive stunting, poor conduct and be prone to acute and chronic infections, including TB, and premature ageing, including dementia. Resilience may be poor to NAD-consuming insults whether chemical, microbial or traumatic that conspires to cause brain injury but comes with the opportunity for pre-conception dietary corrections breaking cycles of deprivation and poor educational outcomes. Such individuals may otherwise be subject to discrimination as was the pellagra ridden “Butterfly” caste causing racial and ethic tensions. Poor countries with many having to spend 50-80% of income on food and very little on animal produce cannot develop properly unlike wealthier meat rich empires, past and present. The many benefits of experiments with food programmes and basic income support are because, as Engels curves predict, more is spent on milk and meat enabling demographic, epidemiological, and economic transitions and modernity.
... Meat has been considered essential by humans in their diets (Stanford and Bunn, 2001;van der Weele et al., 2019), although it is currently known that it is not, according to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics of the United States (Melina et al., 2016) and the National Health Service in England (NHS, 2018), amongst others. Even so, meat consumption records are expected in the coming years, especially with the projected increase in consumption in developing regions (OECD-FAO, 2020). ...
Cultivated and plant-based meats have been recognized as radical innovations that may revolutionize food production worldwide. Despite potentially being more sustainable than conventional meat, little is known about the consequences these innovations can bring to society. To help to clarify this topic, we studied the social impacts that cultivated and plant-based meats may bring to Brazil, the United States and Europe. Based on the perspective of 136 experts, our results are divided into market expectations, consumer access, consumer acceptance, impacts on farms, and business opportunities along the new chains. Experts generally predicted an optimistic picture of the social effects with several opportunities as alternative meats become available. However, the consequences for animal farmers seemed worrying in the experts' views. Overall, the opinion of Brazilian and American experts seemed more optimistic than that of Europeans. Our findings may be helpful for practitioners and people involved in rural policy interested in better guiding this transition process in the food production chain.
... Although meat has been considered an important food by people in their diets (Stanford and Bunn, 2001), several problems in the environmental, animal ethics and public health dimensions related to its production and consumption have gained prominence in recent decades. On the environmental side, about 14.5 % of the greenhouse gas emissions come from raising animals for food (FAO, 2019;Gerber et al., 2013). ...
Cultivated and plant-based meats are emerging as innovative alternatives to improve the food production system. Although some environmental impacts and market acceptance assessments have already been developed, little emphasis has been given to potential social impacts. Based on the Brazilian case, one of the largest meat producers in the world, this study seeks to answer what the social impacts of a transition from conventional to cultivated and plant-based meats may be. Empirical data were collected from in-depth interviews with 35 experts involved in animal production and alternative products. Our results indicated nine opportunities and five challenges that the country may face. We discussed these findings in relation to the degree of involvement of relevant actors and suggested that high stakeholder engagement may contribute to capitalizing on social opportunities, and that low stakeholder engagement will likely not mitigate the challenges. We also highlight the need for policies that better drive a transition process, even if partially, in a fair and inclusive way. Our study advances the field of food systems in transition, being the first one to investigate the social impacts of alternative proteins on a developing country. Many of our findings seem to be generalizable to other countries involved in the production of food from animals.
... Furthermore, the diet of Homo erectus could have been characterized by low folate intake, increasing the risk of neural tube defects. Evidence suggests a shift in dietary quality with the emergence Homo erectus, with an increase in meat consumption indicated by the presence of stone tool cut marks on animal bones (Andrews & Johnson, 2019;Stanford & Bunn, 2001;Shipman & Walker, 1989). A study by Popovich et al. (1997) suggests that the diet of western lowland gorillas has implications for preventing spina bifida in humans. ...
Spina bifida, a type of neural tube defect apparent at birth, has been sporadically documented in paleopathological analyses. It occurs most frequently in the sacrum and has clinical manifestations ranging from mild to severe. However, reporting and interpreting spina bifida from archaeological sacral remains has been difficult because no consensus has been reached about the anatomical indicators of sacral spina bifida. Such a diagnosis is also complicated by the fact that the sacrum is the most variable region of the spine, with many of the morphometric variants being considered normal. This project explored sacral variation in a fossil hominin specimen designated KNM-WT 15000, also known as Nariokotome Boy. This Homo erectus skeleton had been initially suggested to be pathological, due to exhibiting traces of congenital skeletal abnormalities, including spina bifida. However, it has become a subject of controversy, as more recent studies refute this claim. Thus, the objective of the present study was to evaluate these competing claims through the comparative analysis of sacral morphology in KNM-WT 15000 and two prehistoric reference samples from the archaeological sites of Tepe Hissar and Hasanlu in modern-day Iran. The results indicate that the sacrum of KNM-WT 15000 falls within normal morphometric variation compared to the reference samples except in the first sacral vertebra, where an occurrence of spina bifida could be suggested.
