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An Experimental Study on Quantitative Evaluation of
Cognitive Features in Indian College Students with
Yoga and Rajyoga Meditation as Intervention
Shobhika Madhu ( madhushobhika@gmail.com )
PRASHANT KUMAR
SUSHIL CHANDRA
Research Article
Keywords: Cognition, EEG, PEBL, Rajyoga Meditation, Yoga interventions
Posted Date: November 3rd, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3541012/v1
License: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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Abstract
Background: The current study reported the stigma of mental health issues among young college
students, and analysed the effectiveness of Indian therapeutic interventions, Yoga and Rajyoga
meditation, in improving the brain dynamics of Yoga college students. This study is the rst of its kind
that can provide the wavelet decomposition-based EEG features and the cognitive PEBL task features as
neurophysiological markers.
Methods: Electroencephalographic signals and scores from PEBL battery tasks were recorded during
performing PEBL tasks before and after eight weeks of intervention.
Results: The post-intervention meditators group demonstrated a substantial improvement in the average
scores and memory span in the cognition battery tasks. Additionally, theta, alpha, and beta band powers
were higher for post-meditators in frontal, temporal, and parietal regions during CORSI and SIMON tasks.
Conclusion: The ndings suggest that the combination of Yoga and Rajyoga meditation practice leads to
increase in spatial attention, spatial memory, and working memory.
1. Introduction
In the current scenario, the most vulnerable population to stress and anxiety is college students. Since the
youth are considered to be the future of society, it is critical to consider their issues regarding mental
health. The early signs of mental health disorders may be caused by academic pressures combined with
adjustment issues. But, the count of the young population seeking and adhering to the treatment is very
meagre. Thus, it is essential to develop outreach initiatives and put into practise cost-free techniques to
assure their psychological wellbeing. Early mental illness detection and treatment in college students
may lower attrition and enhance academic and psychosocial performance.
As per the survey data provided by the Healthy Minds Study, about 60 percent of the total (around 3.5
lakh) college students from 373 different colleges faced mental health issues during 2020–2021(Al,
2022). Demand for counselling centres has skyrocketed during the previous ten years(Health, 2022).
Data from Penn State University's Centre for Collegiate Mental Health (CCMH), a network of over 700
college and university counselling services, shows that /this tendency has had negative effects on
counselling centres, including models switching from long-term therapy to crisis assistance and an
increase in clinician caseloads, both of which are linked to less treatment and less effective care.
1.1 Mental health issues among college students
The highest risk period for developing any mental disorder is during college. Many epidemiological
studies have pointed toward the factors behind the stressful life of college students. The role of
academic functioning(Bruffaerts et al., 2018), a transition towards adulthood(Sussman & Arnett, 2014),
pressures about future plans, and distance from family members(Beiter et al., 2015), may lead to
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substance use(Pedrelli et al., 2015)or even suicidal thoughts and behavior among students(Mortier et
al., 2018). A survey performed in the U.S. to evaluate the prevalence of psychological disorders among
college-going and non-college students revealed that nearly 50% of them had a mental illness in the
previous year(Blanco et al., 2008). College students were far more likely than non-college students to
develop alcohol use problems. First-year college students were studied to determine the prevalence and
sociodemographic correlations of mental illnesses through surveys conducted in nineteen colleges
across eight countries(Auerbach et al., 2018). Out of the total respondents, 31% and 35% of full-time
students, respectively, tested positively for at least one 12-month disorder and one of the prevalent
lifetime disorders. By contrasting college students and nonstudents in the same age group, the
relationships between mental illnesses and college enrolment and attrition were investigated using data
from the World Mental Health Surveys conducted by WHO.(Auerbach et al., 2017).Out of the total college
students examined, 20.3% of them had major depressive disorders within the previous 12 months. The
most serious disorders among women were substance abuse and major depression. Those who received
treatment for their mental illness were only 16.4%.
The University of Arizona survey included data from masters and doctoral students(Barreira et al., 2018).
