(PDF) SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES FOR FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CROPS

SCIENTIFIC

APPROACHES FOR

FRUIT AND

VEGETABLE CROPS

Khushbu D. Rathod | Deepak S

Kore | Kishorkumar G K | Ashish

Singh | Songthat William Haokip

Golden Leaf Publishers

(Lucknow)

Dr. Khushbu D. Rathod was born on 24th December 1995 at Navsari, Gujarat, India. She did B.Sc.

(Hons.) Horticulture from Aspee College of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari, affiliated with NAU,

(G.J.) in 2017. She did her M.Sc. (Horticulture) in Fruit Science from NAU, (G.J.) in 2019. She did her

Ph.D. (Horticulture) in Fruit Science from B. A. College of Agriculture, AAU, Anand (G.J.) in 2022. She

has qualified ICAR- NET in Fruit Science in 2019 conducted by ASRB, New Delhi. The author has 05

research papers, 06 book chapters, 10 articles go her credit, which has published in various reputed

Journals and Magazines. She has been awarded with Gold Medal Award 2023 for securing highest

O.G.P.A in Ph. D. Horticulture (Fruit Science) in Department of Horticulture, AAU, Anand (G.J.), which

was given during the occasion of 19th convocation, organized by AAU, Anand (G. J.). At present, She

is working as a Junior Research Fellow at the Department of Horticulture, B. A. College of

Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand (G.J.), India.

Mr. Deepak. S. Kore was born on 01st November 1995 at Solapur, India. He completed his B.Sc. (Hort.)

in Horticulture from College of Horticulture Bidar, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot,

Karnataka and M.Sc. (Horticulture) in Fruit Science from Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,

Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D. from College of Horticulture

Bengaluru, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka and working under the project

Bioversity-CIAT, Rome, Italy. He has qualified ICAR-NET (Fruit Science) in 2022 conducted by ASRB,

New Delhi. Mr. Deepak has received Best Poster Presentation in National Seminar. He also received

Best Young Researcher Award in International Award Ceremony, he also contributed to several

publications including research articles, abstracts, conference papers, and book

Mr. Kishorkumar G K was born on 5th Dec 1998 at Davanagere, Karanataka. He did B.Sc.

(Horticulture) from College of Horticulture Bagalkot, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot

(Karnataka) in 2019 and M.Sc. Horticulture in Vegetable science from University of Horticultural

Sciences, Bagalkot in 2021. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D from College of Horticulture Bagalkot,

University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot (Karnataka). He has qualified ICAR- NET in Vegetable

Science in 2023 conducted by ASRB, New Delhi. Mr. Kishorkumar has participated in 4th

International conference on Global efforts on agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Food security

(GAFEF-2022) held at Pokhara Nepal, presented oral and poster presentations respectively. The

author has contributed to 2 books, 8 book chapters, and 4 articles go his credit, which have been

published in various reputed journals and Magazines.

Dr. Ashish Singh was born on 20th July 1992 at Ramnagar Bhojpur, Pratapgarh U.P.He did B.Sc.

(Agriculture) from K.N.I.P.S.S Sultanpur affiliated with Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University,

Ayodhya (U.P) in 2014. He did his M.Sc. (Dairy Technology) from SHUA&T, Prayagraj (U.P) in 2016. He

did his M.Sc (Ag.)Horticulture From J S University Shikohabad (U.P) 2019. He did his Ph.D. in

Horticulture (Fruit Science) from SHUA&T, Prayagraj (U.P) 2023. Author has 6 research papers, 2 book

chapters, 10 articles go his credit, which have been published in various reputed journals and

Magazines.

Mr. Songthat William Haokip graduated in 2018 from CAU, Imphal, Manipur, with a Bachelor's

degree in B.Sc. Horticulture (Hons.) and a Master's degree in Fruit Science (Horticulture) in the year

2020. He is currently pursuing Ph.D. in Fruit Science under CAU, Imphal, Manipur. He has received

numerous accolades at the national level in the fields of Science, Technology and Extracurricular

activities including games and sports. He has cleared ASRB-NET in the year 2021 under unreserved

category. He has six research papers (published), nine book chapters, at least six international

publications, and numerous well-read popular articles in national as well as regional periodicals and

international e-newsletters. Exploring wild and underutilised horticultural crops, their nutritional

profiling and genetic variability study through molecular markers are some of his research interests.

About The Editors

Golden Leaf Publishers (Lucknow)

592 GHA 575/6 Rajeev Nagar, Ghosiyana

lucknow, Pin 226029 Uttar Pradesh, India.

Website:goldenleafpublishers.com

Email: goldenleafpublishers@gmail.com

Mob no.- +91 8318687013

MRP-680/-

SCIENTIFIC

APPROACHES FOR

FRUIT AND

VEGETABLE CROPS

Editors

Dr. Khushbu D. Rathod

Ph. D. (Horticulture) Fruit Science, B. A. College of Agriculture,

Anand Agricultural University, Anand (G.J.), India

Mr. Deepak. S. Kore

Ph.D. Scholar, College of Horticulture

Bengaluru, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot,

Karnataka

Kishorkumar G K

Ph.D Scholar

Department of Vegetable Science, COH Bagalkot,

University of Horticultural Sciences Bagalkot, Karnataka

Dr. Ashish Singh

Ph.D. Scholar, Horticulture (Fruit Science), SHUATS, Prayagraj

(U.P)

Mr. Songthat William Haokip

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture

and Forestry, Central Agricultural University (I), Pasighat-791102,

Arunachal Pradesh

GOLDEN LEAF PUBLISHERS

Golden Leaf Publishers

Address- 592 GHA 575/6 Rajeev Nagar,

Ghosiyana lucknow, Pin-226029,

Uttar Pradesh, India.

Website: goldenleafpublishers.com

Email: goldenleafpublishers@gmail.c om

Mob No. – +91 8318687013

ISBN Number: 978-81-96-5443-5-5

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Golden Leaf Publishers

Address- 592 GHA 575/6 Rajeev Nagar,

Ghosiyana lucknow, Pin-226029,

Uttar Pradesh, India.

Website: goldenleafpublishers.com

Email: goldenleafpublishers@gmail.com

Mob No.

–

+91 8318687013

About The Editors

Dr. Khushbu D. Rathod was born on 24th December 1995

at Navsari, Gujarat, India. She did B.Sc. (Hons.)

Horticulture from Aspee College of Horticulture and

Forestry, Navsari, affiliated with NAU, (G.J.) in 2017. She

did her M.Sc. (Horticulture) in Fruit Science from NAU,

(G.J.) in 2019. She did her Ph.D. (Horticulture) in Fruit

Science from B. A. College of Agriculture, AAU, Anand

(G.J.) in 2022. She has qualified ICAR- NET in Fruit

Science in 2019 conducted by ASRB, New Delhi. The author has 05

research papers, 06 book chapters, 10 articles go her credit, which has

published in various reputed Journals and Magazines. She has been awarded

with Gold Medal Award 2023 for securing highest O.G.P.A in Ph. D.

Horticulture (Fruit Science) in Department of Horticulture, AAU, Anand

(G.J.), which was given during the occasion of 19th convocation, organized

by AAU, Anand (G. J.). At present, She is working as a Junior Research

Fellow at the Department of Horticulture, B. A. College of Agriculture,

Anand Agricultural University, Anand (G.J.), India.

Mr. Deepak. S. Kore was born on 01st November 1995

at Solapur, India. He completed his B.Sc. (Hort.) in

Horticulture from College of Horticulture Bidar,

University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka

and M.Sc. (Horticulture) in Fruit Science from Uttar

Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar,

West Bengal. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D. from

College of Horticulture Bengaluru, University of

Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka and working under the project

Bioversity-CIAT, Rome, Italy. He has qualified ICAR-NET (Fruit Science)

in 2022 conducted by ASRB, New Delhi. Mr. Deepak has received Best

Poster Presentation in National Seminar. He also received Best Young

Researcher Award in International Award Ceremony, he also contributed to

several publications including research articles, abstracts, conference

papers, and book chapters.

Mr. Kishorkumar G K was born on 5th Dec 1998 at

Davanagere, Karanataka. He did B.Sc. (Horticulture) from

College of Horticulture Bagalkot, University of

Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot (Karnataka) in 2019 and

M.Sc. Horticulture in Vegetable science from University

of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot in 2021. He is

currently pursuing his Ph.D from College of Horticulture

Bagalkot, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot (Karnataka). He

has qualified ICAR- NET in Vegetable Science in 2023 conducted by

ASRB, New Delhi. Mr. Kishorkumar has participated in 4th International

conference on Global efforts on agriculture, Forestry, Environment and

Food security (GAFEF-2022) held at Pokhara Nepal, presented oral and

poster presentations respectively. The author has contributed to 2 books, 8

book chapters, and 4 articles go his credit, which have been published in

various reputed journals and Magazines.

Dr. Ashish Singh was born on 20th July 1992 at

Ramnagar Bhojpur, Pratapgarh U.P. He did B.Sc.

(Agriculture) from K.N.I.P.S.S Sultanpur affiliated with

Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya

(U.P) in 2014. He did his M.Sc. (Dairy Technology) from

SHUA&T, Prayagraj (U.P) in 2016. He did his M.Sc

(Ag.)Horticulture From J S University Shikohabad (U.P)

2019. He did his Ph.D. in Horticulture (Fruit Science)

from SHUA&T, Prayagraj (U.P) 2023. Author has 6 research papers, 2

book chapters, 10 articles go his credit, which have been published in

various reputed journals and Magazines.

Mr. Songthat William Haokip graduated in 2018 from

CAU, Imphal, Manipur, with a Bachelor's degree in B.Sc.

Horticulture (Hons.) and a Master's degree in Fruit

Science (Horticulture) in the year 2020. He is currently

pursuing Ph.D. in Fruit Science at College of Horticulture

and Forestry, CAU (I), Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh. He

has received numerous accolades at the national level in

the fields of Science, Technology and Extracurricular activities including

games and sports. He has cleared ASRB-NET in the year 2021 under

unreserved category. He has six research papers (published), nine book

chapters, at least six international publications, and numerous well-read

popular articles in national as well as regional periodicals and international

e-newsletters. Exploring wild and underutilised horticultural crops, their

nutritional profiling and genetic variability study through molecular markers

are some of his research interests.

In the realm of agriculture, few endeavors are as universally

relevant, rewarding, and essential as the cultivation of fruit and vegetable

crops. These vibrant and diverse organisms not only grace our tables with

an array of colors, flavors, and nutrition but also hold the promise of

sustainable agriculture, enhanced food security, and improved health for

humanity. This book, titled "Scientific Approaches for Fruit and

Vegetable Crops," is a voyage into the heart of this world, guided by

scientific principles and expertise.

Within these pages, you will embark on a journey through the science,

practices, and innovations that underpin the growth and development of

several key fruit and vegetable crops. As you delve into the chapters, you'll

discover a wealth of knowledge, research, and practical insights into the

cultivation of various crops, each with its unique characteristics and

significance in our agricultural landscape.

The chapters in this book explore the scientific intricacies and

advancements in the cultivation of specific crops, showcasing the latest

research and practices. They delve into the genetic underpinnings,

propagation techniques, and environmental considerations that are crucial

for the successful growth of these crops.

Editors

Preface

Table of Contents

S

No.

Chapters Page No.

1. Aonla 1-23

Siddharth Kumar

1

*

, A. K. Srivastava

2

, Om Prakash

3

and Jony Kumar4

2. Bael 26-40

Shivam Kumar Gautam

1

*

, Vijay Kumar Maurya

2

,

Sumita Omer3 and Ashish Pratap Singh4

3. Cacao 40-66

Anushi

1

, Abhishek Singh

2

*, Nitin Kumar Chouhan

1

and Satyarath Sonkar1

4. Karonda 67-83

Yogendra Kumar Sharma

1*

, Suman Kumari

2

and

Himanshu Chawla3

5. Plum 84-97

Rupam Nehta

1

and Ritik Chawla

2

6. Amaranthus

98-114

Arushi Yadav*

7. Okra

Pavan K. Patel1* and Dr. Khushbu D. Rathod2

115-134

8. Turnip

Harshavardhan Mohan Totawar1*, Madhan Gowda

S.1 and Harish Kumar1

135-142

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CHAPTER

1

AONLA

Siddharth Kumar1*, A. K. Srivastava2, Om

Prakash3 and Jony Kumar4

1*Research Scholar, 2Professor & 3Assistant Professor,

Department of Fruit Science, Banda University of

Agriculture and Technology, Banda, 210001, U.P.

4Research Scholar, Department of Entomology, Banda

University of Agriculture and Technology, Banda,

210001, U.P.

*Corresponding Author Name:

Siddharth Kumar

Corresponding Author E-mail Id:

siddharthhort20@gmail.com

AONLA

 Amla/ Indian Goose Berry/ Amritphal fruit/Scared tree/ amla,

amali and nelli

 B. N: Emblica officinalis

 Family: Euphorbiaceae

 Chromosome No.: 2n = 4X = 28

 Origin: Central India

 Related species: Star gooseberry or Otaheite gooseberry:

Phyllanthusacidus

 Type of fruit: Capsular drupaceous

 Type of inflorescence: Racemose

 Edible portion: Pericarp

Abstract

The aonla or Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica L.) is a

member of the Phyllanthaceae family and Phyllanthoidae subfamily. It

can be grown with an annual rainfall of 350–500 mm, but it prefers a dry

subtropical climate. The aonla, also known as the Indian gooseberry

(Emblica officinalis Gaertn), is a member of the Euphorbiaceae family.

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The Indian subcontinent is where it originally came from in tropical

southeast Asia. Ancient literature refers to it as Amritphal and regards it

as a sacred tree. Aonla trees are also reportedly found in India, Cuba, the

United States, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Java, and the West Indies.

India is the main country producing aonla, and Uttar Pradesh is the

leading state. The primary districts for aonla cultivation nationwide are

Pratapgarh (aonla fruit belts), Rai Bareilly, Varanasi, Jaunpur, Sultanpur,

Kanpur, Bareilly, Agra, and Mathura. Aonla is currently farmed on

50,000 acres of land, with an output of 1.75 lakh tons. In the dry and

semi-arid regions of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Haryana, Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and the

Aravali areas, aonla agriculture is expanding quickly. Variety,

propagation techniques, planting, training and pruning, flowering,

irrigation, inter-cultivation; nutrient management; physiological

disorders; insect pests and their management; major diseases and their

management; harvesting and yield are just a few of the production

technologies that must be taken into consideration.

Introduction:

The aonla or Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica Linn.) is a

member of the Phyllanthaceae family and Phyllanthoidae subfamily. It

can be grown with an annual rainfall of 350–500 mm, but it prefers a dry

subtropical climate. The aonla, also known as the Indian gooseberry

(Emblica officinalis Gaertn), is a member of the Euphorbiaceae family.

The Indian subcontinent is where it originally came from in tropical

southeast Asia. Ancient literature refers to it as Amritphal and regards it

as a sacred tree. The natural forests of Cuba, the United States, Pakistan,

Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Java, and the West Indies are also said to include

aonla trees. India is the world's biggest producer of aonla, and the

primary state in where it is grown is Uttar Pradesh, home to Pratapgarh

(aonla fruit belts), Rai Bareilly, Varanasi, Jaunpur, Sultanpur, Kanpur,

Bareilly, Agra and Mathura are the leading districts for aonla cultivation

throughout the country. Aonla is currently farmed on 50,000 acres of

land, with an output of 1.75 lakh tons. In dry and semi-arid parts of

Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and the Aravali areas, aonla

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agriculture is expanding quickly. The fruit is very nutritious and, after

the barbados cherry, is the second-richest source of vitamin C. It is a

good source of pectin and minerals (iron, calcium, and phosphorus), as

well as a fair source of thiamine (vitamin B1) and riboflavin (vitamin

B2). In dried or processed aonla fruits, ascorbic acid and other

ingredients are effectively preserved. According to Kumar et al. (2013),

the fruits are processed to create chutney, candy, preserves (murabba),

sauce, candy, dried chips, tablets, jellies, pickles, powder, etc. It also

features in shampoo, hair dyes and ink industries. Trifla and chavanprash

are well-known indigenous products of aonla. Besides fruits, leaves, bark

and even seeds are being used for various purposes.

Due to the aonla fruit's high nutritional value, high therapeutic value, and

high productivity (15–20 t/ha), it has a lot of potential for commercial

growth in arid zones and marginal soils, where only a few fruits may be

cultivated (Chadha, 2013). Due to its high yield, favorable returns, robust

character, ability to withstand drought, and prolific bearing, it is

becoming more and more popular. Since it is a hardy plant, it may thrive

in marginal soils, moderately alkaline soils, and mildly acidic to

saline/sodic (pH 6.5-9.5) environments (Chadha, 2013). It is a plant that

is best suited for growing in arid and semi-arid environments because of

its deep root system, reduced leaves, and hibernation of fruitlets during

dry periods (April–June). While a mature plant can withstand freezing as

well as a high temperature of 46°C, young plants are not suited to intense

winter frost (Bose and Mitra, 2001). In July and August, warm

temperatures appear to be favorable for the start of floral buds, and

sufficient humidity is necessary for the initiation of the growth of

dormant fruitlets. Heavy fruit drops and a delay in the start of fruit

growth are caused by dry spells during this time.

Soil and Climate Requirement:

Aonla is a fairly hardy tree that can thrive in a variety of agro-

climatic and habitat settings. Although aonla is categorized as a

subtropical fruit, it is successfully grown in tropical, dry, and semi-arid

rainfed environments. On hills up to 1800 m.s.l., the naturally growing

vegetation is visible. Its cultivation is not suited to severe winter frost. It

is planted throughout India, from the southern seacoast to the northern

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foothills. Although mature aonla trees can withstand temperatures as

high as 48 °C and below freezing, they are nevertheless vulnerable to

winter frost damage, which can be severe in the hot, desert climate of

western Rajasthan. The development of flower buds appears to benefit

from warm temperatures. During the months of July and August, the

onset of fruit development in dormant fruitlets depends on enough

humidity. Abrupt temperature changes during blooming and fruit set

have a negative impact on aonla's ability to fruit. Under the climate of

north India, young plants should be shielded from strong winds in May

and June and from frost in the winter, at least until they are 3 to 4 years

old. Heavy fruit dropping and a delay in the beginning of fruit growth are

consequences of dry spells. Aonla can be cultivated in both light and

heavy soil because it is a highly hardy plant. The optimal soil for its

cultivation, though, is well-drained fertile loamy soil. Aonla is a perfect

plant for arid and semi-arid areas because of its deep root system,

reduced foliage, dormancy of fertilized fruit let (April–June),

coincidence of fruit growth and development with the moisture

availability period, and reduced foliage. It is possible to grow aonla on

somewhat degraded lands. It can be grown in soils with a pH range of 9.5

to 9.5, an ESP of 35, and an ECe range of 6 to 9 dsm-1.