... Hominids evolved into this ecological niche and formed prosocial hunting parties aided by new technology from spears to the bow and (poison) arrow and dog domestication. H. sapiens emerged with egalitarian "reverse dominance" structures with "reciprocal altruism" to kin and selected non-kin with meat sharing and an extensive cattle vocabulary and spiritual connection with animals and plants [29,60,61]. Human phylogeny and ontogeny ("EcoDevo") revolved around cooperative feeding and a shared intentionality over resourcing meat, and over breeding with alloparenting, in three-generation families. ...
We evolved from herbivores to a meat eating "commons" in hunter-gatherer days and then to a non-egalitarian meat power struggle between classes and countries. Egalitarian-ism, trans-egalitarianism and extremes of inequality and hierarchy revolve around the fair-unfair distribution of meat surpluses and ownership of the means of meat production. Poor people on poor diets with too few micronutrients may explain many inequalities of human capital, height and health and divergent development of individuals and nations. Learning from past successes and collapses from switching trophic levels the lesson is that meat moderation toward the top of Engel's curves, not calorie-centrism, is the best recipe for countries and classes. Improved health with longer lives and higher crystallised intelligence comes with an ample supply of micro-nutrients from animal products namely iron, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and other methyl-donors (such as choline), and nicotinamide (vitamin B3). We concentrate on nicotinamide whose deficits cause the degenerative condition pellagra that manifests as poor emotional and degenerative cognitive states with stunted lives and complex antisocial and dysbiotic effects caused by and causing poverty.
... 23 • Vegetable meat accounts for less than 1% of all meat sales in the United States. However, it is driving change in the global food system and has great environmental benefits 24 Vegetable meat products can replace processed meat products such as burgers, sausages and nuggets. Vegetable meat contains less saturated fat, cholesterol and calories than animal foods. ...
Vegan meat production is most trending topic in the developing world. There are many advantages and limitations of Vegan meats compare to normal meat. This article gives you a clear picture about the topic.
... A caça, junto com a coleta, consiste na atividade de subsistência mais antiga praticada pelos seres humanos, sendo que a agricultura surgiu há apenas cerca de 10 mil anos (THOMPSON et al., 2000;STANFORD, BUNN, 2001). Ainda assim, mesmo nas sociedades agrícolas, a caça sempre esteve presente, em diferentes níveis, mas na maioria das vezes sendo considerada uma atividade mais importante que a agricultura, e a carne um item alimentar mais importante que o produto agrícola (KENT, 1989). ...
Neste artigo, dissertamos sobre a relação dos povos tradicionais e a gestão de fauna silvestre na Amazônia Brasileira, como os marcos legais que regem o tema são subutilizados e quais são as perspectivas para o futuro do manejo e conservação dessas espécies. Abordamos também como ocorre a marginalização dos povos tradicionais quanto ao uso dos recursos naturais faunísticos, com enfoque nos quelônios aquáticos amazônicos, e como o Poder Público pode agir no sentido de garantir tais direitos. Concluímos que o consumo de quelônios amazônicos é uma realidade e um direito das populações rurais tradicionais, e que sua criminalização isoladamente não tem efeito expressivo na redução da pressão de captura praticada em boa parte da Amazônia. Pelo contrário, a ilegalidade torna mais difícil o monitoramento e o manejo, que poderiam e deveriam ser regulados por mecanismos administrativos, capazes de contemplar a realidade local ao mesmo tempo em que promove a conservação por meio do uso sustentável e do manejo de escala comunitária.Palavras-chave: Gestão da fauna silvestre. Legislação ambiental. Populações tradicionais.
... The ability of early humans to use basic rudimentary tools, such as stones and sticks to control and use fire to cook meat products procured from hunting, as well as their access to bone marrow, led to the consumption of nutrient dense foods with higher energy and protein content. This lessened the need for large jaws/teeth and a bulky digestive system and consequently, resulted in a larger endocranial cavity allowing for brain growth to occur [1,2]. In regions of the world where humans have thrived, animal products, especially meat products, have been an important component in the human diet due to its high level of biologically available nutrients, including protein, iron, zinc and B-complex vitamins, especially B 12 [3,4]. ...
Consumption of red meat contributes to the intake of many essential nutrients in the human diet including protein, essential fatty acids, and several vitamins and trace minerals, with high iron content, particularly in meats with high myoglobin content. Demand for red meat continues to increase worldwide, particularly in developing countries where food nutrient density is a concern. Dietary and genetic manipulation of livestock can influence the nutritional value of meat products, providing opportunities to enhance the nutritional value of meat. Studies have demonstrated that changes in livestock nutrition and breeding strategies can alter the nutritional value of red meat. Traditional breeding strategies, such as genetic selection, have influenced multiple carcass and meat quality attributes relevant to the nutritional value of meat including muscle and fat deposition. However, limited studies have combined both genetic and nutritional approaches. Future studies aiming to manipulate the composition of fresh meat should aim to balance potential impacts on product quality and consumer perception. Furthermore, the rapidly emerging fields of phenomics, nutrigenomics, and integrative approaches, such as livestock precision farming and systems biology, may help better understand the opportunities to improve the nutritional value of meat under both experimental and commercial conditions.