Most Ph.D. students indicated "greater than average" or "tremendous" stress. Most of the masters’
students also rated stress as “more than average” and “tremendous”. Another comprehensive survey
among masters and doctoral students showed that comparing graduate students to the general
population, depression, and anxiety are more than six times more common in students(Evans et al.,
2018). 41 % of the respondents reported experiencing moderate to severe anxiety and 39% of them had
depressive symptoms that ranged from moderate to severe.
Since the count of students that require treatment for these illnesses is much larger that the capacity of
the majority of counselling clinics, there is a considerable unmet need for the prevention of psychological
health issues among college students. Students who are recommended by college counselling facilities
for medication screening and therapy frequently have depression, anxiety, or ADHD. A study outlining the
drug prescriptions given by college counselling centres to vulnerable college students revealed that the
most often prescribed drug was an antidepressant. Many students admitted to having had suicidal
thoughts in the past, and 12% of them had actually attempted suicide at least once(Kirsch et al.,
2015).The annual survey (2019-2020) among counselling centres performed by the association for
University and Colleges counselling centre directors highlighted the impact of the Coronavirus pandemic
on counselling centre services(Gorman et al., 2020).According to the directors, the topmost concern
about mental health among the clients is anxiety followed by depression, stress, and other parameters.
1.2 Yoga and meditation interventions to calm stress and
anxieties among college students
The young population must be treated with evidence-based therapies following a comprehensive
examination(Pedrelli et al., 2015).A resilience framework may help college students with mental health
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diculties, manage the challenges of college learning more skilfully, and increase retention(Hartley,
2013).For students experiencing the most psychological distress, intrapersonal resilience is more
signicant. The resilience factors and mental health also bear a signicant statistical association.
Numerous pieces of evidence support the role of meditation-based therapies in the treatment of a variety
of issues in young populations. The ecacy of a brief mindfulness meditation was examined in a non-
clinical student population(Canby et al., 2015). The parameters assessed were psychological distress,
self-control, emotional intelligence, and subjective vitality. The six-week mindfulness meditation led to the
reduction of psychological distress while enhancing self-control, subjective vitality, and awareness
among the students. Somatic practices, that resemble meditation and yoga practices, are also helpful in
increasing mindfulness and enhancing mood and sleep quality(Caldwell et al., 2010).Students who
participated in these practices showed increases in total mindfulness over the course of a fteen-week
semester, which also had signicant positive effects on both their physical and mental health. Increases
in mindfulness were associated with better sleep, mood, stress perception, and self-regulatory self-
ecacy. In addition, four factors—fatigue, negative arousal, relaxation, and perceived stress—were found
to result in rise in mindfulness and sleep quality. One of the yoga-based meditation approaches called the
Mastering Emotions Technique (MEMT) aims to help practitioners manage their emotions. The students
of a residential college were exposed to MEMT for 45 minutes every day for fteen days(Patel et al.,
2018).The ndings showed that the technique reduced negative emotions while enhancing emotion
control, mindfulness, and self-compassion. Even a brief mindfulness training can help college students
control the stress arising out of various challenges in their academic life. The mindfulness practice for
four weeks reduced the stress and anxiety levels of college students(Shearer et al., 2016). The ECG data
collected during a cognitive task showed higher HRV among the students in the mindfulness intervention
group. Additionally, the potential benets of meditation have been examined. It has favourable effects on
increasing cognition, attention, and memory. One semester of the mindfulness training program
enhanced the learning performance of university students in Taiwan(Ching et al., 2015).The cognitive
performance of the students was also improved in terms of attention and memory.Success and well-
being in academic situations depend greatly on effective learning and sustained attention and memory.
workable strategy to raise university students' cognition and learning outcomes may be to include a
meditation course in the curriculum. Following 8 weeks of daily, guided mindfulness meditation for ve to
twelve minutes, stress and anxiety decreased, and awareness increased among college students
preparing for the healthcare eld(Burgstahler & Stenson, 2020). The effects were greatest after longer
sessions of meditation. Even a single session of mindfulness meditation raised mindfulness and
decreased anxiety among rst-year college students(Greif & Kaufman, 2021). The results showed a
connection between baseline attention performance and changes in body mindfulness. The introduction
of a ten-minute mindful awareness practice in college classrooms was linked to the development of
mindfulness qualities as well as decreased negative thinking and anxiety levels(Yamada & Victor, 2012).