Varieties:

Since the majority of the plantations were grown from seeds,

they have a lot of variation. Up until the middle of the 1970s, there was

no standardization of cultivars; instead, they were largely identified by

their size, color, and location names, such as green-tinged, red-tinged,

pink-tinged, Bansi Red white-streaked, etc. However, it is known that

some specific cultivars, including Banarasi, Francis, and Chakaiya, are

grown in Uttar Pradesh. Gujarati natives Anand 1, 2, and 3. They have

also been made to fit the climatic conditions of northern India. The

summary of a few key concepts. Varieties, suitable for growing in

different parts of the country is:

NA-4 (Kanchan)

It is a chance Chakaiya seedling with a tall, spreading habit and

an average of 7.7 female flowers per branchlet. It is a mid-season variety

that is a heavy and regular bearer. Fruits range in size from small to

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medium, are flattened oblong, have six segments, are challenging to

separate, and have fibrous, hard flesh that is ideal for pickling and

powder production. The fruit pulp contains 422.20 mg of vitamin C per

100 g and has a T.S.S. of 9.5 0Brix, an acidity of 2.11 percent, and no

necrosis.

NA-7 (Neelam)

It is an open-pollinated Francis seedling selection with a semi-

spreading growth habit and an average of 10.05 female flowers per

branchlet. It is a prolific bearer, mid-season variety, and precocious.

Smooth-skinned, semitransparent, segmented, and easily separated, fruits

range in size from medium to large and have a somewhat conical form.

Due of the huge crop burdens on indeterminate stems, fruit-bearing

branches are very susceptible to breaking. With a T.S.S. of 9.450 brix, an

acidity of 2.15 percent, and 527.00 mg of vitamin C per 100g of fruit

pulp, it is devoid of necrosis and very suited for processing.

Banarasi

It grows uprightly with three branchlets per node and an average

of 2.56 female flowers per branchlet. The fruit's six easily separated

segments are soft, fiberless, and triangular in shape with a small conical

tip. Due to the scarcity of female flowers and self-incompatibility, it has

a shy bearing. It is an annual variety with a subpar keeping quality.

Acidity 2.23 percent, TSS 10.5 0Brix, and vitamin C 402.00 mg/100g of

fruit pulp.

NA-5 (Krishna)

It is an accidental Banarasi seedling from the Uttar Pradesh area

of Pratapgarh. The tree grows semi-tall and widely, with an average of

3.05 female flowers per branch. It is an early variety and a relatively

reserved bearer. On the exposed surface of the fruit, there are huge,

triangular red dots; segment six is readily separated and very astringent.

It matures early and has a T.S.S. of 100 brix, an acidity of 2.32 percent,

and 549.20 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams.

Francis

The fruit is medium in size, flattened oblong, thick at the top

side and thin at the basin, and has 4.84 average female flowers per

branch. It is erect and tall with drooping branches. Six easily separable

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segments that are soft and almost fibrous are present. Fruit is not

appropriate for producing preserves since it is particularly prone to

necrosis. This variety is mid-season. TSS 8.24 brix, 1.98 percent acidity,

and 532.56 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit pulp.

Chakaiya

The fruit is small to medium in size, flattened circular, segment

six is difficult to separate, and the flesh is fibrous and pale green in color.

It bears copiously, with an average of 7.03 female flowers per branch. It

is late in reaching maturity, good at keeping, and well suited to pickling

and other processed goods. TSS 9.50 brix, 2.18 % acidity, and 502.00 mg

of vitamin C per 100 g of fruit pulp.

NA-6 (Amrit)

It is a choice from a Chakaiya seedling that was accidentally

open-pollinated. It produces a lot, with 10 female blooms on each

branchlet. Fruits have smooth, semi-translucent, light green skin that are

tiny to medium in size and oval in shape. The flesh is fibrous and

moderately tough. Small and light brown in color, seeds are tiny. Fruit

that retains its quality is ideal for processing. Acidity 2.11 percent, T.S.S.

8.50 brix percent, and vitamin C 422.70 mg/100 g of fruit pulp.

NA-8

It is selection from chakaiya seedlings that underwent open

pollination. Trees have an upright growth habit and are tall. With 3.5

female blooms per branch, it is a moderate bearer. Fruits are thin,

spherical, and flattened; they are pale green in color. The flesh is strong,

fibrous, and only slightly prone to necrosis.

NA-10

It is an errant Banarasi seedling that the locals name Agra Bold.

The tree grows in a semi-tall and spreading manner. It bears moderately,

with 4.6 female flowers on each branchlet. The meat is slightly fibrous,

whitish green, tender, juicy, and extremely astringent. The skin is tough

and has a yellowish-green color. Keeping quality high while being only

somewhat fruit necrosis prone TSS 8.50 brix, 2.30 percent acidity, and

516.40 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit pulp.

Goma Aishwarya

From the tree that was found in the large population, Goma

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Aishwarya is a selection. The tree is semi-spreading, the fruits are

medium in size, and it bears a lot and is an early drought-tolerant type. It

is appropriate for processing and export and contains little fiber. Fruit has

a pulp-to-stone ratio of 26.65 and a juice content of 47,000%. TSS is 100

brix, with 554.78 mg of vitamin C in 100 g.

Anand-1

In addition to being tall, trees grow upright. There are 1-3

female blooms on per branch, making it a modest bearer. Fruits range in

size from small to medium; their skin is a bit rough and thick, and their

fibrous, hard meat. Its keeping qualities are average. Making powder and

pickles with it is acceptable.

Anand-2

Trees have an upright growth habit and are tall. With 2-4 female

blooms on each branch, it is a moderate bearer. Small to medium-sized

fruits have tough skin and average keeping qualities. The fruit has a

fairly long shelf life. It is appropriate for creating powder.

Laksmi-52

It is a Francis seedling pick from a farmer's field in Uttar

Pradesh's Pratapgarh area. The tree is a semi-erect variety that produces

large-sized fruit in profusion. The color is pale pink throughout the early

stages of fruit growth and vanishes by the time the fruit is fully

developed.

Propagation

Propagated by both sexual method and asexual method of propagation.

Sexual method of propagation

Seeds are used to propagate this kind of plant. Cross-pollination

prevents true-to-type plants from being produced, despite the ease and

low cost of seed propagation. These plants also show extensive diversity

and protracted juvenility (begin yielding fruits relatively late). This

technique of propagation is typically employed to breed new cultivars or

varieties.

Asexual method of propagation

The vegetative portion of the plant is multiplied in this mode of

propagation. Aonla is currently successfully propagated using soft wood

grafting, veneer, modified ring budding, and inarching.

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Budding

For budding, seedlings aged six months to a year are used as the

rootstock. The scion shoots that are chosen from the mother plants must

bear fruit profusely, be free of pests and illnesses, and produce bisexual

blooms. Between the middle of May and September, patch/modified ring

budding has a 60 to 90% success rate. However, budding is the best

technique for aonla propagation. Soft wood grafting using the

cleft/wedge method is equally effective. It has been standardized to

propagate aonla in polybags or polytubes, or "Root Trainer." For 5-7

days, moss grass or damp newspaper can be used successfully for storing

and transporting aonla scion shoots.

Wedge method of grafting

The pencil-thin seedlings are prepared for grafting. At a height

of 15 to 18 cm above the ground or surface of the polybag, the top of the

rootstock (seedling) is severed. Split the beheaded rootstock vertically

through the middle to a point 4-5 cm below the cut surface. Scion sticks

are harvested from the intended cultivar. Cut a scion sprout from the

chosen mother plant that has 4-6 healthy buds and has bisexual flowers

that are 12–18 cm long and pencil-thin. Scion stick should be sliced into

a 4-5 cm long tapering wedge from both sides. The rootstock's split stem

receives the tapered end that has been put into it. Polythene strip that is 2

cm broad and 25–30 cm long is securely wrapped around the rootstock

and scion. The scion is immediately covered with polycap after grafting

to foster an environment that promotes early sprouting. After 12 to 15

days, scion shoots begin to emerge and are visible from the outside. The

poly caps are painstakingly taken off and saved for hardening. Within 6-

7 months of seed sowing, field-transferable grafts are prepared. About

90–95% of field establishment is guaranteed by this strategy.

Patch budding

Mid-July is the ideal time to carry out aonla's budding

procedure. When perforated polythene bags are employed for root stock

rearing, it has been claimed that patch budding can achieve success rates

of more than 90%. Mature aonla fruits are gathered, and after drying,

their seeds are removed for root stock rearing. Raised bed planting is

followed by transplanting seedlings into plastic bags. Budding operation

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is carried out on one-year-old aonla root stock. A 25 mm long and 10-15

mm broad rectangular patch of bark is fully removed from the root stock

and replaced with a patch of bark the same size that has a bud from the

chosen cultivar (scion). The fact that the buds must face upside down is

the most crucial component. After that, the entire patch is secured with

polythene thread, leaving a bud-shaped opening to prevent water from

entering. Once the bud-initiating process is complete, the polythene is

removed and the uppermost piece of the root stock is cut off. The field

installation of this developing plant is now complete.

Planting

The land needs to be thoroughly tilled, harrowed, and leveled

before planting. The pits, which should be about 1 x 1 x 1 meters cube,

should be excavated in the months of May and June, with a distance of

10 x 10 meters between each plant and row. For roughly 15 to 20 days,

the pits must be exposed to the sun. Along with the top layer of soil, the

pits should be filled with 10-15 kg of farmyard manure. More dirt needs

to be added to the pit before the first raindrops fall, and 2-3 seeds should

be placed in each pit area in July. Additionally, seedlings can be

cultivated in the seedbed. With FYM, compost, or leaf-mould, the

nursery should be raised 10-15 cm. The nursery bed has to be partially

shaded. Seeds are steeped in clean water for two days prior to sowing,

with water changes recommended each day. In the nursery, seeds can be

spread during the spring or rainy season at a depth of 2-3 cm while

keeping a row spacing of 15 cm. Up to three seeds can be placed per hill.

One healthy plant should be preserved per hill after germination, and the

rest should be removed from the nursery bed. The plants that are

prepared for final planting can also be used as rootstock for budding.

Training and Pruning

The development of medium-sized trees in aonla plants should

be fostered. In order to build a strong framework for the plant and after

reaching a height of 0.75 to 1 meter above the ground, branching is

permitted in young plants. Wide crotch angles (angle between stem and

branch; two to four branches) in opposing orientations are encouraged.

Regular branch-pinching is required to remove the undesired ones. Only

4 to 6 branches are permitted to grow in the years that follow. A bearing

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aonla tree doesn't need to be pruned on a regular basis. According to

growth habits, losing every single determinate shoot promotes fresh

growth in the following season. However, infected, crisscrossed, weak,

dead, infested, broken, and suckers growing from rootstock are to be

removed regularly.

Flowering:

Aonla produces both male and female flowers, which emerge on

branchlets in late April. Fruit set is frequently a concern when hot

breezes are present. In the first week of March, floral bud divergence is

seen in the Banarasi cultivar. The last week of March marks the start of

the flowering period, which lasts for three weeks. Female flowers are

found only at the top end of a select few branchlets, while male flowers

are found in clusters on the axil of the leaf throughout the entire

branchlet. The majority of male flowers open between 6 and 7 o'clock,

and anthers dehisce shortly after anthesis, or approximately 10-15

minutes later. The female flowers require 72 hours to fully open and do

so in stages. The third day of anthesis is when the stigma becomes

receptive. Honey bees and the wind are the primary pollinators of aonla.

Irrigation

Aonla orchards that have been in place for a while typically

don't need irrigation under regular rainfall and soil moisture levels. But

throughout the summer months, they need irrigation at intervals of 15

days until the young plants are established. During the flowering season

(February and March), irrigation of bearing aonla plants should be

avoided. However, if there is not enough rain or soil moisture, irrigation

may be necessary after the application of manures and fertilizers as well

as during fruit set to allow for embryo growth. Where water shortage is a

significant issue, the drip irrigation technique has shown encouraging

results, and it has been discovered to be extremely effective in rain-fed

settings. Plants that receive drip irrigation every other day with a 60%

wetted area experience improved growth, production, and aonla quality.

Inter-cultivation:

It deals with managing soil so that productivity is preserved and

soil losses are kept to a minimal. The methods used should be

appropriate for crop behavior. In Aonla, flowering occurs in February,

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and following fruit set, the fruits lie latent during the summer until the

monsoon, when they start to grow and are available to harvest in

December or January, depending on the local environment. Soil should

not be disturbed in the summer and natural cover can be allowed. The

basin can be cleaned at the start of the monsoon, fertilizer and manure

applied, and the space between the rows might be covered with green

manure and ploughed at flowering stage and left that way.

Nutrient management:

Lower yields in aonla have very frequently been ascribed to

inadequate nutrition. In light of this, both young, growing plants and

mature fruit-bearing trees benefit from a balanced diet. But in order to

maintain both vegetative development and fruit production, a bearing

tree needs balanced nutrient treatment.

Schedule of manure and fertilizer application in aonla

Plant ages

(Year)

Manure and fertilizer per plant

FYM

(kg)

Neem/Karanj

Cake (kg)

N (g) P (g) K (g)

At planting 10 1 100 50 100

1 10 1 100 50 100

2 20 2 200 100 200

3 30 3 300 150 300

4 40 4 400 200 400

5 50 5 500 250 500

6 60 6 600 300 600

7 70 7 700 350 700

8 80 8 800 400 800

9 90 9 900 450 900

10 or above 100 10 1000 500 1000

The amount of manure and fertilizers needed depends on the

production, age, and fertility of the soil. A one-year-old plant needs 10

kg FYM, 100 g nitrogen, 50 g phosphorus, and 100 g potash. The initial

dose of manure and fertilizers should be doubled the following year,

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tripled the following year, and so on for a total of 10 years. In the years

that follow, a consistent dose should be administered. The tree basin

should get a full dose of FYM and phosphorus and half of a dose of

nitrogen and potash in the months of December and January. August is

when the second half should be applied. Along with nutrients according

to tree age and vigour, problematic land should additionally integrate

100–500 g of boron, zinc sulfate, and copper sulfate per tree.

Growth and Development:

From November to December, fruits are readily available. The

embryo is latent after fruit set and does not begin to show signs of

outward growth until August is halfway through. After that, the fruit's

diameter and volume expand quickly, reaching their maximum size by

November, after which there is little growth in size. While endocarp cells

create the hard stone cells, the mesocarp cells that make up the fruit grow

in size.

Physiological disorders

Internal necrosis: It is the most prevalent aonla disease in sodic soils

that are low in micronutrients, particularly 'B'. The Francis cultivar is

particularly affected negatively by this condition. Aonla cultivars NA-6,

NA-7, NA10, Kanchan, and Chakaiya were found to have greater yields

and fruits free of necrosis at NDUAT, Faizabad, indicating that they are

appropriate for fruit processing. Particularly common cultivars of

necrosis are "Francis" and "NA-9." Micronutrient deficiency is a disorder

that results in necrosis. A spray that contained borax (0.4%), zinc sulfate

(0.4%), and copper sulfate (0.4%) was found to be effective in

September and October. In September and October, apply a thin layer of

borax at a 0.5 to 0.6 percent concentration. To avoid this problem,

resistant cultivars like "Chakaiya," "NA-6," and "NA-7" should be

planted in the orchard.

Fruit drop: In Aonla, it is a serious issue that affects the crop's yield.

Three phases (waves) of flower and fruit emergence are observed in

Aonla. In the first wave, which is typically caused by insufficient

pollination, more than 70% of the flowers fall off within three weeks of

flowering; in the second wave, young fruitlets fall off during dormancy

break; and in the third wave, fruits fall off due to embryological and

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physiological factors spread out over the entire period of fruit

development. A dry season, hormonal imbalances, poor nutrition,

temperature variations, the type and age of the tree, and the amount of

fruit that is developing are just a few of the factors that might cause fruit

to drop. A significant amount of fruit is lost as a result of late harvesting,

especially in Banarasi and Francis varieties.

Insect pest of anola

Shoot gall maker: Hypolamprus stylophora (Swinhoe) (Betousa

stylophora)

Description: Anola gall disease affects people in China (Hong Kong),

India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Java. It is a minor,

intermittent pest in the most of the areas, with the exception of a handful

where it causes significant economic damage, despite being generally

known to occur in India. It is a particular pest of anola, and it hasn't been

observed attacking any other hosts as of yet.

Nature of damage: The larva feeds on the succulent, woody tissues of

the plant inside the gall before pushing out crimson excrement via a tiny

hole at one end of the gall that is protected by a meshwork of silken

threads. Each gall contains a single larva that stays enclosed in an

ellipsoidal cavity that has been carved out of the gall. The gall is an

uneven, scratchy growth that resembles the shape of a snake charmer's

flute and is a hollow swelling or localized tumescence of the sensitive

sprout. Terminal shoots swell at the beginning of the infestation, and as

time goes on, they grow larger. During the months of October and

November, one can observe full-size galls.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

It is best to prevent branches from becoming overcrowded.

After harvest, galled shoots should be removed and the pest

exterminated.

Spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC at a dosage of 0.05% at the start of the

monsoon season if this pest is a persistent problem. If necessary, it may

be repeated every two weeks.

Pomegranate butterfly: Deudorix Isocrates (Fa b.) (Virachola

isocrates)

Description: South and South-East Asia are home to D. isocrates. This

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pest, which consumes one or more host fruits, can be found throughout

India and its neighboring nations. It goes by the names common

pomegranate or anar butterfly. It is a common and extremely destructive

pest of pomegranate fruit. Fruits including anola, tamarind, mulberry,

loquat, guava, sapota, litchi, citrus, soapnut, wood-apple, peach, pear,

plum, apple, etc. are also occasionally damaged by the larva of this pest

although to a lower level. Pomegranate is the insect's favourite host fruit.

The pest reproduces all year long on various hosts, going through 4

overlapping generations in a single year (1-2 during the wet season, the

other 3 occurring during the fruiting season). This bug attacks between

September and October, which is the ideal time for fruit to ripen.

Nature of damage: This pest's larva bores into the fruit and eats the

seeds, leaving this part hollow on the inside. Fruits that have been

impacted typically have malformed entrance points for larvae. Frass is

visible oozing from the borer hole. The presence of foul-smelling excreta

that collects around the hole on the fruit surface can be used to identify

the entrance hole. Fruit rots result from bacterial and fungal diseases on

the damaged fruits. Such fruits deteriorate, fall over, and weaken before

they can ripen. In the event of a serious attack, it can result in significant

loss. Multiple fruits are harmed by a single caterpillar, which moves

from one fruit to an adjacent one as it develops. Typically, a single fruit

only contains one larva that feeds. During the wet season, the borer has

reportedly damaged between 40 and 70 percent of the anola fruits in

regions with significant infestations.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Pomegranate and guava are important hosts for this insect, hence their

production should be discouraged adjacent to anola plantations.

To stop the spread of the infestation, infected fruits should be detected,

gathered, and destroyed.

Spray Spinosad 0.25 ml/l on aonla fruits when they are pea-sized.

Depending on the severity of the attack, the spray may be repeated after

two weeks.

If necessary, use a cover spray 30–45 days after the initial application of

either 150 ml fenvalerate 20 EC or 120 ml cypermethrin 25 EC or 350 ml

decamethrin 2.8 EC in 10–20 liters of water per tree.