... However, these compensations do not explain why a larger brain provided better fitness in the first place. Stanford and Bunn [70] proposed that the initial increase in the Homo brain size was driven by the need to develop hunting skills. Brain [71] attributed the brain size increase to the need to avoid predation; however, the question remains what drove the further~50% increase in brain size from H. erectus to H. sapiens. ...
We hypothesize that megafauna extinctions throughout the Pleistocene, that led to a progressive decline in large prey availability, were a primary selecting agent in key evolutionary and cultural changes in human prehistory. The Pleistocene human past is characterized by a series of transformations that include the evolution of new physiological traits and the adoption, assimilation, and replacement of cultural and behavioral patterns. Some changes, such as brain expansion, use of fire, developments in stone-tool technologies, or the scale of resource intensification, were uncharacteristically progressive. We previously hypothesized that humans specialized in acquiring large prey because of their higher foraging efficiency, high biomass density, higher fat content, and the use of less complex tools for their acquisition. Here, we argue that the need to mitigate the additional energetic cost of acquiring progressively smaller prey may have been an ecological selecting agent in fundamental adaptive modes demonstrated in the Paleolithic archaeological record. We describe several potential associations between prey size decline and specific evolutionary and cultural changes that might have been driven by the need to adapt to increased energetic demands while hunting and processing smaller and smaller game.
... Meat has been part of the diet of most human societies (Stanford and Bunn, 2001;Burgat, 2017), and is still omnipresent in human culture (e.g., in holiday meals). Yet, the consumption of meat requires animals to be raised and killed and can be viewed as a morally problematic activity. ...
Many individuals have empathetic feelings towards animals but frequently consume meat. We investigate this “meat paradox” using insights from the literature on motivated reasoning in moral dilemmata. We develop a model where individuals form self-serving beliefs about the suffering of animals caused by meat consumption in order to alleviate the guilt associated with their dietary choices. The model predicts that the price of meat has a causal effect on individuals’ beliefs: high prices foster realism by lowering the returns to self-deception, which magnifies the price elasticity of meat consumption. The model also predicts a positive relationship between individuals’ taste for meat and their propensity to engage in self-deception, a causal effect of aggregate consumption on individual beliefs, and the coexistence of equilibria of “collective realism” and “collective denial”.
... The ability of early humans to use basic rudimentary tools, such as stones and sticks to control and use fire to cook meat products procured from hunting, as well as their access to bone marrow, led to the consumption of nutrient dense foods with higher energy and protein content. This lessened the need for large jaws/teeth and a bulky digestive system and consequently, resulted in a larger endocranial cavity allowing for brain growth to occur [1,2]. In regions of the world where humans have thrived, animal products, especially meat products, have been an important component in the human diet due to its high level of biologically available nutrients, including protein, iron, zinc and B-complex vitamins, especially B 12 [3,4]. ...
Consumption of red meats contributes substantially to the intake of several essential nutrients in the human diet, including protein, essential fatty acids, and several vitamins and trace minerals. Despite concerns regarding potential negative impacts on human health and the environment, demand for red meats continues to increase worldwide, particularly in developing countries. Enhancing the nutritional value of meats is essential to provide consumers with competitive products that meet their nutrient requirements and address their health concerns. Different nutrients in red meats vary in their responsiveness to dietary and genetic manipulations. The fat content and fatty acid composition of meats can be easily modified through animal nutrition. Similarly, iodine, selenium and fat-soluble vitamin content can be significantly manipulated using dietary strategies. In contrast, amino acids, copper, iron, zinc, and water-soluble vitamins are less responsive to dietary manipulations. Feeding studies (i.e. supplements, additives, production systems, life period, nutritional regimes and duration) are relatively abundant and have shown substantial changes to nutritional value in many scenarios. Traditional breeding, including genetic selection for specific traits, has been used to influence multiple carcass and meat quality attributes relevant to nutritional value of meat, including leanness. The use of molecular genetics (i.e. GWAS, identification of genetic variants, gene expression profiles) in the past decade has offered alternative genetic perspectives on improving the nutritional value of meats. Recent studies have also shown influence of rumen or gut microbiome features on nutrient bioavailability and utilization. However, a limited number of studies have combined feeding strategies for specific genetic potential. Given the nutrient composition of meat can be influenced by a dynamic interaction of genetics and environment, the fields of phenomics, nutrigenomics, integrative diet-host-microbiome, and systems biology may bring further insight to better understand the manipulation of red meat composition under both experimental and commercial conditions.
... A caça, junto com a coleta, consiste na atividade de subsistência mais antiga praticada pelos seres humanos, sendo que a agricultura surgiu há apenas cerca de 10 mil anos (THOMPSON et al., 2000;STANFORD, BUNN, 2001). Ainda assim, mesmo nas sociedades agrícolas, a caça sempre esteve presente, em diferentes níveis, mas na maioria das vezes sendo considerada uma atividade mais importante que a agricultura, e a carne um item alimentar mais importante que o produto agrícola (KENT, 1989). ...