The meditation management of stress (MMS) program includes a certain style of sitting meditation as
well as supplementary exercises for integrating and maintaining meditation integrating contemplative
mindsets with daily activities. MMS training was imparted as eight 90-minute weekly meetings to college
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undergraduate students(Oman et al., 2008). The program included sitting meditation techniques, some
informal exercises, and the development of mental and emotional resources. As a result, the perceived
stress was drastically reduced among the students even after two months of follow-up. A quasi-
experimental study to compare the coping mechanisms used by students who meditated and those who
did not, as well as to analyze the impact of meditation on students' physical and mental health was done
among rst-year students in a college in Taiwan(Yang et al., 2009). The intervention included two hours
of meditation practice for eighteen weeks. The results revealed that the experimental treatment's impact
was considerable. The experimental group experienced fewer physical and psychological problems than
the control group did. Transcendental meditation practice has also been shown to have positive impacts
on both psychological and physical health, which may be helpful for students in managing the
challenging aspects of college life. Undergraduate students in the U.S. were used to examine the benets
of meditation, particularly Transcendental Meditation, on college students' experiences of stress, anxiety,
sadness, and perfectionistic thinking(Burns et al., 2011). Prior to the start of the trial, self-report
measurements of the variables were conducted. Over the course of two semesters, students received TM
training and diligently practiced the method. The two semesters' ends saw the administration of post-TM
tests. On all indicators, the groups displayed a considerable drop. College students of the College of
Pharmacy took part in a six-week trial program that included a vinyasa ow yoga session of 60 minutes
each week, followed by faculty-led guided meditation(Lemay et al., 2019). The students' total
mindfulness scores greatly improved, and their levels of stress and anxiety signicantly decreased. The
post-intervention results showed that no participants received a stress or anxiety score in the "high" range,
and the stress scale scores signicantly changed from pre- to post-intervention.
1.3 Rajyoga meditation
The Rajyoga meditation is a behavioural intervention that includes both contemplation and
concentration. It is taught by Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University. Yet this technique is different
from other meditation interventions, in the way that it is practiced with open eyes, without any mantras
and rituals, and it can be practiced by anyone, anywhere, at any time. It focuses on self-empowerment
through self-consciousness. It harmonizes mental and physical energies through spiritual connection.
The short-term and long-term Rajyoga meditators avail various psychological, physiological, and neural
benets as described in many studies. Research studies have shown that Rajyoga meditation improves
cognitive functions(Nishi Misra, 2013), reduces cardiovascular risk factors(Ghar et al., 2016),(Eshaan
Mishra, Dr. Archana Mishra, Dr. Chandrakanta Mishra & Dash, 2018), calms stress and anxieties(C. H.
Kiran et al., 2014),(U. Kiran et al., 2017), and improves physiological and psychological
parameters(Sukhsohale et al., 2012). It has also been proved that Rajyoga meditators were more resilient
towards the psychological impacts of COVID-19(Madhu, Govindaraj, et al., 2022; Madhu, Kumar, et al.,
2022).
The present study aims at establishing objective measures of yoga and meditation by using EEG signals
and scores of cognition tasks. The features among college students were recorded while performing
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tasks from the PEBL battery. The intervention group was made to exercise yoga and Brahma Kumaris
Rajyoga meditation for eight weeks while the control group was not provided any intervention. The
recorded features were examined using the following quantitative methods: 1. pre-and post-spectral
analysis of EEG signal while performing CORSI and SIMON tasks using wavelet transform 2. Statistical
analysis of mean scores obtained from four tasks (CORSI, SIMON, IOWA, and DSPAN) of PEBL battery. 3.