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Trichogramma chilonis and Brachymeria eupioeae Westwood, which

respectively parasitize the eggs and larvae, should have their populations

increased whenever practical.

Bark eating caterpillar: Indarbela quadrinotata (Walker)

Description: The pest, which infests a variety of fruits, ornamentals, and

forest trees, is widely dispersed over the nation. In anola orchards, this

pest is quite prevalent. In general, neglected and poorly managed

orchards are more likely to have this pest. With the appearance of moths

in April, this pest infestation begins. It has been observed that the larvae

of this moth feed and bore into the bark of the main trunk, stem, and

branches. The growth of the tree, flowering, and fruiting are negatively

impacted in cases of severe infestation. Citrus, mango, guava, jamun,

loquat, mulberry, pomegranate, ber, drumstick, litchi, rose, and a number

of forest and decorative trees are among the host plants of the bark-eating

caterpillar.

Nature of damage: On the bark of a tree's main stem, one caterpillar or

pupa can be observed living in each hole of thick, ribbon-like silken

webs. The afflicted stem may die from a heavy infection, but the main

trunk will not. There could be an obstruction to the movement of cell

sap, which would result in the tree's growth being arrested and its ability

to bear fruit being diminished.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

The management of bark-eating caterpillars has remained a challenge

because the pest only causes apparent harm after the appearance of

conspicuous webbings on tree trunks.

The following actions are required for pest management: Avoid allowing

branches to become overcrowded; To keep the orchards free from this

pest, keep them clean and in good condition.

Early infestation can be discovered by periodically keeping an eye out

for drying young shoots; at this stage of the infestation, iron spikes are

inserted into the shelter tunnels produced by the borers to mechanically

kill the caterpillars.

If the infestation is severe, remove the webs and insert a cotton wool

swab dipped in 0.025% Dichlorvos 100 EC or a water emulsion

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containing 0.05% chlorphyriphos 20 EC, then cover the holes.

A naturally occurring entomogenous fungus called Beauveria bassiana

parasitizes the larvae of this insect. This has the potential to be a

biocontrol agent.

Mealy bug: Nipaecoccus vastatar, N. ewstead and N. Viridis.

Description: Mealy bugs, traditionally regarded as minor pests, have

evolved into important pests due to their polyphagous nature, high

reproductive potential, and brief life cycle, which is made more favorable

by prolonged drought and their rapid spread by the wind, seeds, and

planting materials. These mealy bugs have been reported from March to

July, with the highest number occurring in April-May. This insect

spreads quickly in a dry, humid area due to delayed rains.

Nature of damage: The drying and falling of leaves and flowers as a

result of excessive desaping by nymphs has an impact on the tree's

growth, flowering, and fruiting. New shoots that have been affected can

be seen bending and twisting with fading leaves. Twigs on plants with

severe infestations turn dry and leafless. There is apparent excessive

honeydew excretion. Flowers wither and fall.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

Maintaining the tree's health and vigor through proper nurturing

At the first sign of an infestation, prune afflicted areas and eradicate

them.

Spray profenophos 50 EC at 2 ml/l water, imdaclorprid 70WS at 0.4 ml/l

water, or chlorpyriphos 20 EC at 2.5 ml/l water in cases of severe

infestation. Making sure the spray touches the plant's sides and base is

important.

It has been discovered that the entomogenous fungus Beauveria bassiana

works well as a bioagent to inhibit the pest's nymphs.

Mealy bugs are the primary prey of several predatory spider species,

including Neoscona sp., Peucetia sp., Argiope sp., and Oxyopes sp.

Shut hole borers (Ambrosia beetles)

Description: Small insects known as shot hole borers target fruit, shade,

and decorative trees and shrubs in addition to damaging forest trees. The

shot hole borer, S. rugulosus, is a bark beetle that eats sapwood by living

between the bark and the wood's surface. It consumes the succulent

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phloem tissue of the tree. Ambrosia beetles create galleries inside of

which they reside as adults and larvae by boring into the wood of trees.

They raise an ambrosia fungus that they consume. All species of shot-

hole borers are drawn to sick or distressed trees. Apple, pear, cherry, and

plum are a few of the fruit trees targeted by shot hole borers as host

plants.

Nature of damage: Trees with an infestation lose their leaves and stems

and branches. The harm is frequently misdiagnosed as fire blight. Young,

healthy trees can also become infested; however, the beetle often targets

weak or damaged trees. Large branches and trunks may develop galleries

all the way through them.

Integrated Pests Management (IPM):

Start trapping in late March or early April with 2 to 4 traps per acre to

monitor ambrosia beetles in previously attacked regions. Approximately

4 to 5 feet (1.5 meters) from the ground, set traps in the tree close to the

trunk. Flights typically last 3 to 4 weeks during mild weather. They can

endure up to six weeks when the weather is chilly or unpredictable. Little

to no damage is probable if fewer than 20 beetles are captured in each

trap per season. There is a risk of serious harm if trap catches per season

total more than 20 beetles, so control measures must be used.

Keep soil scraped and aerated, avoid water logging, remove and burn

afflicted trees, especially the root zone.

Sprinkle 2.5 ml of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC and 1 ml of Tridemorph per lit

of soil around the main trunk. Use a mixture or tree and 2 to 3 liters.

Followed by a pesticide treatment with Imidacloprid at 0.05%,

Carbendazim at 5 g, and Geru, applied as paste to the tree trunk from

ground level to the point of starting branches by a cloth-made brush,

after three weeks, drench soil around all untreated trees with

Chlorpyriphos 0.05% as a preventative measure once every six months.

Birds (mostly woodpeckers) are the main predators of shot hole borers,

along with checkered beetles, parasitic hymenopterans, parasitic bacteria,

and fungi.

Anola aphids: (Schoutedonia)

Description: The majority of this pest's incidence occurs from July

through October, with September being its peak month. (Devi and

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Rajasekaran 2011). The developing points of the fresh shoots are

infected. Female adults and nymphs both consume the sap. The tree's

growth and vigor are impacted by frequent attacks by this insect, which

ultimately has an impact on flowering and fruiting. Aphid populations

started to grow in the second fortnight of April, then slowly grew

throughout May and June before reaching a peak in activity in the second

fortnight of June. Its population started to decrease in July and finally

vanished around the end of October. (Bharpoda et al. 2009). The first

two weeks of September are said to have seen the highest prevalence of

this insect, when its population was at its highest.

Nature of damage: The diseased leaves turn yellow and wither away. At

the growth tips, infected shoots appear bent and twisted. Aphid

infestation is sometimes indicated by the presence of ants. At their points

of growth, the new shoots are infected. Nymphs and mature females both

consume the sap. Heavy attacks reduce the tree's vigor and growth,

which ultimately affects fruiting and flowers. At the anola's growth tips,

aphids were seen to gather on the fresh flush. The infected leaf became

yellow and withered away.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

The damaged leaf and shoot are clipped off and destroyed.

When you notice aphids, spritz Dimethoate 30 EC at a rate of 0.06%,

Spinosad 45 SC at a rate of 0.25 ml/l, or Lmidacloprid at a rate of

0.005% (3 ml of imidacloprid 17.8 SL in 10 litres of water).

Neem oil should be sprayed on crops at a 0.5% concentration (50 ml

neem oil plus 10 g of detergent in 10 liters of water).

Leaf rollers: Caloptilia (Garcillaria) acidula (Meyrick)

From May-February, there were ongoing cases of C. acidula. The

incidence begins out relatively low, but it progressively rises to its

climax in August. Later, it began to decrease and vanished from the

anola orchards around the end of February. (Rani et al., 2006)

Nature of damage: The leaflets were originally mined by the tiny

yellowish-white larvae of leaf rollers, but later instar larvae rolled the

leaflets. It was discovered eating off the rolled leaves' chlorophyll

content. Only the midrib was left on the twig after the damaged leaflets

fell to the ground. In situations of high incidence, leaves wilt and drop,

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which causes twigs to dry out. The writhing of the leaves which are

wilting and falling might indicate an infestation.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

Keep the orchard clean and avoid crowding the branches.

At the outset of an infestation, rolled leaves can be snipped off and

destroyed along with the larvae.

Neem oil 0.5% (50 ml neem oil + 10 g detergent powder in 10 liters of

water) should be sprayed at the first sign of the leaf roller, Grecillaria

acidula, in cases of heavy incidence to effectively and affordably reduce

it.

Stone borer: (Curculio spp.)

Description: From June-January, this pest is active. With the arrival of

the rains in the month of June, a little weevil first appears. In good timing

with aonla's fruiting season, emerging continues in July-August.

Nature of damage: On the fruit, the ovipositional location is visible

externally as a little brown patch. The presence of an exit hole can also

be used to identify fruit that has been infected.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

After harvesting, deep plowing the orchards exposes the diapausing

larvae and effectively reduces the pest population.

First application of 0.2% Carbaryl 50 WP or 0.05% Quinalphos 25 at

pea-sized fruit. Every two weeks, a second treatment with a different

insecticide could be used, if necessary.

Fruit midge: (Clinodiplosis spp.)

Description: When aonla is in its fruiting season, from September to

January, this pest is most common. From September through October,

adults, which resemble little flies, are visible on their wings.

Nature of damage: The infection location first only appears as a few

little grey-black specks. Later, it changes color to brown. The emergence

hole exists, however little. The fruit parts that the midge larvae have

harmed rot, and the affected fruits are more prone to secondary infections

from numerous ailments. Aonla is more susceptible in deshi variations.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

Deep ploughing the orchard after harvesting reveals the latent larvae and

significantly lowers the pest population.

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At the start of fruiting, it's advised to sprinkle 0.2% Carbaryl 50 WP or

0.05% Qinalphos 25 EC.

Disease of Aonla

Rust disease: Casual organism: Revenelia emblicae

Symptoms: Starting in the first week of August, reddish dots start to

appear on plant leaves. On the foliage and fruits, noticeable brown rust

pustules appear, which subsequently turn dark brown to black. In

extreme cases, a big fruit region will become covered in numerous

pustules. Fruit that has been severely affected with an infection may drop

early. On both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaflets, there are

reddish-brown uredo pustules. Pinkish-brown pustules appear on leaves

that are sensitive.

Disease management

Cultural control

The orchard needs to be tidy in order to grow an aonla plantation.

After harvest, the orchard should properly prune the trees to reduce

humidity.

Utilization of disease-free planting materials

Weeds ought not to grow in the orchards.

Chemical control: Fungicide application is essential to prevent crop

losses and boost yield.

It is beneficial to treat this condition with three sprays of indofil Z-78

(0.2%) spaced monthly from July to September.

Additionally, wettable sulfur (0.25%) used from July-September can

control this illness.

Anthracnose: Causal organism-: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

Symptoms: In regions where aonla is grown, it is a deadly disease. In

vulnerable cultivars, this disease causes a severe decrease in fruit yield of

up to 15-35%. August through September sees the onset of this disease

on fruits and leaflets. Small, round, brown to gray dots with a yellowish

edge in leaflets are the initial signs. The leaves began to dry out in

advance. Fruits acquire depressed lesions that subsequently turn dark,

and pin-lead-like patches with a dark brown to pink color start to form.

In severe situations, several spots combine to form larger lesions. The

core portions of the spots are still grayish and elevated with acervuli that

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are grouped in rings and resemble small dots. If there are many spots, the

fruits shrink and decay because of the harsh conditions.

Disease management

Cultural control

At the beginning of the orchard, throw away any damaged fruits and

leaves.

For air circulation, the orchard should undergo proper trimming.

Keep the area clean of plants and space your trees far apart.

Chemical control

The illness can be lessened by spraying carbendazim (0.1%).

This disease can also be treated with the copper-based fungicide blitox-

50 @0.25%.

Alternaria fruit rot: Causal organism: Alternaria alternata

With the fallen fruits of the aonla, Alternaria alternata was discovered.

Additionally, it's a major issue where aonla is grown. Under humid

conditions, this disease causes significant fruit yield losses.

Symptoms: Small, spherical, brownish to black necrotic patches first

show as illness signs on fruits and grow in size in a circular pattern as the

disease progresses. The dots turn from dark brown to black at this stage,

and they also start to combine with one another. Infected tissues become

pulpy and mushy in the centre.

Disease management

Cultural control

Utilization of disease-free planting materials

Plant debris from the aonla orchard that has been infested must be

removed.

To avoid damaging the fruits, harvesting must be done with extreme

care.

Chemical control

Spray Mancozeb (0.25%) every 10 days to lessen this illness.

15 days before fruit harvest, one carbendazim (0.1%) spray application is

recommended.

Fruits treated with sodium chloride (1%) or borax (0.5%) prevent fruit

rot. Complete hygienic precautions should be used during storage and

travel in addition to the aforementioned control.

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Harvesting

In contrast to seedling trees, which may take 10–12 years to begin

providing fruit, trees propagated vegetatively begin producing fruit

commercially 6–8 years after they are planted. According to estimates,

with proper care, trees can produce for 50 to 60 years. Normally in

November or December, Aonla fruits are available for harvest. When

seeds turn from creamy white to black, they are considered mature.

When an exocarp develops, they are considered mature when this

happens. Light green at initially, the fruits eventually grow to a drab,

greenish yellow or, in rare cases, brick red color. In contrast to immature

fruits, which are bitter and have low levels of minerals and Vitamin 'C',

mature fruits have the highest Vitamin C concentration. The mature

fruits are hard and unyielding to the touch and so are well suited for bulk

harvesting as well as distant transportation and marketing. For getting

attractive price, fruits after harvest should be made in to different grades

depending on the size.

Yield

A seedling tree may take 6–8 years to begin bearing fruit, however a

budded/grafted aonla tree begins to do so from the third year following

planting. When properly cared for, a grafted plant can reach full bearing

in 10–12 years and continue to produce fruit for another 60–75 years. An

aonla tree produces between one and three quintals of fruit per tree, or

about 15-20 t/ha.

References

Bharpoda TM, Koshiya DJ and Korat DM. 2009. Seasonal occurrence of

insect-pests on aonla (Emblica officinalis Geartn) and their

natural enemies. Karnataka Journal of agriculture Sciences,

22(2): 314-318.

Bose TK and Mitra SK, (2001). Fruits, tropical and subtropical. Naya

Udyog, Calcutta pp:523-540.

Chadha KL, (2013). Handbook of horticulture. 12th ed. ICAR New Delhi

pp:140-142.

Devi SJ and Rajasekaran B. 2011. Biology and Morphology of Aonla

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Aphid, schoutedonia emblica. Madras Agriculture Journal, 98

(7-9): 277-278.

Haldhar SM and Deshwal HL. 2017. Fundamentals of agriculture

Entomology. New vishal publication, New Delhi pp: 1-452.

Haldhar SM and Maheshwari SK. 2018. Insect-pests management in arid

and semi-arid horticultural crops. CIAH/Tech/Pub. No: 64, pp.

1-42.

Haldhar SM, Sharma SK, Bhargava R, Singh RS, Sharma BD and Singh

D. 2013. Insect pests of arid fruit crops: practical manual for

field identification and damage symptoms. CIAH/Tech./Pub.

No.42, pp. 1-53.

Kumar M, Singh S and Yadav VK, (2013). Arid Fruits: Post harvest

handling and Processing (in) Emerging Science and Technology

for Food, Agriculture and Environment (Ed. Sandeep Kumar,

Pawan Kumar Yadav and Sunil Kumar). Published by Agrobios

(International). pp:435-448.

Rani BU, Kalyanasundaram M and Suresh K. 2006. Major sucking pests

of aonla and their management. Indian Journal of Arecanut,

Spices anal Medicinal Plants 8: 108-110.

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CHAPTER

2

BAEL

Shivam Kumar Gautam1*, Vijay Kumar

Maurya2, Sumita Omer3 and Ashish Pratap

Singh4

Department of Fruit Sciences, Department of

Floriculture and Landscaping Architecture, College of

Horticulture, Department of Fruit Science, Banda

University of Agriculture and Technology, Banda,

210001, U.P.

*Corresponding Author Name:

Shivam Kumar Gautam

Corresponding Author E-mail Id:

shivamk955430@gmail.com

Abstract

Bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) is an underutilized fruit indigenous to India. It

belongs to the citrus family Rutaceae, and it is also known as Bengal quince,

bilva, Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, bel, belwa, Sriphal, stone apple

and maredo in India. Two species added to the genus Aegle are A. decandra

fernvill and A. glutinosa (Blanco) Merr. Bael has a somatic chromosome

number of 2n =18. The Bael trees thrive well in dry, mixed deciduous, and dry

dipterocarp forests and soils of India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Myanmar, Vietnam, the Philippines, Cambodia, Malaysia, Java,

Egypt, Surinam, Trinidad, and Florida. An unusual fatty acid, 12-

hydroxyoctadec-cis-9-enoic acid (ricinoleic acid), is present in the Bael seed

oil, which has the potential to be manufactured as biodiesel in the future. The

fruits have a hard, smooth woody shell (i.e., pericarp), a soft rind at immature

stages. The flowers are fragrant and form 4–7 clusters along the new branches.

Pollination type and pollinator and the time of flower opening. A sandy loam

soil with good drainage is preferred and a wide range of climate adaptation due

to his hardiness nature. The standard ploughing, harrowing, and levelling

should be used to prepare the ground. Young plants should be watered using a

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basin system since it distributes water more evenly.

Introduction

Bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) is an underutilized fruit indigenous to India. It

belongs to the citrus family Rutaceae, and it is also known as Bengal quince,

bilva, Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, bel, belwa, sriphal, stone apple

and maredo in India. It was introduced to Europe from India in 1759. It is

sacred tree in Hinduism, and is offered in prayers of Hindu deities Lord Shiva

and Parvati and thus, the tree is also known by the name ‘Shivaduma’ (The

Tree of Shiva). Its medicinal properties have been described in the ancient

treatise like Charaka Samhita, Upvana Vinod and Yajur Veda, and it has also

been portrayed in the paintings of Ajanta Caves. Bael is a slow-growing,

medium sized tree attaining 25-30 feet height. The stem is short, thick, soft,

flaking bark, and spreading, sometimes spiny branches (2-5cm long), the lower

ones drooping (Singh et al. 2011a, Singh et al. 2015).

Common Name of crop-

Bael is also known as Bengal-quince, golden apple, and stone apple in India and a

sacred tree in places where Hindus lives. Bael trees are usually planted near

temples dedicated to Lord Shiva and routinely worshiped by the devotees.

Scientific Name

Two species added to the genus Aegle are A. decandra Fernvill and A.

glutinosa (Blanco) Merr. Other members of Rutaceae are Citrus, Casimiroa,

Clausena, Eremocitrus, Limonia Feroniella, Fortunella, Poncirus, Triphasia

etc. While generic name Aegle is of Greek origin, the species name

(marmelos) is a Portuguese word.

Chromosome No.

Bael has a somatic chromosome number of 2n =18 chromosomes with an

average chromosomal size of about 1.60μm. Length of individual

chromosomes vary from 1.08 to 2.62 μm. Total chromatin length of Bael is

calculated to be 28.88 μm. Cytology, phenology, pollination, breeding system

and natural regeneration of wild and cultivated trees from India revealed the

existence of diploid (2n =18) and tetraploid trees (2n = 36) in Pacmarhi hills

and only diploid trees in Punjab plains and Shiwalik hill and trees of both the

ploidy level showed normal meiosis and high pollen fertility (Singhal et al.