Neste artigo, dissertamos sobre a relação dos povos tradicionais e a gestão de fauna silvestre na Amazônia Brasileira, como os marcos legais que regem o tema são subutilizados e quais são as perspectivas para o futuro do manejo e conservação dessas espécies. Abordamos também como ocorre a marginalização dos povos tradicionais quanto ao uso dos recursos naturais faunísticos, com enfoque nos quelônios aquáticos amazônicos, e como o Poder Público pode agir no sentido de garantir tais direitos. Concluímos que o consumo de quelônios amazônicos é uma realidade e um direito das populações rurais tradicionais, e que sua criminalização isoladamente não tem efeito expressivo na redução da pressão de captura praticada em boa parte da Amazônia. Pelo contrário, a ilegalidade torna mais difícil o monitoramento e o manejo, que poderiam e deveriam ser regulados por mecanismos administrativos, capazes de contemplar a realidade local ao mesmo tempo em que promove a conservação por meio do uso sustentável e do manejo de escala comunitária.Palavras-chave: Gestão da fauna silvestre. Legislação ambiental. Populações tradicionais.
... Having discussed the interrelationships with environmental and ethical complexities elsewhere (7,8), Dr. Leroy, who presented the NO argument, welcomed a discussion focused on health aspects, especially in light of persisting controversies. He emphasized that humans are naturally omnivores, not herbivores (9), and that animal foods have long been consumed by all human societies, serving as valuable dietary components that meet a variety of biosocial needs (10). He argued that exclusion of all animal foods would undermine nutritional flexibility and robustness, placing some of the more vulnerable population groups at increased risk. ...
The present debate outlined opposing views regarding the role of animal products in human diets. The YES position argues that the health benefits and safety of plant-based diets have been clearly established by consistent findings of randomized trials and observational studies; that animal products skew the diet toward saturated fat, excess protein, cholesterol, lactose, and exogenous hormones; and that vulnerable populations are better nourished by vegetables, fruits, legumes, and whole grains than by striated muscle and cow milk. In contrast, the NO position asserts that animal foods are not only benign but are also key elements of the human omnivore diet, facilitating the global challenge of adequate essential nutrition. This view holds that the portrayal of animal foods as unhealthy is not supported by the evidence and that a restrictive vegan diet decreases nutritional flexibility and robustness, increasing risk for vulnerable population groups. Points of agreement and controversy were identified, as well as opportunities for further studies.
... The health concerns of traditional meat consumption Traditionally, meat acts to provide humans with the necessary nutrients and energy to function throughout the day (Stanford & Bunn, 2001). Despite this, the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that processed meat is in fact carcinogenic (Group1), whereas red meat such as beef is a probable source of cancer (Group 2A) to humans (Bouvard et al., 2015;Godfray et al., 2018). ...
The topic of plant‐based meat alternatives (PBMAs) has been discussed for several decades, but it has only recently become one of the hottest topics in the food and research communities. With the purpose of investigating the current situation of scientific research on PBMA and determining future research opportunities, the driving forces for PBMA development, a brief history of its progression, key technologies required for production, and the resulting consumer attitudes are summarized. Environmental, human health, and animal welfare concerns are the main factors that have driven the development of PBMA. Although its history can trace back to ancient Asian civilizations, the first generation of PBMA originated in 1960s and a new generation of PBMA designed for carnivore was developed in recently years. Structuring methods such as extrusion and shear cell techniques have been widely studied, but improvements toward the overall appearance and flavor, biological and chemical safety control, as well as the selection of protein sources are also very important for PBMA production. The consumer acceptance of PBMA remains unsatisfactory but is continually improving. Based on those knowledge, future research opportunities include developing more effective strategies for consumer education, providing more scientific evidence for the health properties of PBMA, finding more suitable protein sources to improve the quality of the final products, improving the appearance and flavor, further examining and securing the chemical safety, exploring the structure formation mechanism during the extraction or shearing processes, and developing methods and standards for a quality evaluation of PBMA.
... Whatever may be the reason, there is some, although small, evidence that men have a stronger preference for meat as compared to women, and this may trace back to a very long time of our human history, given that Hunter Gatherer societies of today may still reflect our evolutionary past (Marlowe, 2005). Eating meat is deeply rooted in our evolutionary history (Stanford & Bunn, 2001), and even today many people's meat craving is strong (Leroy & Praet, 2015). Altogether, meat is considered "natural, normal, necessary and nice" (Piazza et al., 2015), which makes it very hard to change these deeply rooted habits to eat meat (Leroy & Praet, 2015). ...