Comparative analysis of the features of pre-meditation baseline intervention, post-meditation
intervention, and the control group pre and post (without meditation intervention) to differentiate between
the control and meditation conditions, and between pre and post states of intervention group.
2. Methods
2.1 Subjects
The intervention group consisted of 45 students (20 students freshly admitted in B.Ed. (Yoga Education
and 25 students freshly admitted in PG Diploma in Yoga Therapy (PGDYT)) from Government College of
Yoga Education and Health (GCYEH), Chandigarh. These students did not have any prior experience with
Yoga and Rajyoga meditation. The control group consisted of 24 healthy students from Dev Samaj
College of Education, Chandigarh. The inclusion criteria were the students aged between 18 and 40 years,
having no mental illness history, and willing to participate in the study. The excluded participants were
the students with prior experience of yoga and/or Rajyoga meditation, patients with known psychiatric
illness as assessed by Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) screening, and students
suffering from current/chronic medical illnesses or having a history of respiratory illness. The study was
approved by Panjab University Institutional Ethical Committee. To take part in the study, every participant
gave written consent.
2.2 Procedure
The study design started with the screening of the students of the intervention group. The students of
GCYEH admitted in 1st year B.Ed. and 1st-year PGDYT underwent an initial assessment through Google
form. The selected and interested students underwent baseline assessments. The pre-assessments
consisted of an online assessment form, four tasks (CORSI, SIMON, DSPAN, and IOWA) selected from the
PEBL cognition test battery, and EEG assessments. They were then given eight weeks of intervention
(Yoga, Asana, and Rajyoga meditation) as a part of their curriculum, followed by post-assessments.
Whereas the students of the control group were only assessed with the same pre- and post-assessments
but were not provided any intervention. The online assessment form consisted of the following measures:
Demographic form used to collect information about age, sex, socio-economic class, hometown, family
size, height, weight, qualication/degree enrolled, and yoga and meditation experience, and Mini
International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) to evaluate the presence of psychiatric disorders.
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2.3 Intervention
The yoga module adapted consisted of Asana, Pranayama, and Rajyoga meditation for a period of four
months. The Asanas and Pranayama component were taught as per the curriculum of GCYEH by their
own faculty members. The Rajyoga meditation module was administered by trained Rajyoga experts. The
complete training included 120 minutes a day session, 6 days a week for 8 weeks. The total duration was
split into three parts, 40 minutes each for three components. The Rajyoga meditation sessions included
three components: 1) knowledge and discussions about self-awareness, supreme awareness, mind-body
interaction, connection with self and supreme, tapping powers, and some additional topics; 2) practical
meditation, and 3) methods to apply meditation in daily life, doubt clearing and problem-solving
techniques.
2.4 Cognition tests
2.4.1 Psychological assessment
The psychological assessment of the students was done with the help of psychological test batteries
called Psychological Experimental Building Language (PEBL). Four psychological tests related to
attention were administered to the students.
Corsi task
A screen with nine squares was shown to participants and each square lit up in turn. The order in which
the squares were given has to be remembered by the participants. The participant then clicked on the
squares in the order they lit up once the sequence was nished. In the rst trial, a series of two squares
were initially used; subsequent sequences included more squares. The participant's memory span was
evaluated by counting the number of squares in a sequence that they correctly completed. Each
assignment took about ve minutes.
Digit span task
Participants were asked to immediately repeat back a series of numbers that were presented to them. A
lengthier series of numbers is then offered to the participant if they were able to effectively repeat the
series of numbers back.Longer series of numbers were given to the participants until they could no
longer correctly repeat them back. The longest list a person could recollect was their digit span in length.
It took almost ve minutes to complete the Forward Digit Span.
Iowa task
These tasks simulate decision-making in a lab setting. Participants start with $2,000 and must choose
cards from among four decks to maximize their prot. The cards may result in a net gain or a net loss.