2011). Remarkably high pollen fertility at each ploidy level. The large fruits

are often correlated with the tetraploid genomes.

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Origin

The Bael tree is a native to India and may also be found in Nepal, Sri Lanka,

Malaysia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, and the majority of

South East Asian nations. It is also planted in north Malaya, the arid region of

Java to a lesser degree in northern Luzol in the Philippines, and in gardens in

Egypt, Surinam, and Thailand due to its significance as a sacred tree. It is

found all across India, but the eastern Gangetic plains and the territories

surrounding, notably in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh

and Jharkhand are where it is concentrated. West Bengal, Punjab, and Odisha

can also see it expanding. Bael trees may be found in Gujarat growing

naturally in the forest with great diversity. The majority of the genotypes

found in Gujarat's forested regions have small-sized fruits (Singh et al., 2008,

2012a, & 2014a), whereas the plants growing in temples or in homes'

courtyards have large-sized fruits that were brought by pilgrims from north

India.

Geographical Distribution

The believed origin of Bael is India. The species reached the nearby countries

in prehistorical times and recently to the other faraway lands through human

movements. the Bael trees thrive well in dry, mixed deciduous, and dry

dipterocarp forests and soils of India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Myanmar, Vietnam, the Philippines, Cambodia, Malaysia, Java,

Egypt, Surinam, Trinidad, and Florida. Bael occurs in India since 800 B.C. as

a crop according to the historical reports. Bael is a subtropical species,

although it can grow well in tropical environments. Bael can thrive well in

high altitude as high as 1,200 m and withstand without any significant growth

retardation at 50°C and −7°C. In the prolonged droughts, fruiting may cease,

but the plant can survive with shallow soil moisture. Bael trees generally

require well-drained soil (pH: 5–8), but many studies and grower-reports

suggest that it can grow equally well in alkaline, stony, and shallow soils. Bael

grows well and produces bountiful harvests of fruits in the “oolitic-limestone”

soils of southern Florida. In India and Sri Lanka, Bael is famous as a fruit

species, which can grow in very tough soils where other trees and other crops

cannot grow.

Economic Importance

Economic Importance/Value and Underutilized Status of Bael. In addition to

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the food and medicinal values, activated carbon produced from Bael fruit

shells can be used as an efficient, low-cost adsorbent to remove heavy metals

such as Advances in Agriculture 3 chromium from polluted or drinking water.

The use of activated carbon derived from Bael rinds could be a novel approach

to detoxify the heavy metal contaminated drinking water in Dry Zone, Sri

Lanka, to combat chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDU). Bael

leaves could also be used as a potential biosorbant. The noxious lead ions were

demonstrated to be removed from an aqueous solution by absorbing them into

the Bael leaves. An unusual fatty acid, 12-hydroxyoctadec-cis-9-enoic acid

(ricinoleic acid), is present in the Bael seed oil, which has the potential to be

manufactured as biodiesel in the future. The structure of Bael exudate gum

was also determined which could be further characterized for various industrial

applications. Bael is highlighted as a natural purifier of the environment and

can be used as a supporting tree for wildlife and key species in reforestation of

urban, rural, and dryer areas, and also it is useful as a shedding tree for nutrient

recycling.

Medicinal and Pharmacological Values. All parts of the Bael plant consist of

immense medicinal properties. The herbal medicinal preparations of Bael are

used to treat chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, peptic ulcers, laxative for

astringency, and respiratory ailments. The medicinal properties of herbal

preparations of Bael are tested using animal models such as rats, rabbits, and

mouse.

Botany of Flower and Fruits

Flower Morphology

The flowers are fragrant and form 4–7 clusters along the new branches. A

flower has four or five recurved and fleshy petals (the exterior colour is green,

and the inside colour is yellow) with 50 or more greenish-yellow stamens. The

flower is 2 cm wide, sweet-scented, stalked, lax, erect, and occurred axillary or

terminal cymes. The calyx is shallow, with five short, broad teeth, and

pubescent outside. The stigma is capitate, and the ovary is oblong-ovoid and

slightly tapering into the thick short style.

Fruit Morphology

The fruits have a hard, smooth woody shell (i.e., pericarp), a soft rind at

immature stages. The crust is grey -green at early stages, turns yellowish or

orange at the ripening stage, and becomes very hard and orange-red when

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dried. The Bael fruit exists in diverse shapes ranging from round, pyriform, 2

Advances in Agriculture oval, or oblong. The fruits are 5–20 cm in diameter.

The aromatic tiny oil glands appear as dots on the fruit shell. Inside the fruit,

there is a hard-central core with 8 to 20 indistinctly apparent triangular

segments with thin, dark-orange walls. They contain aromatic, pale-orange,

pasty, sweet, resinous, astringent pulp with a pleasing aroma. The fruits are

slow ripening, and they could take one year for full ripening. The ripen fruit

flesh is yellowish-orange in colour, mucilage, fibrous, and aromatic. The seeds

embed in a pulp-adhesive transparent mucilage, which solidified like a glassy

crystal when dried.

Type of pollination

It so cross-pollination. At the time of flower opening, large number of honey

bees (Apis dorsata) and beetles, houseflies and butterflies less in number

arrive and start the visiting the flowers for the foraging purpose and they

directly enter on the central portion of the flower whether it is completely

opened or just started to open due to which large number of pollens stick to

their abdomen and legs (Fig.5). Effective pollination occurred through the

honeybees, which visited the flower 5-23 times in one hour and carried highest

number of pollen grains (29.65) than the rest of pollinators (Table 4).

Honeybees have been recognized as ultimate and legitimate pollinators in

many tropical trees. They forage on Bael flower only in the forenoon and

honey bee is recognized as ultimate pollinators than others, because their

presence was noticed in plenty and carried large number of pollen grains but

the presence of other pollinators were less in number and carried less pollen

grains owing to their foraging behaviour and had less contact to the pollen

grains (Singh et al., 2014e and Singhal et al., 2011).

Soil

Although a sandy loam soil with good drainage is preferred, it may also do

well in poor, rocky, and stony soil. Avoid choosing places with heavy soils or

high-water tables for Bael production. It can withstand salinity up to 9 ds/m

EC, sodicity up to 30 ESP, and a pH range of 6 to 8.5. It therefore has a huge

potential for growth in barren areas with poor soil and climatic conditions.

Even in that Desert, it may thrive on sandy soil with an arid ecosystem's low

fertility and limited water holding ability.

Climate & Season

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Bael has a wide range of climate adaptation due to his hardiness. It likes a

subtropical environment with hot, dry summers and moderate winters. It can

grow up to a height of 1200 MSL and is unaffected by temperatures as low as -

7 degrees Celsius and as high as 48 degrees Celsius. The leaves and delicate

twigs in Rajasthan's dry conditions were harmed by the low temperature.

However, by shading the leaves, the plant tolerates the summertime dryness

and hot temperatures.

Cultivars

Up until recently, there were no common cultivars of Bael. Some well-known

cultivars were given their names after the region where they are conveniently

available. These include Deoria Large, Kagzi Gonda, Kagzi Etawah, Darogaji,

and Mirzapuri.

Recently some important variety developed from ANDUAT and GBPUA & T,

Pantnagar

Narendra Bael-4

Tree are spreading type and oblong fruit in shape their fruit quality is excellent

and heavy bearer in nature.

Narendra Bael-5

Plant precocious bearing and height (3-5 m). Fruit round shape with flatten

end, medium size (21 x 25 cm), sweet (35-38°B TSS) with less seed content.

Pulp with low mucilage content, soft flesh with excellent taste. The average

fruit weight ranged from 900-1000 g, having smooth yellow surface at

maturity.

Narendra Bael-7

Flattened round, very large and yellowish green colour fruit bear. Mostly

growing in Uttar Pradesh.

Narendra Bael-9

The plant is having medium height (4-6 m) and spreading in nature. Fruit size

(26 x 33 cm) oblong round, with smooth surface having high TSS content (35-

40°B). The fruit contain medium mucilage, moderately fibrous, mild

fragrance, and sweet taste with mild acidity, soft orange yellow flesh and thin

shell with less seed content.

Narendra Bael-7

The plant is having medium height (5-7 m) with less spreading nature fruit is

round shape, with flatten ends (17.50 cm long and 74.0 cm circumference) 324

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Arid Fruits and weighing around 3-4.5 kg per fruit. Fruit has moderate TSS

content (27.30°B) and also have moderate content of seed and fibre in the fruit.

The average fruit yield of full-grown up tree ranged from 70-80 kg.

And Narendra Bael-16, Narendra Bael-17.

Pant Shivani

The variety is a midseason one. Trees are towering, active, thick, growing

erect, immature, and heavy bearers. Oblong-ovoid in form, this fruit measures

49.55 x 49.15 cm. Fruit weighs 1.2 to 2.0 kg on average. Fruit has a lemon

yellow colour and superior preservation qualities. The pulp is lemon-colored

and has a good flavor and mucilage. The seed and fiber content are low to

medium. The rind is medium thin. It has a great flavor. It possesses ascorbic

acid (15 mg/100 g pulp), TSS (34–35°B), acidity (1.30%), and meat (69%).

The tree produced between 50 and 60 kg.

Pant Aparna

The leaves are enormous, dark green, and shaped like pears. The trees are tiny

with drooping, sparse foliage that is practically thornless. Fruit is globose-

shaped, measuring an average of 35.60 x 36.56 cm and weighing between 0.6

and 0.8 kg. Fruit has a thin, golden peel and yellow pulp. Fruit has 46% meat,

34°B TSS, 0.8% acidity, and 15 mg of ascorbic acid per 100g of pulp. Low

levels of mucilage, seeds, and fiber. The flavor and taste of fruit are excellent.

The various segments are encased in mucilage and seeds. As a result, this

cultivar is perfect for processing. It has a great flavor. It possesses ascorbic

acid (15 mg/100 g pulp), TSS (34–35°B), acidity (1.30%), and meat (69.5%).

Pant Urvashi

Mid-season variety is what it is. Trees grow upright, are strong, thick, and

towering. Young and a hefty carrier. Fruit is typically ovoid and oblong,

measuring 49.7 × 47.7 cm and weighing 1.6 kg on average. Fruit has a

medium rind and is lemon-colored. Thin and yellow in the pulp. Fruit pulp

(68%) has a delicious taste. Seeds mucilage is moderate, fiber content is low,

TSS is 32°B, acidity is 1.15 percent, and (12.6 mg/100 g pulp) ascorbic. The

yield of trees averaged between 27 and 30 kg.

Pant Sujata

It is a seasonally early variety. The trees are medium-dwarf, thick, and heavy

bearers with spreading and drooping leaves. Fruit has a globe-like form with

depressions at both ends, measuring 48.0 x 50.4 cm on average, and weighs

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1.14 kg.

Fruit and pulp are light yellow, the skin is thin and seed, mucilage, and fiber

content are low, and storage quality is superior. It tastes excellent and has a

lovely flavor. Acidity (0.75%), TSS (30°B), and ascorbic acid (18 mg/100 g

pulp) are all present in pulp. Between 45 and 50 kg of fruit were produced on

average per tree.

Cultivars Developed from CISH, Lucknow

CISH-B-1

It is an open pollinated seedling selection. This mid-season variety grows

between April and May. The fruit is oval to oblong in shape, 15–18 cm in

length and 38–40 cm in diameter, and weighs an average of 1.01 kg. The trees

are tall, strong, and have a dense canopy. They have an upright growth habit

and are precocious and heavy bearers. As fruit ripens, the hue changes to

lemon-yellow. Fruits have a good flavor, a thin shell, and little mucilage. Each

fruit has 38 seeds, with a seed to pulp ratio of 1:206. It tastes and tastes quite

excellent. Fruits include 65.57% pulp, a TSS of 38.0°B, 1.18 mg of total

carotenoids per 100 g of pulp, 20.54% total sugar, and 3.5% tannin. A fully

developed tree may produce between 55 and 80 kg.

CISH-B-2

It comes from seedlings that were open to pollination as well. Small tree with a

moderate spreading habit. Precocious plant with thin, almost thorn less foliage

and a modest bearing habit. Fruits range in form from oblong to spherical, with

an average of 14.80 cm in length and 52.64 cm in diameter. Fruits range in

weight from 1.80 to 2.70 kg per. Fruit pulp is orange-yellow, and the 0.24–

0.26 cm-thin shell is thin. Low levels of seeds and fiber are present, with an

average of 50.12 seeds per fruit and an average seed weight of 4.40 g. The

seed to pulp ratio is 1:270. It smells excellent and has a good flavor. It

possesses 16.33% total sugar, 2.45% tannin content, 0.99 mg of total

carotenoids per 100 g, 31.90°B TSS, and 61.32% pulp.

Other

Thar Divya:

It starts ripening after 270 days of fruit setting under rainfed conditions of hot

semi-arid ecosystem. Fruits of this variety are comparatively less affected

(40%) by sunscald due dense canopy and luxuriant growth. The average

yield/tree (kg) during 8th year, fruit weight (kg), fruit size (cm), fruit

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girth(cm), shell thickness (cm), number of locules in cross section (seed

cavity), peel weight (g), pulp weight (kg), fibre weight (g), seed weight(g),

total seed weight (g), total number of seed, TSS of pulp (o brix), TSS of

mucilage ( o brix), acidity (%),TSS/acidity ratio are 7.50, 1.62, 18.60x14.80,

45.80, 0.19, 14.72, 235.50, 1.30, 61.10, 0.13, 32.00, 120.75, 38.50, 51.00, 0.30

and 128.33, respectively. This variety matures during February and belongs to

very early maturing group and can be grown successfully under rainfed semi-

arid ecosystem (Singh et al., 2015b, 2015c, 2014i, 2016c, 2016i, 2016k &

2016o).

Thar Neelkanth:

It is a superior genotype having compact growth, medium height, less spiny,

better yield with quality fruits having pleasant flavour and attractive colour of

pulp. It started flowering and fruiting from 3rd year of budding. Average yield

per plant 75.67 kg (8th year), average fruit weight 1.45 kg, fruit size 15.10 cm

x 15.00 cm, fruit girth 47.30 cm, shell thickness 0.18cm, total number of seed

73, seed weight 0.21g, total seed weight 15.46g, fibre weight 110.17 g, shell

weight 265.00g, locules in cross section 13-16, pulp 71.30%, TSS pulp 40.100

B, TSS mucilage 51.500 B, acidity (0.30%) and vitamin C 19.90 mg / 100 g

pulp were recorded. The fruit of this genotype is having good flavour and

aroma. It is highly suitable in draught prone dry land conditions and also

suitable for sherbet, powder candy and squash making (Singh et. al., 2012d,

2016c, 2016f, 2016g, 2016 l)

CHESB-11:

It is identified promising based on horticultural traits at CHES, Godhra.

Average yield per plant 84.10 kg in 8th year, fruit weight 1.48 kg, fruit size

14.10 cm x 15.20 cm, fruit girth 44.21 cm, shell thickness 0.14 cm, total

number of seed 75, seed weight 0.20g, total seed weight 17.58g, fibre weight

25.60 g, shell weight 200.20g, locules in cross section 14-17, TSS pulp 38.130

B, TSS mucilage 49.800 B, acidity (0.29%) and vitamin C 22.83 mg / 100 g

pulp were recorded. It is medium maturing variety (1st week of May). It is rich

in antioxidants activity. The fruits of this genotype are having good flavour

and aroma. It is highly suitable for sherbet; murabba and powder making.

CHESB-16:

It is identified promising based on horticultural traits, which were collected

from Vidyanagar during 2011. Average yield per plant 74.20 kg in 8th year,

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fruit weight ranged between 0.9- 1.20 kg, fruit size 15.50 cm x 11.40 cm, fruit

girth 42.20 cm, shell thickness 0.20 cm, total number of seed 98.14, seed

weight 0.19g, total seed weight 19.51g, fibre weight 31.42 g, shell weight

185.20g, locules in cross section 14-16, TSS pulp 37.130 B, TSS mucilage

48.750 B, acidity (0.34%) and vitamin C 20.80 mg/100g pulp were recorded.

Growth habit is drooping. It is late maturing variety (3rd week of May). It is

rich in antioxidants activity CUPRAC (micro M TE/g) was recorded 127.87 in

mucilage and 90.87 in fruit pulp. The fruits of this genotype are having good

flavour and aroma. It is highly suitable for RTS, candy, murabba and powder

making.

CHESB-21:

It was collected from Bael bagh near Somnath temple Gujarat during the year

1012. Average yield per plant 62.57 kg in 7th year, fruit weight ranged

between 1.25-1.50 kg, fruit size 21.200 cm x 13.40 cm, fruit girth 43.78 cm,

shell thickness 0.21 cm, total number of seed 104.15, seed weight 0.20g, total

seed weight 20.51g, fibre weight 40.42 g, shell weight 205.10g, locules in

cross section 14-16, TSS pulp 39.150 B, TSS mucilage 50.500 B, acidity

(0.37%) and vitamin C20.80 mg/100g pulp were recorded. It is late maturing

variety (1st week of May). the fruits of this genotype are having good flavour

and aroma. It is highly suitable for pickle, sherbet; candy, jam and powder

making.

Field preparation

The standard ploughing, harrowing, and levelling should be used to prepare

the ground. In order to prevent the negative impacts of water stagnation during

the rainy season, particularly in black cotton soil, there should be a slight slope

to assist appropriate drainage. Pits are filled with dirt that has been combined

with decomposing organic debris. When the dirt in the pits has already settled

during the wet season, planting is done. When planting, one should take extra

care to keep the graft union far above the ground and the earth ball from

breaking. To prevent the creation of air pockets, the soil should be carefully

compressed all around the stem. After planting, the plants need to be watered

right away. In the first two to three years, it is advisable to cover plants with

some kind of cover, leaving the one side exposed, to protect them against low

and high temperature harm and from hot desiccating winds. Planting a shelter

belt and wind breakers around the orchard will help shield the trees from the

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summer's hot, desiccating winds. For this, two to three staggered rows of fast-

growing drought-tolerant tree species should be planted.

Method of Planting

Generally Bael plantation is being done in square system. Seedling of Bael is

planted on boundary of orchard as wind break. Planting of the Bael at 6 m x 6

m in square system and at 5m x7 m in rectangle system has been

recommended by Singh and Nath (1999). The main objective to follow

particular planting system is to accommodate the maximum number of trees

per unit area without affecting the yield efficiency and fruit quality adversely.

Some of the popular systems of planting in vogue are the square, rectangular,

quincunx, hexagonal, contour, hedgerow, double hedgerow, paired and cluster

planting but not properly tried in case of Bael.

Seed rate (propagation) and Spacing

The seeds are the primary planting material of Bael. The nurseries must be

established with the fully-grown seeds collected from the mature fruits. The

seedlings must be Advances in Agriculture 7 transplanted in the adequately

prepared fields for better establishment and success rates. However, the seeds

often show reduced germination rates, and the seedlings often display

segregation of traits, especially regarding the fruit traits; thus, the superior

Bael trees must be propagated by using vegetative means such as budding,

grafting, and micro-propagation. The four-week-old buds collected in the

correct phenological stage could be budded onto two-year old health seedlings

as rootstocks to obtain successful regeneration. The air-layering, root cuttings,

and the separation of roots with shoots that appeared separately to the mother

plants can also be used to propagate Bael.