"Real men eat meat." While this idea is on the one hand widespread throughout time and cultures, it has also been criticized as being too stereotypical, not applicable to all men alike, and being dependent on group level cultural beliefs about gender norms. Increasingly some men question male norms and male privileges, and value authenticity, domesticity and holistic self-awareness. They identify themselves with 'new' forms of masculinity. This study investigates on an individual level if attachment to these newer forms of masculinity can predict differences in meat consumption, willingness to reduce meat, and attitudes towards vegetarians among men. A total of N = 309 male meat-eating participants were surveyed about their self-identification with new forms of masculinity, their attachment to meat, willingness to reduce their meat intake, and attitudes towards vegetarians. Results show that, as was predicted, men who identify more strongly with new forms of masculinity consume less meat, have a weaker attachment to meat, have a greater tendency to reduce their meat intake, and have more positive attitudes towards vegetarians. In sum this study carefully suggests to not only take biological sex differences, but socially and culturally determined gender differences into account when studying or promoting the (non-)consumption of meat.
In the Afrotropic biogeographic realm, with its diverse and high-density mammal population, early humans may have been hunting with stone-tipped weapons since ~500,000 years ago. Being able to hunt effectively from a distance has several important adaptive advantages. Yet, until now, African long-range javelin hunting remained unexplored as intermediate between short/medium-range, hand-delivered and long-range, mechanically projected weapons. Insights gained from a new Afrotropic comparative dataset with 950 weapon tips of known use—including several javelin types—provide a contextually appropriate middle-range tool for assessing the probable effective hunting ranges of Middle Stone Age points. We use a novel application of the ballistically relevant tip cross-sectional area (TCSA) statistic to define contact, short-, medium-, long- and maximum-range hunting and discuss the adaptive advantages for each. The approach is applied to suggest developments and variations in the best-fit hunting ranges of 5597 stone points from 62 Middle Stone Age Afrotropic assemblages. By aligning our results with the Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) record we hypothesize that effective long-range (~20–30 m) hunting with stone-tipped weapons was probably not practiced by ≥MIS 8, and that experimentation with long-range javelins—similar to those used by contemporary Ethiopian hunters—over these distances may have started during MIS 6, becoming part of the everyday Afrotropic hunting arsenal by the end of MIS 5.
Technological innovation has been crucial in the evolution of our lineage, with tool use and production linked to complex cognitive processes. While previous research has examined the cognitive demands of early stone toolmaking, the neurocognitive aspects of early hominin tool use remain largely underexplored. This study relies on electroencephalography to investigate brain activation patterns associated with two distinct early hominin tool-using behaviors: forceful hammerstone percussion, practiced by both humans and non-human primates and linked to the earliest proposed stone tool industries, and precise flake cutting, an exclusive hominin behavior typically associated with the Oldowan. Our results show increased engagement of the frontoparietal regions during both tasks. Furthermore, we observed significantly increased beta power in the frontal and centroparietal areas when manipulating a cutting flake compared to a hammerstone, and increased beta activity over contralateral frontal areas during the aiming (planning) stage of the tool-using process. This original empirical evidence suggests that certain fundamental brain changes during early hominin evolution may be linked to precise stone tool use. These results offer new insights into the complex interplay between technology and human brain evolution and encourage further research on the neurocognitive underpinnings of hominin tool use.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-024-77452-0.
In Africa, humans and large carnivores compete over access to resources, including prey. Disturbance by humans to kills made by carnivores, often for purposes of obtaining all or portions of the carcass, constitutes a form of human-wildlife conflict. However the occurrence of this practice, known as human kleptoparasitism, and its impact on carnivores has received little scientific attention. We obtained expert opinions from African lion researchers and stakeholders via a standardized questionnaire to characterize the geographic extent and frequency of human kleptoparasitism as it occurs in modern times. Our survey found modern human kleptoparasitism on kills made by lions, and possibly other large carnivores in Africa, to be geographically more widespread than previously reported. Meat lost to humans requires carnivores to hunt and kill additional prey thereby causing stress, increasing their energetic costs and risks of natural injury, and exposing them to risk of direct injury or death from human usurpers. Because of their conspicuous behaviors and tendency towards killing large-bodied prey, lions are particularly susceptible to humans detecting their kills. While human kleptoparasitism was geographically widespread, socio-economic factors influenced the frequency of occurrence. Prey type (wild game or domestic livestock) influenced human attitudes towards meat theft; ownership allows for legal recovery of livestock carcasses, while possessing wild game meat is mostly illegal and may incur penalties. Meat theft was associated with other illegal activities (i.e., illegal mining) and most prevalent among people of low income, including underpaid game scouts. Despite quantifiable costs to carnivores of human disturbance to their kills, the majority of experts surveyed reported a lack of knowledge on this practice. We propose that human disturbance at kills, especially loss of prey through human kleptoparasitism, constitutes an important anthropogenic threat that may seriously impact energy budgets of individual lions and other scavengers when meat and carcasses are removed from the ecosystem, and that the costs incurred by carnivores warrants further investigation.
While the hunter-gatherer theory asserts that humans are above all hunters, so that our evolutionary development is linked to hunting and blood and a very specific kind of masculinity, the gatherer-hunter approach posits that pre-industrial humans were more similar to “noble savages”, as defined by Rousseau. The only advantage offered by the first theory is that it explains the horrors of the twentieth century and offers the possibility of exoneration.