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This task is also believed to measure an individual’s risk-taking capacity. Several research teams are now
employing the Iowa gambling task to examine which brain areas in healthy volunteers and clinical groups
are activated by the task.
Simon task
The Simon task is the experimental task designed to examine the potential effects of different sensory
features on the processing of information or decision-making. The stimulus (red or blue coloured ball)
ashed on the screen for a short duration changing its position with respect to the screen and the goal
was to repetitively respond to the colour of the ball (with right or left arrow keys), ignoring the position of
the stimulus (left side or right side of the screen). The task lasted for about 7 to 8 minutes.
2.4.2 Physiological assessment
One of the most widespread physiological methods of cognitive assessments is Electroencephalography
(EEG). The EEG signals were recorded with Neuphony device by Pankhtech. The headband device, as
shown in Fig. 1 is a wireless acquisition device with eight sensors positioned at the anterior frontal (Fp1,
Fp2), lateral frontal (F3, F4), media frontal (Fz), temporal (T3, T4), and parietal (Pz), following 10/20
electrode system with a resolution of 24 bits per channel. All the sensors are dry sensors having
polycarbonate conductive passive electrodes with Ag/AgCl coating. EEG signals with a sampling
frequency of 250 Hz were recorded with a time constant of 4 ms and a cutoff frequency of 125 Hz. The
impedance of each electrode was set up as approximately below 10 KHz. The device connects with the
laptop as a USB device for recording and storage of EEG signals.
The EEG data was collected both prior to and after the eight-week intervention/control period. The 22
minutes protocol followed during the EEG recording of each participant is shown in Fig. 2. EEG was
recorded while performing Corsi and Simon tasks on PEBL. A rest time of two minutes was given with
both eyes open and close before and after each task.
3. Data analysis
3.1 EEG spectral analysis
Discrete wavelet decomposition has been frequently employed for feature extraction in EEG because it is
rhythmic and non-stationary. An observation window of 1s is used to select segments of the full
sequence. Using Daubechies 8 levels decomposition, a discrete wavelet decomposition is carried out on
each segment. EEG band is dened for ve levels, i.e., delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma. Kaiser
window is used and the band features are averaged to get absolute values. By taking away the smallest
value from each characteristic and dividing by the highest value, the absolute value is normalised. This
process is done for all the channels in each segment of the EEG data.
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3.2 Data acquisition using PEBL
PEBL version 0.13 was used to perform the computerized cognitive test. The test batteries selected had
paradigms involving memory, decision-making, and executive control.
Corsi blocks: This task evaluated the spatial working memory of the participants. The output consisted of
two variables – total score (calculated as the product of the longest list recalled correctly and the total
number of correct patterns), and memory span (calculated by adding the minimum list length to the total
number correct, and dividing by the number of lists at each length).
Digit span: This task uses strings of digits or letters to assess the verbal short-term and working memory
of the participants. The output consisted of two variables – total correct words and memory span.
Iowa task: A psychological test known as the Iowa gambling task is meant to simulate decision-making
in daily life. The output is presented in the form of an average score.
Simon task: This task is an interference task related to executive function. The output is presented as the
total number of correct responses.
3.3 Statistical analysis
SPSS software for Windows was used to conduct statistical analyses Since the data is not normally
distributed, Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was utilised to compare the EEG features for three bands across
eight electrodes, and the PEBL features out of four tasks, among the meditators and control groups. The
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test serves as the parametric paired t-test's nonparametric counterpart. P 0.05
was chosen as the minimal criterion of signicance. The pre-meditation baseline intervention, post-
meditation intervention, and the control group pre and post (without meditation intervention) were
compared groups for signicant differences.
4. Results
4.1 EEG band features
The wavelet features were extracted for meditation (before and after meditation) and control groups
(without meditation) from three bands: alpha, beta, and theta for eight electrodes, FP1, FP2, F3, F4, T3,
T4, FZ and PZ.