Seed treatment: To prevent the mortality of young seedling due to damping

off disease (rotting of seedling at the point of touching soil surface) at nursery

stage seed treatment is essential. For this seed treatment with Thiram fungicide

(1: 400) is effective.

Preparation of seed bed: Nursery bed should be prepared at the place where

shed prevail during summer months and it should be free from water logging.

It should be prepared by mixing well rotted FYM or leaf mould or any other

compost. Dimension of each bed should be 2-2.5 m length X1- 1.25 m width x

15 cm height with 40-50 cm wide path between beds.

Sowing of seeds and shifting of seedlings:

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As Bael fruit matures during April - May, freshly extracted seeds should be

sown in prepared beds during June - July. Seed can be sown in poly bag (size

25 x 15 cm) filled with mixture of soil: FYM: sand (1:1:1). The mixture should

be solarized with white polythene for 1.5 month (April - June) or sterilized

with formaldehyde to kill the harmful germs. Since, seed size is small, seeds

should not be placed deep in soil. Immediately after sowing light irrigation and

mulching with FYM or leaf mould should be done to promote quick

germination. The seed germinate three weeks after sowing. The seedling

becomes ready for transplanting (10-15 cm height) seven weeks after sowing.

These seedlings are dug up with little earth ball and planted in separate nursery

bed at a spacing of 45 x 45 cm or in polythene bags. The shifting of seedling is

necessary to check the growth of tap root system and to encourage the fibrous

roots. These transplanted seedlings are ready for budding/grafting after a year.

Seedlings or budded plants are transplanted in the field in square system

(6x6m) or rectangular (5x7m). Pits of 1x1x1m size are dug during May- June

which is kept open for 15 days. Compared to seedling trees, bud-forming

plants begin producing fruit earlier at the age of 4-5 years and seedling trees at

7-8 years. Budded tree needs maintenance from the first year when they have

been well fertilized and weeded following the rains.

Nutrient Management

To plants that are one year old, apply 5 kg of FYM, 50 g N, 25 g P, and 50 g

K/plant. Up to the age of 10, this dosage should be raised yearly in the same

amount. Following that, a steady dosage of 500 g N, 250 g P2O5, 500 g K2O,

and 50 kg FYM need to be used. Plants frequently displayed indications of

zinc shortage in sodic soil. It is advised to use fertilizer and 250 g of zinc

sulphate as a base application to rectify this. Throughout addition, it is advised

to apply foliar zinc sulphate (0.5%) throughout the months of July, October,

and December. Apply the entire recommended amount of manure and fertilizer

to July and June are two months. When a tree is fully developed, the manure

and fertilizer should be applied across the whole canopy, leaving one meter

around the tree trunk, and they should be thoroughly absorbed into the topsoil.

Applying 300 g of borax per tree combined with manure and fertilizers should

solve the issue of fruit cracking in orchards. Light irrigation should be used

after manure and fertilizer applications.

Irrigation and Drainage

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Young plants should be watered using a basin system since it distributes water

more evenly. Young plantations should get irrigation at intervals of 10-15 days

in the summer and one month in the winter. Because bearing orchards drop all

of their leaves in the dry summer and can withstand the hot, dry weather,

irrigation is typically not needed. If an irrigation system is available, however,

it should be used as soon as manuring and fertilization are finished for trees

that yield fruit. After the rainy season (October through April), irrigation

should be applied at monthly intervals. Pitcher irrigation has also been proven

to be effective for the growth of Bael orchards in places with water constraint.

Weed Management

When all areas of production technology, including as weed control,

intercultural operations, and intercropping, are given proper consideration,

productivity may be boosted. In general, weeds have a negative, extremely

gradual, and subtle impact on plant development and output. Many of despite

having a shorter life cycle than plants, weeds nonetheless fight with them for

resources. Consequently, the yield is decreased by light, water, and nutrients.

To prevent weed development in the orchard, hoeing, hand weeding, and land

ploughing are done two to three times year. To control moisture loss through

cracks formed in summertime adjacent plants, particularly in black cotton soil,

regular spading of basin soil is necessary. Vegetable crops cultivated during

the rainy season can be used as intercrops in rainfed conditions.

Crop Protection Measures

Major Insect-Pests and their Management

No any pest causing economical losses are reported. However, the

Chrysomeids, Clitea picta Baly and C. Indica J. are specific on Bael which

cause noticeable damage to the leaves and shoot sometimes. The coccid, L.

canium viridae Green, at times, appears in large numbers and suck the plant

sap.

Major Diseases and their Management

Bacterial canker:

Xanthomonas campestris pv. bilvae causes canker and bacterial shot holes in

the leaves, twigs thorns and fruits. The symptoms appear first on leaves in the

form of round, water-soaked spots, surrounded by a clear halo which later turn

into brown lesions. The pathogen also Infect the twigs and thorns causes

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canker. Affected portions should be removed along with antibacterial sprays.

The disease can be managed by 2-3 sprays of 500 ppm streptomycin or 1 per

cent Bordeaux mixture at 15 days interval.

Physiological disorders and their Management

Fruit drop and cracking before ripening are main pre-harvest physiological

disorders in Bael.

Fruit Drop

Fruit drop in Bael occur due to embryo abortion, physiological imbalances of

nutrients such as boron, calcium and zinc, fruit borer attack, fruit rotting and

fruit cracking. Growth regulator @ 20-30 ppm, NAA@20-30 ppm and GA3 @

50 ppm if sprayed twice (1st after 7 days of initiation of growth and 2nd spray

after an interval of 15 days) and nutrient like borax @ 0.1 per cent (twice at

full bloom and after fruit set) may check fruit drop to a reasonable extent.

Fruit Cracking

Fruit cracking is the physiological disorder in some genotypes of Bael, which

occurs just before ripening. In general, cracking occurs as result of excessive

water absorption by fruits by way of root absorption, while at the same time

the ripening and/or other factors are reducing the strength and elasticity of the

epicarp/peel. The environmental factors which make epicarp rigid are elasticity

of the epicarp/peel. The surrounding fruits. In a study at ICAR-CIAH, Bikaner,

Bael fruits were wrapped with cling film, firmly. The wrapping of fruits with

cling film resulted in reduced fruit cracking. Further, cracking can be

minimized by maintaining optimum moisture regime in soil up to full growth

or maturity of fruit, provisioning wind breaks around the orchard to reduce the

impact of desiccating winds and by spraying borax @ 0.1 per cent twice at full

bloom and after fruit set.

Intercultural operation (Training and pruning)

Stakes are used to educate young plants so that they grow upright. It is crucial

to prevent lateral branches on the trunk from growing 75 cm above the ground

in order to produce a strong foundation. After that, 4-6 branches should be left

to emerge in all directions. For 4-5 years, the tree should be educated using a

modified leader method. In general, Bael grows organically without needing to

be pruned. However, sick, weak, and broken twigs as well as dead, cross-

shaped branches are occasionally cut off.

TOP WORKING

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By top working, older trees of inferior kinds or ancient traditional cultivars

may be readily revived and converted into better types. During the month of

March, these plants are cut back to a height of 2.5 to 3.0 meters from the

ground, leaving 4-6 major chopped limbs in all directions. To prevent a fungus

infection, cow dung paste or copper oxychloride paste is then applied to the

cut ends of the trees. On primary cut limbs, only 4-6 shoots that are growing in

outward directions are permitted. On these branches, patch budding with a

better scion cultivar is carried out between July and August. The top of the

shoots is cut off once they have sprouted. Since these plants are vulnerable to

insect damage and even wind damage, care is taken to manage the insect pest

concerns at this time. These top-worked trees began to yield fruit after their

third year.

Harvesting

If sufficient care is not taken during harvest, Bael fruits may suffer harm.

During harvest, the tree is leafless, especially in late maturing forms, although

early maturing cultivars do not lose their leaves under rainfed circumstances in

the semi-arid habitat of western India. In order to prevent infection and to

better determine when the Bael fruits are ripe, mature Bael fruits are removed

from the tree one at a time, along with a section of the fruit stem (2–3 cm). The

harvesting period is determined by the intended use. The practise of shaking

trees to gather fruit should be avoided since the fruits are prone to break upon

impact due to the fruit's extremely fragile peel, which attracts infection and can

result in significant loss during storage. Fruit pickers are employed during

harvest in order to prevent fruit from falling to the ground. Fruit should be

collected for canning between November and December, however under

differing climatic circumstances, the best period to harvest fruit for fresh

consumption is between the second week of February and May. However,

harvesting period is influenced by the temperature and moisture availability in

soil. Fresh fruit harvested from late October to late December are suitable for

preserve making while for fresh use as sherbet and other products from ripen

fruit, harvesting time is from February to June. Singh et al. (2012b) have

reported variation in ripening of Bael varieties under dryland conditions.

Yield

Bael fruit are harvested when the tree generally gets defoliated and the fruits

are completely exposed. The fruit should be picked individually from the tree

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with a portion of fruit stalk. Bael fruits are likely to get damaged if proper care

is not taken during harvesting. Harvesting by shaking the tree is not allowed,

as the fruits are cracked on the peel. A minor crack on the peel can cause

heavy spoilage during storage. To prevent the fruit from falling on the ground

fruit picker can be used for harvesting.

A well grown tree of about 12- 15 years age produces about 300-500 nos. of

fruits under better management. The average yield of the weal developed Bael

tree produce from 60-90kg. Like, Pant Aparna variety produced between 55

and 60 kg per tree. Were 45 and 50 kg of fruit/tree produced by Pant Sujata.

Storage

Bael storing is not a suggested practise. Fruit that has been collected at full

maturity for creating preserves can be preserved for up to 21 days, while fruit

that has been harvested at the ripe stage can be kept at room temperature for up

to 7-9 days. According to Roy and Singh (1979b), fruit may be kept for up to

three months in a cool environment at a temperature of 90°C and a humidity

level of 85–90% (Fig. 50). It is sensitive to The Bael (Production Technology)

46 low temperature injury like other subtropical fruits. At low temperature,

spoilage is caused mainly due to chilling injury i.e. appearance of brown spots

on the fruit surface during storage below 8-90 C while at high temperature,

spoilage is mainly due to fungal attack. During storage, an increase in total

sugars and greater accumulation of reducing sugars are observed (Roy and

Singh, 1979b). The effect of some chemicals, such as NAA (100, 200 ppm),

GA3 (50, 100), and ascorbic acid (200 ppm), as well as wrapping materials,

such as liquid paraffin coating, perforated polythene bags, butter paper, or blue

cellophane, on extending the storage life of fruits of Bael cv. Kalyani

Selection-1, harvested in February, was investigated. Paraffin coating, in

particular, extended the storage life of Bael. Fruits that have been chemically

treated can be kept for up to 18 days. Depending on the wrapping method,

fruits might be kept for up to 24 days without much deterioration. Fruits may

be kept for up to 21 days if they were treated with hot water (52 o C). After six

months, there is essentially no change in the organoleptic quality of frozen

pulp, and for other items maintained at 37° C, it remained far above the

acceptable level (Roy and Singh, 1979a).

It has been shown that non-reducing sugars decrease during fruit product

storage while reducing and total sugars rise. The use of SO2 not only enhances

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the fruit slab, toffee, and powder's initial quality but also stops non-enzymatic

browning during storage.

Reference

1. Singhal, V. K., Salwan, A., Kuma, P. and Kaur, J. (2011). Phenology,

pollination and breeding system of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa

(Rutaceae) from India. New Forests, 42 (1): 85-100.

2. Singh, A. K., Singh, S., Saroj, P. L. (2018). The Bael (Production

Technology). Technical Bulletin No. CIAH/Tech./Pub. No. 67 pu

blished by Director, ICAR-CIAH, Bikaner. p. 1-55

3. Sharma R.R., Krishna Hara (2020) fruit production. Daya publication

House (New Delhi).63-72.

4. Devendra Pandey, A.K. Misra, Neelima Garg, P.K. Shukla,

Gundappa, S.K. Shukla and S. Rajan (2020). Bael Cultivation. Pub.

ICAR-CISH, Lucknow, p.

5. Das, B.C., Das, S.N (2003). Cultivation of Miner Fruit. Kalyani

Publication (New Delhi) 31-36

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CHAPTER

3

CACAO

Anushi1, Abhishek Singh2*, Nitin Kumar

Chouhan1 and Satyarath Sonkar1

1Ph. D. Scholar, Department of Fruit Science, College

of Horticulture, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of

Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

(208002)

2Ph.D. Scholar at Department of Agricultural

Economics and Statistics, Chandra Shekhar Azad

University of Agriculture and Technology,

Nawabganj, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh (208002)

*Corresponding Author Name:

Abhishek Singh

Corresponding Author E-mail Id:

1609abhishek97@gmail.com

Abstract

The dried and completely fermented seed of Theobroma cacao, often

known as the cocoa bean or simply cocoa, is what is used to make cocoa

solids (a combination of nonfat ingredients) and cocoa butter (the fat).

The cacao tree, which is indigenous to the Amazon jungle, was

cultivated for the first time 5,300 years ago in South America before the

Olmecs brought it to Central America. Pre-Hispanic societies ate cacao

during religious rituals, and the beans of the plant were used as money in

Mesoamerica. The cacao tree only grows in a small area of the world,

with West Africa now producing around 70% of the world's supply.

Ivory Coast led the world in cocoa bean production in 2020 with 38% of

the total, followed by Ghana and Indonesia with 5.8 million tons

produced. On futures markets, cocoa beans, cocoa butter, and cocoa

powder are exchanged, with London specializing in cocoa from West

Africa and New York specializing in cocoa from Southeast Asia. The

Swiss Platform for Sustainable Cocoa (SWISSCO), the German

Initiative on Sustainable Cocoa (GISCO), and Beyond Chocolate,

Belgium are just a few examples of the numerous international and

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national projects that encourage sustainable cocoa production. 300 to 600

cocoa beans are processed to make 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) of chocolate.

The beans are roasted, cracked, and deshelled to produce nibs, which are

then processed into chocolate liquor or cocoa paste, a thick paste made

from the nibs. When making chocolate, the liquor is processed with the

addition of sugar, cocoa butter, and occasionally lecithin and vanilla.

Keywords: cacao, amazon, tree, butter, beans

ORIGINS AND HISTORY

The native people of Central and northern South America, the region of

cocoa's origin, held a high regard for the bean. Both as cash and in

religious rituals, beans were utilized. After roasting and coarsely

grinding beans, a beverage called "xocoatl" was created. With the

addition of honey as a sweetener and maize and other spices, the mixture

may be fermented to produce alcohol. Before reaching the rest of Europe,

cocoa was smuggled into Spain and kept a secret there for over a century.

The original recipe wasn't well-liked in Europe; however, the flavor was

enhanced by adding sugar and leaving out the spices and maize, and as

the drink's popularity rose, it was made accessible in British coffee

shops. In the latter half of the 18th century, drinking chocolate

production facilities were established. Early in the 19th century, it was

discovered that pressing out part of the fatty cocoa butter enhanced

drinking chocolate. It was eventually discovered that the cocoa butter has

use in the production of eating chocolate, which is just ground roasted

beans with added cocoa butter and sugar. Adding milk to the mixture

subsequently led to the creation of milk chocolate.

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BOTANICAL NAME, FAMILY AND SPECIES

In the family Sterculiaceae, there are more than 20 species in the genus

Theobroma. However, only Theobroma cacao is significant

commercially. Theobroma bicolor beans, which were likely collected

from untamed trees, have been utilized in South America on a modest

scale locally. This species' cocoa is of very poor grade.

There are two varieties of T. cacao, which are different enough to be

considered subspecies. Forastero formed in the Amazon basin, which

was likely the species' initial habitat, whereas Criollo emerged north of

the Panama isthmus. Before the Spanish arrived, criollo was produced in

a number of locations around Central America and was utilized in South

and Central America. A drink without sugar was produced and the beans

served as cash. Brazil saw the introduction of the Forastero type and the

first large commercial manufacturing. The majority of Forastero cocoa

now being grown is of the Amelinda variety, which is quite

homogeneous. Cocoa cultivation extended to Caribbean islands.

especially Martinique, Haiti, Jamaica, and Trinidad. Although Forastero

was also introduced, Criollo was likely planted first. Due to

hybridization, Trinidad is where the distinctive and well-known hybrid

known as Trinitarian evolved. The Spanish brought cocoa to the

Philippines, from where it went to India, Ceylon, and South-east Asia.

Later, amelanotic cocoa was transported to West Africa. This grew to

become one of West Africa's largest industries.

The 1825 discovery that cocoa butter could be extracted from the ground

beans and combined with more beans to create solid chocolate increased

demand for cocoa. The only thing used up to this point was a sugary

beverage prepared from ground beans. At least 19 nations in the

Caribbean, South, and Central America cultivate cocoa; Brazil is the

largest producer, followed by Ecuador, which produces a special kind of

chocolate known as Nacional. Fiji, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua

New Guinea, the Philippines, Samoa, and the Solomon Islands are all

located in the east. Vanuatu and Sri Lanka both produce cocoa.

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ALCOHOL FREE STIMULANTS

Several plants are categorized as "stimulants." They all combine to create

compounds that give people somewhat exciting sensations. The

stimulating effects of these crops do not depend on alcohol, nor are they

"drugs" in the sense that we use the word to describe plants like cannabis

and the opium poppy, which may be lethal when consumed in excess.

The three chemicals caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline, which are

all purine derivatives, are what give cocoa its stimulating effects. About

1.5% of the caffeine in cocoa (dry beans) is detected. There are 1.8%

theobromine and theophylline traces.

PRODUCTION

Even though output is, by weight, only about half that of coffee, there is

still a significant amount produced. The majority of this sum is traded

internationally; just a minor portion is used locally in the producing

nations. While the origin regions of South and Central America generate

a sizeable amount, Africa has the biggest output of any continent,

accounting for 64.9% of global production. Côte d'Ivoire, which accounts

for 4% of global output, has the greatest production. The crop has gained

popularity in a number of Pacific islands as well as certain Asian nations

with considerable rainfall, including Indonesia and Malaysia.

MARKET

Western Europe imports 44% of the world's cocoa production, and the

USA imports 15%. Singapore, China, Japan, the Republic of Korea,

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Canada, and Singapore are other relatively significant importers.

Therefore, the developed nations are the ones that eat cocoa in all of its

numerous completed forms. Significant amounts are exported again as

beans, partially completed commodities like cocoa butter, or finished

goods like chocolate. The basic finding that developed nations account

for the majority of the cocoa market is unaffected by these re-exports.

Similar to coffee, cocoa is valuable to emerging nations as a source of

foreign currency. Smallholders can cultivate it, and it doesn't completely

conflict with farming for subsistence.