Pellagra is caused by a diet with little meat or milk and a reliance on maize. Pellagrins suffer from poor cognitive and social skills. Pellagra was cured with nicotinamide (vitamin B3) but before that pellagrins were considered inferior and dangerous degenerates and were known as the “Butterfly Caste” after the characteristic sunburn rash. Quests for meat drove the diaspora “out of Africa” with meat sharing being the social norm. After the domestication of animals “meat elites” across classes, castes, sexes and continents emerged. Nomads migrating to northern Europe created mixed pastoralist-farmer populations whose fermentation cultures and genetic innovations allowed lactose tolerance. Skin lightened as sunlight, needed to synthesise vitamin D. and sunburn was rare. Conquests encouraged their view that they were a superior race rather than that they were blessed with a superior diet. Ruling classes on a high meat diet combined forces with cereal dependant workers (with higher fertility) whilst the “lumpenproletariat” were economic vegetarians. Social contracts broke down with rebellions, but slaves, oppressed sharecroppers and refugees bore and bear the brunt of (subclinical)pellagra often in ex-colonial subjects—to whom dietary reparations could bridge international inequality gaps.
Actualmente se utilizan numerosas estrategias dietéticas para la prevención de enfermedades metabólicas y la pérdida de peso. Algunas de las estrategias utilizadas no tienen base fisiológica-nutricional apropiada y no tienen en cuenta los cambios genéticos que han ocurrido de forma reciente, por lo que en ciertos casos pueden resultar perjudiciales para la salud humana. El objetivo de este trabajo es revisar las mutaciones genéticas ocurridas durante la evolución humana desde los primeros homínidos hasta el Homo sapiens y explicar cómo han influido en la forma de alimentarnos; algunas mutaciones favorecieron el desarrollo cerebral y otras están relacionadas con la digestión de algunos nutrientes como la lactosa y el almidón. También se explica la influencia de la domesticación de los alimentos y de la práctica de la cocina en la alimentación humana. Además, se pretenden justificar las recomendaciones actuales sobre la distribución calórica de macronutrientes a partir de la importante influencia de los cambios genéticos y las adaptaciones acontecidas en nuestra especie.
Like humans, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are well known for their vertebrate and invertebrate hunting, but they rarely scavenge. In contrast, while hunting and meat consumption became increasingly important during the evolution of the genus Homo, scavenging meat and marrow from carcasses of large mammals was also likely to be an important component of their subsistence strategies. Here, we describe a confrontational scavenging interaction between an adult male chimpanzee from the Issa Valley and a crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus), which resulted in the chimpanzee capturing and consuming the carcass of a juvenile bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus). We describe the interaction and contextualize this with previous scavenging observations from chimpanzees.
A growing number of health conscious consumers are looking for animal protein alternatives with similar texture, appearance, and flavor. There has been a lot of interest in meat analogs as potential meat substitutes. However, research and development still needs to find any alternative non-meat materials. The objective of the current research was to develop fungi minced meat alternative (FMMA) from edible mushrooms. Pleurotus Sajor-caju (SC) was used as the starting material. SC mushroom was selected for starting materials based on high protein content (41.99%.) and sensory attributes. Chickpea flour was used to improve the textural properties by mixing with SC mushroom at a ratio of 0:50, 12.5:37.5, 25:25, 37.5:12.5, and 50:0 (w/w). Textural and sensory attributes suggest that SC mushroom to chickpea at a ratio of 37.5:12.5, shows higher acceptability of FMMA with the protein content up to 47%. Beetroot extract 0.2% (w/w), and 5% (w/w) canola oil showed the most acceptable color parameters and consumer acceptability. This research suggested that SC mushroom with 12.5% chickpea flour, 0.2% beetroot extract and 5% canola oil could be suitable ingredients for the mushroom-based FMMA.
Numerous dietary strategies are currently used for the prevention of metabolic diseases and for weight loss. Some of the strategies that are used do not have an appropriate physiological-nutritional basis and do not take into account the genetic changes that have occurred recently. Thus, in certain cases, they can be harmful to human health. This review aims to explain the genetic mutations that have occurred during human evolution from the first hominids to Homo sapiens and to explain how they have influenced the way we feed ourselves. Some mutations favoured brain development, and others are related to the digestion of nutrients, such as lactose and starch. The influence of the domestication of food and the practice of cooking on human nutrition is also explained. In addition, this review intends to justify the current recommendations on the caloric distribution of macronutrients based on the important influence of genetic changes and adaptations that have occurred in our species.