Fig. 3 and g. 4 show the distribution of features of alpha, beta, and theta of eight channels (FP1, FP2,
F3, F4, T3, T4, FZ, and PZ) plotted with meditation and control groups while performing CORSI and
SIMON tasks. As shown in the gures, for both the tasks, the alpha, beta and theta values were higher in
post meditators for all the channels as compared to the pre-meditators. When compared to the control
group, during CORSI task, the feature values were highest in post meditators group, except for lateral
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frontal (F3) in alpha and beta bands, and temporal (T3 and T4) in theta band. Similarly, during SIMON
task, the wavelet feature values were highest in post meditators group, except for anterior frontal (Fp1,
Fp2) in alpha band and lateral frontal (F3) in theta band.
4.2 PEBL Scores
Mean values for the scores of the four tasks performed by the participants have been presented in g. 5.
The post-intervention meditators group showed a signicant enhancement in the average scores of all
four tasks and the memory span in CORSI and DSPAN tasks as compared to the pre-intervention
meditators group. While the scores of the control group decreased after four weeks of baseline measures.
5. Discussion
This study shows the improvement in cognitive features in yoga college students after practicing yoga
and meditation. This is the rst study that has incorporated the results from cognition batteries along
with EEG wavelet features to establish the relationship between meditation and cognitive attributes.
The Yoga practices, combined with Rajyoga meditation resulted in improvement of spatial and working
memory, as evident from CORSI and DSPAN scores, along with enhanced executive functioning and
decision making, as seen from SIMON and IOWA scores. Previous studies have also backed an
improvement in brain dynamics as a result of yoga practices. Breathing awareness practices also result
in improvement in working and spatial memory(Gupta et al., 2019). The participants practiced the
breathing exercises for fteen minutes, leading to an improvement in the backward CORSI span and
CORSI total score. A ten days intervention of Yoga resulted in an increase in performance scores in verbal
and spatial memory among school children aged between 11 to 16 years(N.K. & S., 2004). The results
were compared with the control group, in which the children of the same age group were given training in
ne arts activities. While the scores of the control group did not exhibit any change, the scores of the
intervention group exhibited an enhancement of forty-three percent in spatial memory scores. The effects
of a high-frequency yoga breathing practice on attention among pre-teen children were assessed using a
letter cancellation task(Telles et al., 2019). The total scores of attention task were increased after
eighteen minutes of breathing practice. The anxiety levels also dipped among the children following the
breath awareness practice. Continuous practice of Yoga for twelve weeks leads to signicant
improvement in short-term memory, attention, and alertness(Mondal & Deepeswar Singh, 2021). The
fundamental neurocognitive processes that are most impacted by aging include attention, alertness, and
memory. The effect of practicing yogic training for twelve weeks was explored in the participants of the
age group between 35 to 55 years. The yoga training group practiced yoga every morning in the forms of
kriya, Surya namaskar, asana, pranayama, and dhyana. When compared to baseline data, the results of
combined yoga sessions demonstrated a substantial improvement in short-term memory.
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In our study, wavelet transform-based features were also evaluated. Since EEG signals are non-stationary
in behaviour, wavelet transforms are widely used for EEG signal analysis. Wavelet transform makes use
of windows with varying sizes and a wavelet function. Comparison between meditators and control
group wavelet characteristics of various bands of EEG spectra showed signicant differences in the
features’ values. Wavelet-based features from EEG have earlier been used in a comparative study of
meditation experts and non-meditators. For experienced Buddhist meditators, theta, alpha, and beta were
all relatively greater in the central and frontal regions(Gaurav et al., 2019). The topographical mappings
were shown to establish the difference in cortical activity of experienced, medium, and non-practitioners.
Previous research using spectral EEG analysis has found that alpha and theta band powers tend to
increase during meditation, especially in the frontal lobe(Takahashi et al., 2005). Brahma Kumaris
Rajyoga meditation has previously shown increased activity in the alpha region in experienced
meditators(Sharma et al., 2020). Changes were seen in theta and alpha powers in the frontal area of EEG
during zen meditation in undergraduate students. High alpha power is a marker for a less active brain
[29], which may be attributed to a more calm and positive brain state to facilitate meditation practice.