BOTANY

The species Theobroma cacao is where commercial chocolate is found. It

belongs to the family Sterculiaceae and is one of the 22 species in the

genus Theobroma. On occasion, cocoa is tampered with using

Theobroma bicolor. The species evolved in the intermediate layer of

South and Central American rain forests. Diploid (2n = 20) describes it.

Under extreme shade, cocoa will reach a height of 8 to 10 meters. The

tree will grow less tall if it is not shaded. The cotyledon rises to 3 cm

above ground level during epigeal germination. The cotyledon is held

above the first four leaves, which are held horizontally. To a height of 1-

2 m, the seedling develops into an unbranched single stem. Following the

cessation of orthotropic development, three to five plagiotropic branches

develop. Once they have grown, vertical growth will resume, and the

terminal bud will produce a new stem. Once again, this will increase in

height by 1–2 m. This procedure could be repeated three or four times in

an unpruned tree before reaching its ultimate height. A mature tree's root

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may sprout one or more new stems. From the terminal bud, the stem

develops quickly, producing three to six leaves before ceasing to grow.

Before another flush of growth, the leaves have matured. Fan leaves can

be any color between light green and scarlet and are quite delicate. As

they get older, they become harder and the green color covers the red.

Cocoa is a cauliflorous plant meaning that on the older leafless wood,

flowers and fruit are produced. Each inflorescence develops from a

previous leaf axil. When the tree is fully grown, the flowering area will

have enlarged to the point where it will resemble a "cushion" and bear

several blooms. The blooms are hermaphrodite, tiny (15 mm in

diameter), and regular. Fire-free sepals, five free petals, ten stamens in

two whorls, one of which is fertile, and a superior ovary with five joined

carpels are all present on pedicels that are 1-2 cm in length. The tiny

sepals and petals range in color from pink to white. Five stigmas are

located at the end of a single style that is 2-3 mm long. Midges, flying

females of the genus Farcipomyia, do the majority of the pollination in

nature. Aphids and thrips are examples of crawling insects that can

spread pollen. There is little color and little aroma to draw in other

insects. Although direct wind pollination is impossible due to the

structure of the bloom, the amount of pollination can be boosted by using

a mist blower to create a wind. The insects are probably being moved by

the wind.

A significant barrier to pollination is incompatibility; certain trees won't

bear fruit when pollinated by other trees or by their own pollen. The level

of incompatibility differs amongst populations. Only the Amelonado

variant found in West Africa is completely self-compatible. Non-fusion

between gametes in the ovules causes incompatibility. Fruit grows

following suitable pollination and typically takes 5 to 6 months to reach

maturity. Cherelle’s are little fruit that are still forming. During the first

three months, up to 80% of the Cherelle’s dry up. The 'Cherelle wilt'

process is a natural thinning caused by competing for resources. After

three months, the fruit's hormones prevent withering.

FRUIT TYPE

Although technically a drupe, the fruit is most usually referred to as a

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pod. It matures in 5 to 6 months. Since it is indehiscent, pods must be

removed during harvest. Its length ranges from 10 to 32 cm, and its form

ranges from spherical to cylindrical. Both green and green-white

immature pods ripen to yellow, whereas red immature pods darken and

occasionally take on a hint of yellow color. Pods typically include 20 to

50 seeds, which are originally linked to a placenta in the center. The

seeds form an outer coating when they mature, which contains a

mucilage that is quite acidic (pH 3.5), contains citric acid, and has a lot

of sugar. Therefore, it makes a perfect substrate for yeasts. The mucilage

that fills the pod and makes it easier to separate the seeds is released as

the outer layer of the fruit ripens to its full potential. The fermentation

process, which is crucial for the formation of the cocoa's flavor, depends

on this mucilage.

VARIETY

In the wild, monkeys, rats, and squirrels disperse seeds by gnawing

through the fruit's skin and removing the seeds. The seeds are dispersed

by their motions as they suck them to receive the pleasant mucilage.

Cocoa butter makes up 55–58% of the beans. T. cacao comes in a

number of distinctive variations. North of the Panama isthmus, in Central

America, criollo cocoa first appeared. The original variety transported

into Europe was this one. The seeds in the long, thin, reddish or greenish,

outwardly ridged pods have white cotyledons and have a circular cross-

section. This produces the flavorful cocoa. It is one of the two T. cacao

subsp. cacao subspecies, which are further subdivided into four forms.

The other subspecies, T. cacao subsp. sphaerocarpum, emerged south of

Panama. Amelonado or Amazonian Forastero are two names for this. It

features green, unripe pods that are ovoid and have 10 shallow furrows.

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The cotyledons of the flattened seeds exhibit a deep purple color.

Comparatively speaking, the Criollo variety tastes better. In Trinidad, the

two aforementioned kinds first crossed, resulting in a group of hybrids

known as Trinitario. From Criollo type to Forastero type characters may

be seen in individual clones. The flavor of the best often resembles

Criollo while being harder and more productive than Criollo.

PLANT IMPROVEMENT

Trees in a stand of seedlings come in a variety of production levels. It

has been discovered that a tiny percentage of the trees provide a

significant fraction of the total yield. Any breeding program's objectives

must take into consideration regional plantation management techniques

since individual clones will react differently to these techniques. A group

of people with recognized characteristics must thus serve as the

foundation of any improvement initiative. Therefore, when breeding

enhanced planting material, the breeder must take into account regional

plantation norms. Several nations have implemented programs to

enhance planting material. In Trinidad, seed was collected from high-

yielding trees in mixed stands in existing plantations as a first step

toward development.

The first selection criteria in Trinidad were established at a pod index not

exceeding 7.5 and a yield of 50 pods per year at a spacing of 3.6 m x 3.6

m. Since seedlings from their seeds were discovered to be less productive

than the parent tree, these trees had to be propagated vegetatively. It was

discovered that these clones behaved differently to changes in the soil

and other variables after being planted under various circumstances.

During explorations of South American forests, two resistant clones of

trees were identified. They produced little beans, therefore some of the

earlier selections were crossed with them to create some high-yielding

clones.

Resistance to Ceratostomella wilt was able to be included as the breeding

program went on. Through crossing and ferocious selection among the

progeny, this was accomplished in three generations. Witches' broom (M.

perniciosus) and Ceratomella wilt resistance has been bred into these

selections to further enhance them. While increasing crop yields and pest

and disease resistance have been the primary goals of cocoa breeding, the

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requirement for a flavor that is pleasing to the palate should not be

overlooked. The largest producer in Africa is Ghana. While missionaries

imported several trees. Later, Nigeria received material from the same

source. Material of the Criollo and Trinitario kinds was imported as the

industry expanded and employed in crossing and selection.

When the spread of the swollen-shoot virus presented a serious concern,

more introductions were conducted from Trinidad. It was discovered that

trees that originated in the upper Amazon were superior to other types of

material. Plots of these were eventually allowed for widespread planting

using open-pollinated seeds. Controlled crosses between the highest-

yielding material chosen allowed for further improvement. Along with

production and quality, it was also important to check for resistance to

the black pod, swollen-shoot virus, and drought.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Cocoa originated in the rain forests of South and Central America, where

there is a short dry season and abundant, evenly distributed rainfall. The

degree of insolation is already quite low for a lower-story tree and is

further decreased by cloud cover during rain. The temperature is high

and only fluctuates slightly throughout the year. Underneath the canopy

of the rain forest, humidity is constantly high. Only equatorial regions

experience such circumstances. Cocoa cannot be produced economically

too far from the equator due to lower temperatures and an extension of

the dry season. Within 8 of the Equator, more than 75% of the cocoa in

the world is farmed.

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Most cocoa-growing locations receive between 1150 mm and 2500 mm

of yearly precipitation. In some regions of Malaysia, Papua New Guinea,

Africa, and Central America, rainfall between 2500 mm and 3000 mm is

typical. Due to more leaching, high rainfall-area soils are frequently

poor. The majority of cocoa-growing regions experience temperatures

between 18 and 32 °C. The lowest temperature that won't permanently

harm cocoa is 10°C; the lowest that may be tolerated is a monthly

average of 15°C. The physiology of the tree is impacted by prolonged

temperatures above 30°C; the tree loses apical dominance, axillary buds

emerge, leaves are smaller, yet there are more flowers.

However, only when the temperature increases from the minimal levels,

approximately 20 degrees F, which happens from November to April in

the southern hemisphere, can flowering and trunk growth begin. There is

no flowering during the dry season; blossoming is focused in the months

of February to July, when there is substantial rainfall. Thus, after six

months, between August and January, the pods are mature and prepared

for harvest. These places never experience temperatures below 24 °C,

hence this constraint is not applicable. The South American tropical

Amazon area has the same challenges. In cocoa, 25% of full sunlight's

light intensity is the optimum for photosynthesis. It can endure high and

low light levels, though.

If provided with enough water, unshaded cocoa will flourish in direct

sunshine while being alive in dense forest with extremely low light

intensity near the ground. The canopy must, however, be thick enough to

retain a high level of humidity inside of it. Lack of water causes dieback

and leaf fall. However, mature cocoa may have all the shade removed.

Nursery plants and immature plants in the field require shading to lessen

light intensity. Cocoa is harmed by wind. The ripped, interveinal, and

falling leaves all exhibit browning. Wind causes hydration loss in

shoots.

SOIL REQUIREMENTS

The root structure must allow for growth. Therefore, cocoa cannot grow

on soils with an excessive amount of fine particles (fine sand or clay), as

the gaps between the particles are too narrow. Although sandy soils may

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not hold much water and frequently lack nutrients, coarser soils are

considerably better. When it rains, clay-rich soils take longer to dry up

and get flooded. For a healthy root system to develop, cocoa requires

such soil at a depth of at least 1.5 m. Chemically, cocoa soil should have

a pH between 5.0 and 7.5. Topsoil must not have an excessive amount of

acidity (pH 4.0 and below) or alkalinity (pH 8.0 and above); lower layers

can have pH values beyond the range. Aluminum poisoning can be an

issue in acidic soils. At least 35% of the total cation exchange capacity of

the soil should be made up of exchangeable bases.

PROPAGATION

The majority of cocoa is grown from seed because it is simpler and less

expensive than any vegetative approach to create seedlings. Only when

particular clones of plants are required are plants propagated vegetatively

employed. To ensure that seedling plants have a typical development

pattern, seedling plants first generate a chupon. The bulk of the leaves on

a cocoa tree are located on the jorquette, and the initial development

from single-leaf cuttings is a jorquette. Vegetative multiplication requires

these cuts or a bud from a leaf axil. As a result, the first jorquette begins

at ground level from a cutting. The jorquette grows from a budded plant

at its budding height, which is not very high above the ground.

COCOA WITH OTHER COMMERCIAL CROPS

Other commercial crops that might offer ground cover or temporary or

permanent shade have been attempted alongside cocoa. The land's

financial viability may be improved. Coconut is the best plant to grow

alongside cocoa since it offers a suitable amount of shade and doesn't

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compete with it heavily for nutrients. Cocoa has been tested alongside

areca (betel) nut, rubber, oil-palm, and nutmeg. When grown with typical

spacing, these crops cast an excessive amount of shadow. Young cocoa

might benefit from the brief shade provided by bananas. Before the

cocoa becomes too big, the bananas need to be taken out.

WIND BREAKS

Cocoa must be sheltered from severe gusts by planting wind-breaks in

the form of close-cropped rows of trees. There have been many different

species utilized. Cloves (Eugenia aromatica), malacca apple (Eugenia

malaccensis), Dracaena spp., Hibiscus spp., galba (Calophyllium

antillanum), and mango (Mangifera indica). The wood is mahogany

(Swietenia macrophylla). Samoa uses teak (Tectona grandis), and

Zanzibar uses cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum).

SPACING

In the first several years following planting, yields are often greater at

closer spacings. As the trees get older, the benefit lessens. Although tight

spacings might make it difficult to access older trees, they also make it

easier to produce a closed canopy, which reduces soil erosion and weed

development. High humidity is maintained by interlocking canopies on

sparsely spaced trees, which encourages the spread of diseases. Planting

costs are higher when the spacing is close. The actual spacings employed

range from 2.5 m × 2.5 m (1600 plants/ ha) to 5 m x 5 m (400 plants/ ha).

There is a small variety of spacings that are typically employed in each

growing location, such as 4.6 m x 4.6 m to 5 m x 5 m in Papua New

Guinea, Sri Lanka, and Samoa, 4 m x 4 m in Central America, 3 m x 3 m

to 4 m x 4 m in South America, and 2.5 m x 2.5 m in West Africa. Due

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to the random distribution of forest trees, trees in West African thinned

forests cannot be planted in precise geometrical places, although the final

density is often close to 1600 ha', which is comparable to a rectangle

planting at 2.5 m x 2.5 m.

IRRIGATION

Summertime irrigation is required for cocoa trees. The plants may get

irrigation at intervals of 4–7 days, depending on the kind of soil and

water provided. More frequent watering is needed for young plants.

PRUNING

There are two main goals for this surgery.

1. To form trees in a way that will maximize productivity and make

harvesting and upkeep simple.

2. To get the greatest control over illnesses and pests.

Combining the aforementioned strategies should increase the trees' yield.

increases light penetration and lowers humidity levels in the canopy by

opening up the trees. Trees should undergo routine inspections. Wood

that is dead, ill, or severely damaged has to be removed. If such two-

story trees are more or less productive than single-story trees, there is no

conclusive data to support either claim. Prunings are frequently left in

fields to decay. This allows the soil to re-use the nutrients they contain.

Always remove diseased leaves or branches from your landscape.

MANURING

For development and production, cocoa plants need the right kind of

nutrition. The upper 15-20 cm of soil, which contains the majority of the

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secondary roots, must have a high level of organic matter. It is crucial to

apply 15-20 kg of organic manures, such as compost or animal manure,

to each plant annually, especially at the beginning. However, a

significant amount of leaf mulch will have accumulated by the time the

plants are 5 to 6 years old, making the use of organic manures less

necessary after that. In addition to organic manuring, it is advised to

apply fertilizers at a rate of 100: 40: 140 N, P205, and K20 per plant each

year, depending on the amount of nutrients removed by an average crop.

Even while the majority of root activity is seen in the top 3 cm layer,

there is a significant concentration of active roots at least 60 cm below.

For young plants, the fertilizers can be poured into circular trenches

towards the edges of the root zones. Plants that are 4-5 years old and

older can have fertilizer distributed across a 120 cm radius from the base

and softly forked in without causing root damage. It is generally known

that the VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) relationship enhanced

the development of transplanted crops in nurseries, as well as their

general surroundings and field establishment. Higher levels of

phosphorus in mycorrhizal treatments inhibited mycorrhizal

development.

The cocoa plant has to be kept free of weeds for the first 3–4 years

following planting, and it is advised that any weeds that are cut should be

mulched around the young plants. Thus, the importance of applying

organic manure is diminished. In general, it is not advised to bring

organic material into the plantation from elsewhere.

HARVESTING

The temperature has an impact on how long it takes between a flower

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being fertilized and a mature pod being harvested. The pace of

maturation accelerates with rising temperature. The ripening process can

last anywhere between 4.5 and 7 months, depending on temperature. The

quantity of crop that may be harvested at one time varies. Pods must be

picked when completely mature. Low-quality cocoa is produced from

unripe bean pods. As soon as feasible, ripe pods should be removed

since, once ripe, they are more vulnerable to fungal diseases and animal

pests (such as monkeys), who pull the delicious, ripe beans from the

pods. Regular harvesting should take place every 10 to 14 days. which

might be prolonged to three weeks. In the pod, ripe beans may

germinate. Cocoa made from germinated beans is poor quality. Pods can

be stored for a few days before being opened. The fermentation heats up

more quickly and the percentage of undesired "purple beans" decreases

with delays of up to 4 days, which has been demonstrated to be

beneficial.

The tree's pods must be removed without harming the cushion, on which

new fruits will grow. The beans must then be removed from pods by

opening them. Only the beans need to be transported to the factory when

they are gathered together and opened in the field. If not, the pods are

brought to the facility and cracked next to the fermentation containers.

You shouldn't remove the beans together with the placenta to which they

are connected. Husk is a waste material. If it is spread out or left on the

plantation's soil, it decomposes and adds nutrients back to the ground.

Where diseases or pests can infect the cocoa trees, this is not allowed.

Additionally, cocoa husk may be utilized as ash feed in the production of

soap.

DISEASES OF COCOA

1. Seedling dieback: On younger seedlings, it is quite bad during

the wet season. The infection may begin as a dark brown

discoloration at the collar area, at the cotyledonary stalk, or at

the tip of the stem. Defoliation and wilting occur as a result of

dark brown to black water-soaked lesions that form on the stem

and leaves. The etiological agent is Phytophthora palmivora. By

enhancing the nursery's drainage and dousing the seedlings with

Bordeaux mixture (1%), infection can be prevented.

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2. Swollen shoot: The swollen shoot disease, which is brought on

by a virus, is the most harmful to cocoa crops. One year after

infection, shoots or branches of cocoa develop a distinctive

swelling. First, the vein sides of new leaves get reddened. As

the leaves grow green, the red color fades. Small yellow streaks

or patches can be noticed randomly on certain leaves. The

symptoms become more obvious and develop crinkling and

necrosis at the leaf tips in older leaves. The pods shrink, round

out, and some even develop mottling. Within one to three years

after infection, the tree begins to defoliate, its development

stops, and it eventually dies. Mealy bugs are the most prevalent

insect vectors that spread the illness. called (Pseudococus

tifalensis). By spraying "Hanner" into the root zone, the only

way to stop the illness from spreading is to cut and burn.

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3. Red mottle virus: young leaves with crimson pigments along

the edges of the main veins are indicative of this condition.

There is leaf crinkling, burning of the leaf tips, and mottling of

the pods. It is necessary to remove and burn the harmed ones.

4. Black pods disease: This is brought on by the Phytophthora

palmivora fungus, which may be eradicated by spraying a 1%

Bordeaux mixture.

5. Cherelle rot disease: In addition to physiological factors,

Colletotrichum gleosporioides is the principal cause of rotting

of cherelle and immature pods. Application of carbendazim WP

(0.05%) or Indophile M-45 (0.2%) helps control the illness.

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6. Canker: Phytophthora palmivora is the culprit behind the

cocoa stem canker. Excision of the afflicted bark and

subsequent wound sealing with Bordeaux paste helps manage

the illness.

7. Twig Dieback: This is likewise brought on by P. palmivora and

is manageable with a 1% Bordeaux mixture spray.

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8. Thread blight: The fungus Marasmus scandens is to blame.

The fungus's mycelia grow and develop a complex network of

branching threads. The dried leaves separate from the stem and

cling to the mycelial thread. Phyto sanitation can be used to

control the illness.

9. Charcoal Rot: The afflicted pods hang as mummies and

shrivel. Through a wound, the pods get contaminated.

Botryodiplodia theobromae is the culprit. It is advised to use a

Bordeaux mixture at 1%. An insecticidal spray may also be used

if pods show signs of insect damage that makes them more

susceptible to infection by these illnesses.

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10. Pink disease: The pinkish powdery covering on the stem serves

as a telltale sign of the plant. It causes the branch to eventually

dry out as well as the withering of the shoots and leaf shedding.