Many different studies have described patterns of wildlife use in the Amazon region, but few have focused on native communities in the Vaupes department (Colombia), in areas distant from urban centers. This distant communities are often misunderstood or not properly considered in wild life legal framework, government interventions, and discussions concerning biodiversity conservation strategies in their territories. This ends up creating a significant hole in the development of a holistic body of knowledge around biodiversity conservation, which includes the special knowledge indigenous people hold about it. ¿Who is hunting wildlife in this tribes, what are their traditional and socioeconomic realities, what species are they interested in and what places are they visiting for collecting
them?. The results presented here, are originated in the analysis of data gathered during 6 months by experienced
indigenous wildlife users, applying different participatory methods and techniques. They describe the patterns of wild
fauna consumption by Yapu multiethnic community in Vaupes. The description of the use of wild fauna was organized
according to three components: species, users and spaces. Each one was considered as a subset composed by a group of variables; frequency of capture, biomass, seasonality for species subset; hunters economic activity, ethnic group, type of community roles, for users subset, and for the spaces subset: identification of the harvested place, distance to the community, and type of fauna obtained from it. Through a local agreement between the author and the indigenous community, a participatory research imbedded in the community’s priorities was created. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, workshops, field trips, and daily hunting reports from 12 experienced local users,
complemented with constant participant observation of social spaces of the community such as the elder’s council, traditional ceremonies, daily activities with the general community and classwork with local school students. A total of 12,772 organisms (6,976 insects) were registered and classified in 82 species of wild fauna; 32 fish species, 22 mammals, 12 insects, 12 birds, 2 reptile, and 2 amphibian species. Biomass input to the community for the six months studied summed up 2001.8 kg (37.7 kg of insects), fish being the most frequently captured group, opposite to birds and amphibians, reported as the less hunted groups. Variation in biomass, species preference, and hunting places
among hunters, are mainly explained by ethnic distribution of hunting areas, related to community roles, and family history. Streams are the most visited hunting places, representing a priority space for hunters when looking for wild fauna as food resources. An importance index for species is analyzed using biomass, number of specimens captured and their month persistence in reports. Besides from presenting the special features of the systems of wildlife use in Yapu, this study includes a local comparison with other wild life consumption studies in Colombia.
Resumen Actualmente se utilizan numerosas estrategias dietéticas para la prevención de enfermedades metabólicas y la pérdida de peso. Algunas de las estrategias utilizadas no tienen base fisiológica-nutricional apropiada y no tienen en cuenta los cambios genéticos que han ocurrido de forma reciente, por lo que en ciertos casos pueden resultar perjudiciales para la salud humana. El objetivo de este trabajo es revisar las mutaciones genéticas ocurridas durante la evolución humana desde los primeros homínidos hasta el Homo sapiens y explicar cómo han influido en la forma de alimentarnos; algunas mutaciones favorecieron el desarrollo cerebral y otras están relacionadas con la digestión de algunos nutrientes como la lactosa y el almidón. También se explica la influencia de la domesticación de los alimentos y de la práctica de la cocina en la alimentación humana. Además, se pretenden justificar las recomendaciones actuales sobre la distribución calórica de macronutrientes a partir de la importante influencia de los cambios genéticos y las adaptaciones acontecidas en nuestra especie. Abstract Currently, numerous dietary strategies are used to prevent metabolic diseases and weight loss. Some of them do not have an appropriate physiological-nutritional basis and do not consider the genetic changes that have occurred recently, so they can be harmful to human health. This review aims to explain the genetic mutations that happened during human evolution from the first hominids to Homo sapiens and how they have influenced the way we eat; some mutations promoted brain development and other mutations are related to digestion of nutrients such as lactose and starch. This review also explains the influence of the domestication of food and the practice of cooking on human nutrition. In addition, we have tried to justify the current recommendations about the caloric distribution of macronutrients based on the important influence of genetic changes and adaptations that have occurred in our species.
Meat eating is one of the hallmarks of human evolution. It has been linked to the beginning of stone tool use, to physiological changes leading to crucial anatomical transformations defining our genus, and to new socioreproductive and cognitive behaviors. Uncontroversial evidence of meat eating goes back to 2.6 million years ago; however, little is known about the frequency and timing with which early hominins acquired animal resources. Here, we show that the combination of hunting and scavenging documented in some modern human foragers may have a long evolutionary trajectory. Using a new set of artificial intelligence methods for objective identification, we present direct evidence of an episode of hominins scavenging from large felids—probably lions—discovered at Olduvai Gorge (DS site, Bed I). This casts a new perspective on the diversity of hominin carcass acquisition behaviors and survival strategies, and places some early Pleistocene hominins in ecological proximity to African large carnivore guilds.
Over-exploitation of wildlife especially bushmeat trade is the second most important threat to animal biodiversity. This also applies to Northern Angola but data on bushmeat and hunting techniques for this region are rare. Therefore, we study the most common hunting techniques, frequently captured species, and their economic value, and discuss the local resource use in relation to Angolan law and urgent global crises like the loss of biodiversity, the food supply in South African countries, and the risk of zoonoses. We recorded bushmeat hunting in 27 localities in the province of Uíge, accompanied hunters along their snare lines and interviewed additional 20 locals. Seven main types of snares and traps and their characteristics were defined. Hunters own on average 92 ± 128.7 snares and traps and capture about 25.3 ± 23.6 animals monthly. In total, respondents recognized 28 species of mammals of which one is considered as extinct and two as very rare. The majority of recorded species are hunted regularly. Rodents are most commonly caught followed by primates and duikers. Harvesting rates decrease with species' body size, leading to high economic value of and achievable prices for rare, large animals. Overall, our results document the hunting pressure on mammals and the persisting popularity of bushmeat in Northern Angola which poses an imminent threat to remaining mammal populations. Moreover, it endangers ecosystem integrity, rural livelihoods, and human health through the risk of new zoonoses. Our findings underscore the urgent need for sustainable solutions. The Angolan government should play a more active role in enforcing existing hunting legislation to reduce illegal bushmeat trade.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10344-021-01541-y.