Lower frequency EEH bands (alpha and theta) revealed high band power in Rajyoga meditators as
compared to controls(Sharma & Chandra, 2018). Additionally, frontal and parietal channels were shown
to have considerable cortical asymmetry as determined by EEG power. The higher alpha band (8-10 Hz) is
assumed to represent task-specic activities, such as perceptual and cognitive functions, whereas the
lower alpha band (10-12 Hz) is associated with alertness and attention. Even a brief meditation workshop
organized for three days for novice meditators resulted in a major increase in theta, alpha, and beta
powers(Stapleton et al., 2020). Measures from the baseline (alpha, delta, and theta oscillations) were
compared to the end-point. The effectiveness of functional brain integration during meditation was
assessed by utilising Gamma synchronization at high frequency. The pace of shift from pre-intervention
to post-intervention states of the EEG spectrum was considerable, indicating that the meditation
intervention had major changing impacts on EEG spectra, supporting the notion of consciousness.
Alpha power rise shows internalized focus, whilst theta power increase reects the central aspect of the
meditative experience. The novice meditator group showed higher theta amplitudes at all regions after
OM mantra meditation just after 30 minutes of Om chanting (Harne & Hiwale, 2018). All cortical areas'
increased theta power indicates broad decreases in cortical arousal. With the exception of the frontal area
in the theta band, the spectral analysis showed rise in beta and theta EEG power of meditators compared
to the control condition (Oken et al., 2014). This rise was more concentrated in the right temporal and
occipital regions and smaller in the alpha band. The EEG synchrony was also enhanced in the meditators
group. Alpha, beta, and theta powers were also increased by practicing Yoga for one and a half hours per
day for ve months by a group of engineering students (Nagendra et al., 2015). Increased alpha and beta
power can be interpreted as improved cognitive abilities like memory and focus, while increased theta
denotes synchronization of brain activity. An increase in band power denotes increased task engagement,
increased attentiveness, and improvement in a variety of cognitive functions.
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Conclusion
The current study aimed to analyze how the combination of yoga practices and Rajyoga meditation
affected the neurophysiological markers among college students. The wavelet decomposition-based EEG
features and the cognitive PEBL task features from the intervention group (after eight weeks of Yoga and
meditation) were compared with those of the control group (without practicing yoga and meditation) and
with the baseline measures. The improvement of states of consciousness from pre-meditation to post-
meditation was considerable, indicating that eight weeks of consistent yoga and Rajyoga meditation
practice by young, healthy engineering students improves a variety of cognitive abilities. Thus, the
quantitative ndings may be used as neurofeedback for evaluating the effectiveness of complementary
therapies in improving cognitive parameters such as attention and memory functions in the young
generation.
Declarations
Funding
No funding was received for conducting this study.
Competing interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Ethics approval
The study was approved by the InstitutionalEthicsCommittee(IEC) of Panjab University, Chandigarh.
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Data and/or Code availability
Upon request, the corresponding author will make the data supporting the results of this study accessible.
Authors’ contribution statements
Shobhika Madhu: Design of study, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of data, manuscript
drafting and editing. Prashant Kumar: supervision, analysis and interpretation of data, manuscript
reviewing and editing. Sushil Chandra: supervision, analysis and interpretation of data, manuscript
reviewing. The nal manuscript has been read and accepted by all the authors
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Figures
Page 17/20
Figure 1
Neuphony EEG headband demonstration
Figure 2
EEG recording protocol
Page 18/20
Figure 3
Distribution of wavelet EEG features for meditation and control groups during CORSI task for (a) alpha
band (b) beta band (c) theta band
Page 19/20
Figure 4
Distribution of wavelet EEG features for meditation and control groups during SIMON task for (a) alpha
band (b) beta band (c) theta band
Page 20/20
Figure 5
Features of PEBL tasks for meditation and control groups