Through latent mycelium inside the bark and cankerous tissues,

the illness endures from season to season. It is examined by

cutting off the problematic branches and applying Bordeaux

paste to the cut ends. The illness can be avoided by using a 1%

Bordeaux mixture on a regular basis.

PEST OF CACAO

1. Mealy Bugs (Planococcus lilacinus): They attack the stem and

developing buds, and are a delicate light crimson color with

white pubescence. They consume the sap, which causes the

afflicted plants to look ill and eventually perish. When seedlings

are severely infected, withering takes place, and the plant dies in

four or five days. Potential plant pathogen vectors include

mealy bugs. The crop is regularly affected by this bug, which is

around the entire year.

Spray 0.02 percent phosphamide or 0.05 percent dimethoate

every two weeks to control the problem. On the infected shoots,

extensive spraying is required. In order to check for root

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infection as well, the soil near the collar area should, if required,

be sprayed with pesticides.

2. Aphids- Citrus black Aphid (Toxoptera aurantii): The

terminal developing leaf and two or three young, green seedling

leaves are colonized by aphids that harm cocoa plants. These

aphids range in color from pale green to dark brown. because

they also feed on sap. They rob the plant of its nutrients, which

causes the tree to lose energy and growth stunted.

Spray 25 liters of 0.01 percent dimethoate solution per acre as a

control. As soon as the bug appears, spray. If necessary, repeat

the application every two weeks or use dimecron 200g/ha every

month.

3. Grey Weevil (Myllocerus viridanus): This is a voracious

consumer of plant leaves. In circumstances where the condition

is severe, the entire leaf is consumed, leaving the midrib

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unharmed. It lies on the underside of the leaves and pierces

them with erratic holes. The newly formed grubs consume the

decaying plant debris, including the roots. When a pest is seen,

spray 300–600 g of dimecron per acre. Lindane is also effective

at reducing the pest.

4. Hairy Caterpillar (Pericallia ricini): The black hairy

caterpillar damages the leaves while feeding on them. The

midrib is unaffected as they just consume leaves. The adult

moth has a light hind wing with erratic brown patches and a

black fore wing with iridescent red markings. The larvae are

gregarious by habit and do significant harm during the day.

Control: Dust five per cent BHC or spray 0.2 per cent BHC.

PREPARATION OF COCOA FOR THE MARKET

This procedure entails maintaining heat while allowing perspiration to

evaporate at the same time to allow for enough air flow. Several methods

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are used in practice to ferment cocoa beans, with the choice depending

on the quantity of beans available and the conditions in place. Regardless

of the method used, it is important to make sure that the beans are placed

for fermentation as soon as they are removed from the pods and that the

fermentation mass is properly insulated to retain the beans and drain the

sweat liquor. With the appropriate adaptations, boxes, trays, bamboo

baskets, or cone baskets might be utilized to carry out the procedure. In

any event, the bean column's height shouldn't go over 45 cm because

doing so would compromise aeration.

1. Basket fermentation: When more than 5 kg to 10 kg of beans

need to be fermented but less than 40 kg, this technique can be

used. Use a bamboo or can basket that is tightly braided and the

appropriate size. One or two layers of banana leaves are retained

within the basket with the midrib side facing up and the end

protruding slightly as a liner. Freshly harvested beans are placed

in the basket, lightly pressed by hand, and the top surface is then

folded over using the banana leaves that are sticking out. To

keep the leaves in place, a little weight is added on top. The

basket is then set in a high platform or over a block to allow

sweat to drain. On the third and fifth days after initial setting,

the basket is opened, the beans are well stirred, and they are

once more maintained covered with banana leaves and gunny

sacking as stated before. By the end of the sixth day, beans can

be removed for drying under typical weather conditions.

2. Tray fermentation: This approach may be easily used to

ferment huge amounts of wet beans, ranging from 200 to 500 kg

at a time. You may use wooden trays that are 90 cm x 60 cm x

12 cm and can store 40–45 kg of wet beans. The trays' bottoms

could be constructed of reapers. After filling, the trays are

placed one by one on an elevated platform for 24 hours so that

the sweat liquor may be drained the following day. A minimum

of 12 trays are placed on top of one another, and gunny is used

to thoroughly cover the stack. With this technique, the beans

don't need to be mixed or turned. Under typical weather

circumstances, the fermentation will end after 5 days, and the

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beans can be removed for drying on the sixth day. Since no

mixing is necessary and the fermentation will be finished in five

days, this approach saves both time and labor.

3. Box fermentation: When there are at least 40 kg of beans to be

fermented, this method can be used. Hard wood boards that are

2.5 cm thick and of the appropriate size can be used to make

wooden boxes. One cubic meter of space can accommodate

about 800 kg of wet beans. The height of the box should be at

least 15 cm and no more than 60 cm. The bottom of the box

should be composed of reapers 2.5 to 4 cm wide, spaced 0.3 to

0.4 cm apart, depending on the number of beans. When building

the box, caution should be taken to avoid using metallic nails or

to ensure that they do not come into touch with the beans once

they are in use. To enable moving beans from one box to the

next to achieve stirring, the boxes can be formed as a single

unit, a row of boxes, or contracted as a single unit with partition

of huge sizes. They can also be organized in tiers or in a

cascade. The front panel of the box in this instance is composed

of detachable planks that are equipped with grooves to make it

simple to lift each one separately for the transfer of beans. To

allow the sweet liquid to drain away for greater aeration, the

bottom of the boxes is kept elevated off the ground by about 15

cm. Freshly gathered beans are piled into the boxes during

fermentation to a depth of no more than 49 cm, and the tops are

covered with a gunny sack. The beans are completely mixed or

transferred to a second, comparable box and reset as before after

the 24-hour mark. At 48 and 96 hours after first setting, mixing

and resetting are repeated. When boxes are stacked or cascaded,

the top box is filled first, and the beans are then transferred to

the lower boxes at the end of the specified period by removing

the front planks one at a time and letting the beans fall through a

5 cm x 5 cm Gl wire that has been inserted at the bottom of the

box. By doing this, the bean locations will be switched,

resulting in the top beans in box I occupying the bottom of box

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II and vice versa. The beans can be removed for drying at the

end of the sixth day.

COCOA PRODUCTS

The cleaned, roasted, and shelled dry beans undergo fermentation. The

roasted result is referred to as "Cocoa nibs," and it is utilized to make

goods. As a result of hydraulic pressure being applied to the fat-rich

cocoa nibs, cocoa butter—an oily, fatty substance—is produced.

1. Chocolate liquor or cocoa mass: The final output of grinding

cocoa nibs is referred to as chocolate liquor or mass.

2. Cocoa powder: Alkali is used to treat chocolate liquor in order

to enhance flavor and color. Alkalized cocoa, often referred to

as soluble cocoa, is a firm cake that contains between 22 and 24

percent fat after three-fourths of the fat or butter are extracted

from the chocolate liquid. Cocoa powder is created from this

cocoa cake.

3. Cocoa butter: Cocoa butter is the fat that is extracted from

chocolate liquor. It is a crystalline, fragile, pale-yellow solid

that melts into a golden-yellow oil. The principal applications of

cocoa butter are in the production of chocolates, medicinal

solutions, and soap.

4. Chocolate: Chocolate is a close combination of sugar, cocoa

butter, and finely ground, roasted cocoa nibs that may or may

not be flavored with milk solids and emulsifying agents.

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References

Bhat, K.S. and K.V.A. Bavappa. (1972). Cacao under palm. In cacao and

coconut, the Malaysia (Wastie, R.L. and Ebrp. D.A. eds). pp.

116-121. The incorporated Soc. of Planters Kuala Lumpur.

Bhat, K.S. and M. Leela. (1968). Indian Fmg., 18(4): 19-21.

Bouma, D., and G. Ringeling. (1962). Hort. Abstract. 33. p. 620.

Gaimaldi, J. and P. Divariet. (1960). Hort. Abst, 31: p. 665.

Naundrof, G. (1951). Hort. Abstract. 21, pp. 278.

Sivaprasad, P. Jatinder Singh and P.V. Rai (1984). Placroysm - V., 245-

253.

Soria, S. Dej., P. Silva and R.K. Chapman. (1982). Rav. Theobroma, 13,

141-149.

Sriram, T.A. (1964). Indian Frg. 14(b): 20-1.

Tamtaikin. (1968). Proceedings of a symposium held in Kuala Lumpur

Sep. 1967. The Incorporated Society of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

Thomas, G. (1990). Canopy architecture, photosynthesis and yield of

irrigated cocoa. M. Phil. thesis, Mangalore University, India.

Pp.52

Urquhart, D.H. (1961). Cacao, Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd, London.

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CHAPTER

4

KARONDA

Yogendra Kumar Sharma1, Suman Kumari2

and Himanshu Chawla3

1Technical Assistant, College of Horticulture and

Forestry, Jhalawar, Agriculture University, Kota,

Rajasthan-326 023

2Ph.D. School of agricultural Science, Nagaland

University, Nagaland-797 106

3Ph.D. Scholar, College of Horticulture and Forestry,

Jhalawar, AU, Kota, Rajasthan-326 023

*Corresponding Author Name:

Yogendra Kumar Sharma

Corresponding Author E-mail Id:

yogendrakumarsharma93@gmail.com

Introduction

Karonda (Carissa carandas Linn.) commonly known as Bengal

currant or Christ's thorn in South India, karonda in Devanagari,

Koromcha in Bengali, vakkay in Telugu, kilaakkaai in Tamil,

karamardaka in Sanskrit, and Karjatenga in Assam, belongs to the

Apocynaceae family of flowering plants. The sweeter varieties of

Karonda can be consumed raw, while the more acidic ones are best

prepared by stewing them with plenty of sugar. Ripe Karonda fruits are

particularly rich in pectin, making them valuable for making jelly, jam,

squash, syrup, tarts, and chutney, which are in high demand in the global

market. The fruits, leaves, and bark of the Karonda plant are also rich in

tannins (Morton, 1987). Karonda bushes are sometimes used for hedging

in habitat gardens and are occasionally cultivated for their attractive

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cherry-like fruits. The flowering season is from January to February,

with fruits maturing in May to June. The majority of flowers open

between 8 to 10 PM. Fruits are usually harvested when they are

immature for culinary purposes, while fully ripened fruits are enjoyed

fresh or processed. This plant is hardy and drought-tolerant, making it

suitable for cultivation in a wide range of soils. It has been employed as a

traditional medicinal plant for thousands of years in Ayurvedic, Unani,

and Homeopathic systems of medicine. Traditionally, various parts of the

plant were used to treat various ailments. Its fruits were consumed to

treat liver dysfunction, reduce fever, and prevent blood decomposition,

while its roots were used to aid digestion.

Karonda fruits are rich source in iron and vitamin C, making

them valuable in ethno medicine for treating anemia, as an astringent,

and as a remedy for scurvy and biliousness. Decoctions of its leaves were

applied to address fever, diarrhea, and earaches, while the roots served as

a stomachic, vermifuge, treatment for itching, and insect repellent C.

carandas L. is believed to have originated near the Himalayas, although

some botanists trace its fruit's origin to Java. The plant is found

distributed in the Himalayan region at altitudes ranging from 300 to 1800

meters, as well as in the Siwalik Hills, the Western Ghats, Nepal,

Afghanistan, India, Sri Lanka, Java, Myanmar, Malaysia, Australia,

Pakistan, and South Africa. In India, it is cultivated in states such as

Bihar, Maharashtra, Orissa, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,

Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and in the Western Ghats. In Maharashtra, it

is predominantly grown in sub-mountain areas such as Ratnagiri,

Kolhapur, and Pune districts.

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Plate- 1. Fruit bearing plant of Karonda

Botanical Description

Cook (1904) explained C. carandas as a large, evergreen

dichotomously branched, spinous shrub or small tree.

Habit: Large shrubs or small trees with spines densely branched.

Leaves: Oblong to broadly ovate, opposite, small coriaceous, apex

obtuse and round at base.

Flower: Terminal and axillary penduncled 3 chotomous cyme, white or

pink in colour.

Calyx: 5-partile, ciliate, glandular within or not, segment acute.

Corolla: Tube cylindrical, throat necked, glabrous, lobes overlapping to

the right in the Indian species.

Stamens: Inserted at the tap of the tube.

Anthers: Lanceoalate, cells rounded at the base.

Fruits: Berry, ellipsoid or globose, 2 (or by abortion 1) celled.

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Seed: Usually 2 pellately attached to the septum, albumen fleshy,

cotyledons ovate.

Some others cultivated species of Carissa are given as underneath.

Plate- 2. Flowering and Fruiting in Karonda

Carissa grandiflora DC (Natal plum)

The Natal plum is one of the finest hedge plants. This is a

smallest shrub with leaves of deep green colour. The bush is spiny with

bifurcated thorns. The fruits are dark red with papery skin and a few

small seeds. Fruit are available throughout the year and fruits are good

source of ascorbic acid and make a good jelly.

Carissa bispinosa Deaf

This species possess strong spines often 5cm long. The leaves

are ovate, subcordate, glabrous and entire. The flowers are small and

fruits borne in clusters. They resemble to natal palm. The seeds are

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lanceolate.

Carissa edulis Vahl

It is straggling shrub. The leaves are persistent ovate and

acuminate Flowers are white, pink and scented. Flowers are borne in

axillary clusters of 10-25. Fruits are oval in shape; they are red in colour

but turn black at maturity.

Carissa ovate

Fruits are small and are used for jam making. The origin place is

said to be Australia.

Carissa spindrum DC

This species bears small fruit. It is native of India. This is the

hardiest species of carrisa and is known to thrive in poor and rocky soil.

Carrisa paucinerria A.D.C.

Shrubby erect, quite glabrous except the puberulous cymes,

leaves 5-10 cms, ovate or elliptic ovate , acute or acuminate, many

nerved, cymes sessile, corolla 2.5 cms, berry ellipsoid, thorns are very

strong, found in Deccan Peninsula and Konkan region of Maharastra.

Carrisa suavissima Bed.

Climbing, quite glabrous leaves 5-8cms, broadly ovate, acute or

acuminate, many nerved, pale in colour, cymes sessile, corolla 2-5 cms

long, very small spines, found in Deccan Peninsula.

Carissa browneii F.V.M.

This species from Eastern Australia is much more cold resistant

than the other species of Carrisa. In southern Florida, it withstands

several degrees of frost without injury. This plant has a stocky compact

form of growth with small roundish close set leaves and short sturdy

spines.

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Carrisa arduina Lamk. (C. bispinosa Desf., C. acuminate D.C.)

Distinguished from the above by its flower only 1.25 cms across

the lobes being much shorter than the tube, the minutely ciliate sepals

and the flower 1.25 cm long with only 2 lanceolate seeds. It is originated

from South Africa.

Nutritional composition of karonda fruits

Constituent Values/100

g edible

portion)

Values/100 g edible portion of Dry

fruit)

Moisture 91.00 18.20

Protein 1.10 2.30

Carbohydrates 2.90 67.10

Fat 2.90 9.60

Fibre 1.50 0

Calorific value 42.00 364.00

Calcium 21.00 0.16

Phosphorous 38.00 0.06

Iron 39.00 39.10

Mineral matter 0 2.80

*Anon. (1950, 1979)

Climate and Soil

Carissa carandas is an exceptionally rare and drought-resistant

plant that thrives in arid and subtropical climates. It thrives very well in

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rainfed area. Excessive rainfall and waterlogged conditions are not

favorable for its growth. It has the ability to thrive in a variety of soils,

including saline and sodic soils. It also grows successfully on marginal

and wastelands.

Varietal Wealth

Cultivated varieties of Karonda are categorized based on their

fruit color, which includes green-fruited, whitish fruits with a pink blush,

and dark purple-fruited varieties. In addition to these, there is another

African species called Natal plum (Carissa grandiflora), which produces

large and dark red fruits and is also cultivated in India. Several Karonda

varieties have been introduced, including:

1. Pant Manohar

It is a selection developed by GBPUAT, Pantnagar

(Uttarakhand).Fruits are deep pinkish blush on white background and

attractive in appearance. The average weight of fruit is 3.49gm.The

average yield per/plant is 35 kg.

2. Pant Sudarshan

It is a selection developed by GBPUAT, Pantnagar

(Uttarakhand). It is a medium size bush fruits are light pink in color. The

average weight of fruit is 3.46g and number of seed/fruit is 4.68. The

average yield per/plant is 32kg.

3. Pant Suvarna

It is also developed by GBPUAT, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand).

Plant grow upright and bushy in nature. Fruits are green with light

maroon blush and on maturity attain deep maroon color. Average fruit

weight is 3.2 g. The average yield per plant is 25 kg.

4. Maroon coloured

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Selection made from Acharya Narendra Deva University of

Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad. Fruits are attractive maroon

colour, average weight is 3.2g. The average fruit yield/plant is 3.7 kg.

5. White-Pink bush

This is also selection developed Acharya Narendra Deva

University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad. Average fruit

weight is 2.9g and has less weight than maroon coloured cultivars. The

average yield/bush is 2.8 kg.

6. Thar Kamal

. It well performed then other varieties in flowering, fruiting

and quality fruit production. released by Central Institute for Arid

Horticulture, Bikaner, in 2015. It is spreading type, regular-bearer,

dwarf and starts flowering in third year, peak flowering being third week

of March. The fruits ripen in the last week of June. Fruit yield is 13.00

kg/tree.

7. Maru Gaurav

This variety has been released by Central Arid Zone Research

Institute, Jodhpur. It is an extraordinary high yielding variety with 40 kg

fruit per plant. It is regular bearing and start fruiting after fourth year of

planting. Its flowering and fruiting start during March- April but fruits

mature in August-September.

Propagation

Carissa carandas L. can be propagated through both sexual and

vegetative methods. Experimental studies conducted in India have

revealed that cuttings taken from mature plants may not always

successfully root. For instance, only 20% of hardwood cuttings from

pruned hedges successfully rooted in November, whereas no rooting

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occurred when they were planted earlier. On the other hand, cuttings

obtained from nursery stock yielded better results, with rooting

percentages varying depending on the time of plantings likely 10%

rooted in late September, 20% in early October, 30% in late October, and

50% in early November. In all cases, the cuttings were pre-treated with

auxin hormone at a concentration of 500 ppm in 50% alcohol. Notably,

the highest number of roots, the highest rooting percentage, and the best

survival rate were observed when a concentration of 8000 ppm of IBA

was used, while the lowest rooting percentage was recorded in control

treatments (Deepak et al., 2015). IBA stands out as the most promising

phyto hormone for inducing rapid root development. The external

application of IBA significantly accelerates the rooting process, increases

the final rooting percentage, and enhances the number of roots.

Planting

Before commencing the planting process, it is essential to

prepare the field by clearing it. The pits, which should measure between

30 to 45 cm3 in size, are then excavated and filled with a mixture of

organic manure and soil in 50:50 ratio. When planting for a hedge, it is

advisable to maintain a spacing of 1 to 1.5 meters, while for regular

planting, a spacing of 1.5 to 2.0 meters in both directions is

recommended. The optimal time for planting is at the onset of the

monsoon season. It is preferable to select 6-8 months old plants for the

planting process.