Humans are unique in their diet, physiology and socio-reproductive behavior compared to other primates. They are also unique in the ubiquitous adaptation to all biomes and habitats. From an evolutionary perspective, these trends seem to have started about two million years ago, coinciding with the emergence of encephalization, the reduction of the dental apparatus, the adoption of a fully terrestrial lifestyle, resulting in the emergence of the modern anatomical bauplan, the focalization of certain activities in the landscape, the use of stone tools, and the exit from Africa. It is in this period that clear taphonomic evidence of a switch in diet with respect to Pliocene hominins occurred, with the adoption of carnivory. Until now, the degree of carnivorism in early humans remained controversial. A persistent hypothesis is that hominins acquired meat irregularly (potentially as fallback food) and opportunistically through klepto-foraging. Here, we test this hypothesis and show, in contrast, that the butchery practices of early Pleistocene hominins (unveiled through systematic study of the patterning and intensity of cut marks on their prey) could not have resulted from having frequent secondary access to carcasses. We provide evidence of hominin primary access to animal resources and emphasize the role that meat played in their diets, their ecology and their anatomical evolution, ultimately resulting in the ecologically unrestricted terrestrial adaptation of our species. This has major implications to the evolution of human physiology and potentially for the evolution of the human brain.
The TD6 unit of the Gran Dolina contains an assemblage of the Early Pleistocene, interpreted firstly as a home base. More recently has been proposed a transported origin of the remains according to the sedimentology. Following this model, the remains should be dragged or lagged in a predictable pattern related to their weight, density, shape, and size. Conversely, the debris generated in an undisturbed residential camp should retain spatial relations of codependence caused by the depositional process, not related to inherent variables of materials. To check if the remains were recovered in their original depositional place (aggregated) or are the product of transportation (segregated or random spatial relation), we have evaluated different variables: the spatial arrangement between osteological and lithic tools; the integrity of the bones and their structural characters (shape and tissue composition); postdepositional modifications; and the specimen size distribution. The combined results indicate that the layers that conform the TD6.2 subunit were undisturbed, while TD6.1 was affected by postdepositional processes, probably water flows, resulting in a lagged assemblage. In conclusion, TD6.2 is best interpreted as a well-preserved home base and should play a key role in studies of the behavior of the first European populations.
The emergence of the genus Homo is widely linked to the colonization of 'new' highly seasonal savannah habitats. However, until recently, our understanding of the possible impact of seasonality on this shift has been limited because we have little general knowledge of how seasonality affects the lives of primates. This 2005 book documents the extent of seasonality in food abundance in tropical woody vegetation, and then presents systematic analyses of the impact of seasonality in food supply on the behavioural ecology of non-human primates. Syntheses in this volume then produce broad generalizations concerning the impact of seasonality on behavioural ecology and reproduction in both human and non-human primates, and apply these insights to primate and human evolution. Written for graduate students and researchers in biological anthropology and behavioural ecology, this is an absorbing account of how seasonality may have affected an important episode in our own evolution.
El artículo presenta y discute dos recepciones contemporáneas de la idea de animal. En primer lugar, me ocupo de la concepción del animal como posible o efectivo adversario del ser humano. En seguida, trato con la idea según la cual los animales sintientes deben ser tratados, tanto afectiva como jurídicamente, como compañeros de los seres humanos. A partir de la consideración de las dos posiciones mencionadas planteo que, pese a sus diferencias, ambas están vinculadas por una metafísica de las capacidades personales desde la que se ofrece a los animales un nombre, una proveniencia y un fin.
The social norms of fairness and reciprocity are fundamental to cooperation and constitute core behavioral principles. Warm glow theory suggests that cooperative behavior is driven by positive emotions, whereas inequity aversion theory proposes that cooperative behavior is necessary to avoid negative feelings. However, the precise characteristics underlying the enforcement (fairness or reciprocity) and violation (unfairness or betrayal) of cooperation remain elusive. Moreover, whether the neural mechanism of cooperation as a partner or a spectator is the same remains unclear. To resolve the above issues, we summarized the findings of human cooperation neuroimaging studies through a meta-analysis. Based on our results, cooperation enforcement activates reward-related brain areas, such as the striatum and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), only during other-cooperation. In contrast, cooperation violation is associated with the negative emotion-related insula (IA) in both self- and other-noncooperation. Thus, people expect others to cooperate rather than themselves; however, people are disgusted when cooperation is violated by themselves or others. Taken together, cooperative behavior might be mainly driven by a process designed to avoid negative emotion, which supports the inequity aversion theory but not the warm glow theory, thereby improving our understanding of cooperation theory.
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