Manure and Fertilizers

Karonda is known for its hardiness. While it's not commonly

cultivated on a large scale, it is often favored as a protective hedge plant.

As a minor fruit crop, there hasn't been an extensive amount of scientific

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research conducted on its specific fertilizer needs. However, insights

from experienced growers suggest that Karonda plants tend to thrive

when provided with organic manure. Typically, applying 15-20 kg of

organic manure per bearing plant per year, preferably before the

monsoon season, has been found to yield favorable results.

Irrigation

In the rainy season, there is generally no need for irrigation, but

it is beneficial to provide light irrigations during the flowering and

fruiting stages of Karonda. This plant is relatively slow-growing, and

once it has established itself, it does not require a significant amount of

water. Additionally, Karonda exhibits characteristics of a xerophytic

plant, indicating that its water requirements are naturally low. In

wastelands, it is advisable to implement water harvesting techniques in

the root zone during the rainy season.

Training and Pruning

Karonda plants typically do not demand extensive training,

except for the occasional light pruning, which is typically carried out

each year in November-December. Upon planting, each plant is provided

with support using a wooden stake to maintain an upright position. Any

unwanted lateral branches are periodically removed. Mature trees that are

bearing fruit generally do not necessitate pruning. However, for shaping

purposes, additional twigs may be pruned, and any diseased or broken

twigs should be promptly removed. In the case of older hedges, heading

back can be performed to stimulate new growth.

Weed Management

To ensure proper plant development, it is crucial to carry out

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weeding after each irrigation in Karonda cultivation.

Flowering and Fruiting

Karonda typically begins bearing flowers and fruits during its

third year after planting. Flowering usually commences in February, and

mature fruits become available from May onwards.

Plate 3- Mature different colour fruits of

Karonda

Plate 4- Ripe fruit of

karonda

Harvesting

Plants grown from seeds typically start bearing fruit in their

third year of growth. These plants generally start flowering in Feb-

March, with fruit ripening occurring from July to September in North

India. In arid conditions, flowering may begin later, and fruit ripening

occurs during the post-monsoon period. Karonda usually requires 2-3

pickings for harvesting. The fruits reach maturity approximately 100-110

days after fruit set when they develop their natural color. After this stage,

the fruits continue to ripen, taking around 120 days from fruit set to

become soft and acquire a dark purple, maroon, or red color.

Yield

Under good management practices, it is possible to obtain

around 10-15 kg of fruits per plant. However, in wasteland conditions,

achieving a yield of 4 to 5 kg of fruits per plant is considered very well

for Karonda cultivation for livelihood.

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Pest management

Leaf eating caterpillars

In the early stage, leaf eating caterpillars, Digama hearseyama

eat out most of the leaves, which cause defoliating plants and cause

mortality. These caterpillars can be controlled by spraying of nuvacron

and monocrotophos 2ml/l.

Fruit fly (bactrocera dorsalis)

Field should be sanitized properly.

Twig dieback (Diplodian atalensis)

Pruning should be done when required.

Stem canker (Dithiorella sp.)

Effected branches remove and burned out.

Cotton cushion scale (Icerya purchesi)

The insect can be controlled by using biological agent, Vedalia

beetle (Rodoliacardina).

Bihar hairy caterpillar (Spilosoma oblique)

Hand picking and destroyed in kerosene. Young caterpillars can

be easily destroyed by spraying 0.04% methyl parathion.

Disease management

Anthracnose

It is caused by Colletotrichum inamdarri. This disease is of

wide occurrence, more especiallyin humid and high rainfall areas.

Spraying with copper sulphate (0.1%) or blitox (0.3%).

Bacterial canker

A bacterial canker of C. congesta incited by Xanthomonas

Carissa. This disease is wide spread in Rajasthan. The disease can be

checked by removing all the diseased leaves from the shrub pruned to the

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height of 45 cm from the ground level.

Fruit rot

The fruit rot disease is common in harvested fruits. The disease

is caused by Oospora sp. The fungus causes decay of harvested fruits

cleanliness is only solution to control the disease.

Dieback

Dieback is caused by phytophthora sp. and Rhizoctonia solani.

The disease can be controlled by soil drench with Benomyl or

Carbendazin.

Post Harvest Handling

Grading, packing and marketing

Just after harvesting fruits are kept in shade. Undesirable fruits

such as over size, under size, under ripe, over ripe, damaged and

misshapen are sorted out. Thereafter, healthy lot is graded into large,

medium and small size fruits. The graded fruits are usually packed in

gunny bags, bamboo-basket and are ready for marketing. The fruits can

be kept well for a week under ordinary conditions.

Processing

Karonda fruits do not table uses, however the fruits can be

processed in to a number of products. Mature fruits are processessed into

pickle, chutney, candy and jelly. Fruits can be used for making jam, jelly,

squash and syrup. Recipes and methods for some of the important

preparations from 1 kg of karonda fruits have been described by

Srivastava and Kumar, (2017).

Chutney

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The ingredients required for making chutney from 1kg fruit is

50g chilli powder, 1 chopped ginger, salt 10g, garlic chopped 10g, hot

spices 20 g and acetic acid 20 ml. The fruits after thoroughly washing are

cut into slices and boiled with little water by adding sugar and salt. While

cooking is continued, chopped ginger in a muslin bag are put in it and

pressed with a spoon to obtain the extract. After cooking to a desired

consistency, spice bag is again slightly heated and pressed and thereafter,

it is filled in clean bottles, capped and stored in cool and dry place.

Pickle

For making pickle, after washing the fruits, salt 200g is added

and kept for 3 days. On the fourth day, all spices (chilli powder 25g,

mustard powder 50g, turmeric 10g, fenugreek 10g) is added and mixed

thoroughly. After mixing, 300mh heated then cooled mustard oil is added

and filled in jar followed by capping and storage in a dry place.

Jelly

Karonda jelly is made by boiling mature fruits. The fruits after

washing in water are cut in the form of thin rings and equal amount of

water is added. After adding water it is boiled for 20-30 minutes and 2g

citric acid is added. After boiling is completed, extract is strained and

tested for pectin content. Thereafter, 1g sugar is added and cooked and

during this cooking process, scum is removed. Finally, the ready product

is filled into clean and sterilized bottle followed by sealing, capping and

storage in cool and dry place.

Candy

For making candy, mature and healthy fruits of Karonda are

washed properly. The seed is removed by giving a slit with the help of

sharp knife. The ready fruits without seeds are steeped in 2 per cent salt

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solution containing 600ppm Potassium Meta Bi-sulphite (KMS) for 24

hours to bleach the fruits followed by washing, pricking and blanching in

water containing 0.05 per cent erythrosine and 0.25 per cent citric acid to

fix colour. Thereafter, the fruits are steeped in sugar syrup of 50 percent

TSS for 24 hours and subsequently to higher concentration of sugar

syrup in phased manner till it is steeped in 75% TSS sugar syrup. The

adhered syrup is ultimately removed by dipping in boiling hot water for

few seconds. The ready product is packed in suitable bottles, sealed and

stored in cool and dry places.

CONCLUSION

Karonda, a fruit native to arid regions, is a rich source of various

vitamins and minerals, with iron being its primary component. It thrives

in a variety of soil types and requires minimal investment for cultivation.

Karonda is renowned for its numerous health benefits and is employed in

the treatment of various ailments. Cultivating Karonda can prove to be a

lucrative venture for farmers, offering them substantial advantages.

References

Anonymous (2011) New promising Lines of Karonda. IIHR News Letter

July- Sept. 32(3):4- 5.

Anonymous (2014) Annual progress Report of the Project Collection and

evaluation of underutilized fruits. CHES(IIHR) Chettalli.

Anonymous, (1950) The Wealth of India. A Dictionary of Indian Raw

Materials and Industrial Production. Vol.3, CSIR, New

Delhi.p22.

Anonymous, (1979) Extn. Bull., IIHR, Bangalore, No. II, pp. 34-35.

Awasthi, O.P., Singh, D. and Shukla, A.K. (2006) Karonda: Advances in

Arid Horticulture Vol- 2, Production Technology of Arid

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and Semi Arid Fruits (Eds P.L. Saroj and O.P. Awasthi)

International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow (India). Pp-243-

256.

Cook, T. (1904) In: Flora of Presidency of Bombay, vol. II., Botanical

survey of India, Calcutta, p. 186.

Deepak, K., Vanajalatha, Sharma, G., Singh, D. And Gopa Mishra, G.

(2015). Effect of sucrose and auxins onrooting of karonda

cuttings, Carissa carandas L. International Journal of

Farm Sciences 5(4): 139-144.

Jaya L. Jamdar and Samsher N. Patil (2021). Karonda: An Underutilized

Fruit with Tremendous Health Benefits and Delicious

Recipes.

Malik SK, Chaudhury R, Dhariwaln OP, Bhandari DC. (2010) Genetic

Resources of Tropical Underutilized Fruits in India. New

Delhi: NBPGR;. p. 178.

Meghwal, P.R.., Singh, A., and Singh, S. (2019) Maru Gaurav: New

Karonda variety, Indian Horticulture, ICAR, New

Delhi, March-April, Pp 30-31.

Mishra CK, Sasmal D, Shrivastava B. (2012) An in vitro evaluation of

the anthel mintic activity of unripe fruits extract of

Carissa carandas Linn. Int J Drug Dev Res; 4(4):393-7.

Morton, J.F., (1987) Carissa carandas. In: Morton, J.F., Miami, F.L.

(Eds.), Fruits of Warm Climates, 422−424.

Sawant RB, Desai UT, Ranpise SA, More TA, Sawant SV. (2002)

Genotypic and phenotypic variability in

Karonda(Carissa carandas L.,). J Maharashtra Agric

Univ;27(3):266-8.

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Shaziya, A., Mubarak, A., Nadim, S., Gupta, A. (2022) A review on

Carissa carandas, Journal of Emerging Technologies

and Innovative Research 2022, Volume 9(4).

Singh, A. & Uppal, G.K. (2015) Asian J Pharm Clin Res, 8(3), 26.

Singh, S., Singh, A.K., Apparao, V.V., and Bhargava, R. (2015) Thar

Kamal: New Karonda variety, Indian Horticulture, ICAR,

New Delhi, July-Aug, Pp 9-10.

Singh. K.K., and Singh, S.P. (2021) Karonda: A Medicinal Plant with

Immense Economic Potentials.AgriCos e-Newsletter

(ISSN: 2582-7049) 02(2).

Srivastav, R.P. and Kumar, S. (2017) Fruits and Vegetable Preservation,

Principle and Practices, 3rd edt., CBS publisher and

distribution pvt. Ltd. Daryaganj, New Delhi, 110 002

Venkata Laxmi, K., K. Vanajalatha, A. Girwani, M. Sreedhar, K. Aparna

and Srinivasa Chary, D. (2021) Evaluation of Bio active

Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Karonda

Jam.Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 10(03): 2201-2212.

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CHAPTER

5

PLUM

Rupam Nehta1 and Ritik Chawla2

1,2Department of Fruit Science, Dr. YS Parmar

University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan,

Himachal Pradesh (173230), India

*Corresponding Author Name:

Rupam Nehta

Corresponding Author E-mail Id:

rupamnehta777@gmail.com

Abstract

Plum holds a conspicuous and prominent position in the global scenario

and evolved from being dessert staples to becoming essential

components of commercial agriculture. Their geographical origin spans

Europe, Asia, and America, attesting to their adaptability to diverse

climates. The taxonomy of plums is explored, categorizing them within

the Rosaceae family and distinguishing between European, Japanese, and

American species. Notably, prunes, a product derived from specific plum

varieties, offer nutritional and health benefits, amplifying their economic

importance. The cultivation process is intricately examined, from

understanding pollination and suitable conditions to rootstocks, training

systems, and pest management. Harvesting and storage techniques,

including controlled atmosphere storage, are crucial in maintaining plum

quality post-harvest. Plums are the perfect species to play a key role as a

fresh fruit for local or regional markets. The synthesis of human

understanding and natural processes in plum cultivation highlights the

fusion of historical, cultural, and commercial values. Plums emerge as

tangible embodiments of the harmonious interplay between humans and

the environment, symbolizing both tradition and innovative agricultural

practices.

Keywords: Botany, Crop Protection, Prune, Rootstock

Introduction:

One of the significant deciduous stone fruits of temperate zones, plum

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has been recognized as the first species of temperate fruit to capture

human attention (Faust & Suranyi, 1999). Aside from its use as a dessert,

it has variety of other applications that have increased its importance as a

commercial crop. Prunes are plums with high sugar content that can be

dried whole without fermentation at the pit. In India the plum cultivation

is not very old, it is becoming popular and holding an important position

due to strong consumer acceptance of the fruit (fresh form and its

preparation) and its cultivation has expanded from the subtropical planes

of Punjab, Haryana, U.P to the high Himalayan hills in H.P, Uttarakhand,

and J&K.

Taxonomic Description:

Common Name Plum

Order Rosales

Family Rosaceae

Genus Prunus

Species salicina and domestica

Somatic number 16

Origin

European plum (Prunus domestica) is most popular plum species

globally. It is thought to have originated in Europe because it has been

grown there for at least 2000 years. Before being brought to America and

Europe, Japanese plum (Prunus salicina), was presumably grown in

China and Japan. Alexander Couth brought the plum to India for the first

time in Mashobra (Shimla), after which European settlers and

missionaries began cultivating it in Kullu (H.P.) in 1870, from where it

spread to other regions of the country.

Important plums are of three types:

1. European plums (6n):

Most important species and source of commercial cultivars is European

plum (P. domestica L.). According to Cambrink (1993), it is believed to

have its roots in eastern Europe and has been grown there for at least

2000 years. Hexaploid P. domestica plums were created through the

hybridization of diploid (P. cerasifera) and tetraploid (P. spinosa) which

was followed by chromosomal doubling (Crane & Lawrence 1952).

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2. Japanese plum (2n, 4n):

Despite the fact that they were imported into Japan from China around

1720, it is thought that they originated in China and not in Japan,

according to accounts in Japanese literature.

3. American plums (2n):

It is native to north America and believed to have suitable alternative in

interior regions, from Pennsylvania to rocky highlands, where P.

domestica has mainly failed to establish itself.

Geographical Distribution

Among deciduous fruits, cultivation of plum is widely distributed in the

world. Few plum varieties, out of more than 2000 types are of

commercial importance (Somogai, 2005). These varieties are cultivated

in temperate climates, with China, Romania, and United States, among

the top producing countries (Blazek, 2007). China is the world's largest

producer of plums, with 6.6 million tonnes produced per year, followed

by Romania (0.5 million tonnes), United States (390000 tonnes), Serbia

(360000 tonnes), and Turkey (290000 tonnes) (Anonymous, 2023).

Economic Importance

Plums are important food in our diet because of their dietary and

nutritional significance and have long been utilised in Indian medicine as

a component of herbal remedies for leucorrhea, irregular periods, and

miscarriage (Nakatani et al. 2000). Mineral content in plums rises as the

fruit ripens which determines the nutritional value and flavour (Ertekin et

al. 2006). Malic and quinic acids, are responsible for acidic flavour and

vitamin C is present in sufficient amounts which is nutritionally

important. According to Moutounet (1976), the fruits are excellent

source of minerals including K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Zn.

Prunes are excellent source of energy in the form of simple sugars and

contain high fibre, fructose, and sorbitol content. Prunes contain phenolic

chemicals acting as preventative medicines for chronic illnesses

including cancer and heart disease. The mineral boron, which helps to

prevent osteoporosis, is key component of dried prunes. Serving of

prunes (100 g) fulfills the daily requirement for boron (2 to 3 mg)

(Stacewicz et al. 2001).

Botany of Flower and Fruits

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Mature plum fruit may have a dusty-white coating that gives them a

glaucous appearance. This is an epicuticular wax coating and is known as

'wax bloom'. In European plums, ﬂowers are borne largely on spurs and

are white, more or less fascicled. Fruit colour ranging from almost black

through different shades of red, purple, blue green and yellow to white,

small to very large in size and nearly always free stone. In Japanese plum

flowers are abundantly produced in cluster of 3 in a bud on many budded

short or compact spurs on last season’s shoot. Fruits are never blue and

mostly oblate to heart shaped fruits with more pointed apex.

Japanese plum can be readily distinguished from the European plum by

its rough bark and more persistent fruiting spurs throughout the tree.

Type of pollination

Majority of plum cultivars are not self-fruitful, pollinizers are necessary

for enhanced pollination in plums (Arora & Singh, 1990). It is usually

recommended that one healthy beehive per acre be placed with at least

one pollinator tree in every third row when growing plums for

pollination. Good pollinators within the European plum are cultivars

such as Stanley and Cacanska lepotica and produce about 50,000 pollen

grains per flower. Cultivar Beauty is best pollinizer for Santa Rosa in

Himachal Pradesh and cultivar New Plum for P domestica at chaubattia

while Santa Rosa performed best for P. saliciana (Chadha 1991).

Soil

While Japanese plums favour lighter soils, European plums thrive better

on clay-based soils (Teskey & Shoemaker, 1978). However, loamy soils

with a pH between 5.5 and 6.5 and depth of at least 600 mm are optimum

for growing both varieties of plums (Department of Agriculture, Forestry

and Fisheries [DAFF], 2010).

Climate & Season

Among deciduous temperate fruits, plum has got more wide adaptability.

It has definite requirement of winter chilling for fruitfulness. Chilling

requirements of European plum is 800-1,500 hours below 7°C, whereas

Japanese plums require 100-800 hours for successful cultivation.

Japanese plum has less chilling requirements and can be grown form

sub-tropical plane areas of Punjab, Haryana, parts of U.P up to an

elevation of 5.000 ft. in Himalayan hills. European plum would thrive

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well in hills from 5,000 to 9,000 ft. above mean sea level. Plum is grown

under rainfed conditions and areas receiving 100-125 cm rainfall, well

distributed throughout the growing season is ideal for its cultivation.

Nutrient Management

In plain areas of Punjab, the application of 200 g N + 75 g P + 200 g K

per tree with a basal dose of farm yard manure (FYM) @ 35 kg per tree

applied in December together with the entire dose of P and K, and half of

N one month before flowering and another half month later resulted in

the maximum yield per tree. In Himachal Pradesh, it is recommended to

apply 10 kg of well-decomposed FYM, 50 g N, 25 g P, and 60 g K for

every year age of plant up to 10 years. N is applied in two split doses:

once in spring before flowering and the other one month later. Thakur &

Thakur (2014) reported that plum trees when treated with 75% NPK +

biofertilizers (60 g each/tree basin) + green manuring (Sunhemp @ 25 g

seeds/tree basin exhibited the highest annual shoot growth, tree height,

tree volume, fruit set, and fruit yield.

Cultivars (Rootstock)

Around 2000 distinct types of plums from various species are cultivated

worldwide. Only around a dozen, have achieved popularity. The plum

varieties have been divided into three groups: European plum, Japanese

plum, and American plum.

European Plum Cultivars

Damson: Small, sour, oval fruits have blue-skinned outside and yellow-

green inside. Fruits are excellent for putting candy, jams, jellies, and

Damson in bottles.

Greengage: Small to medium-sized fruit with a great flavour. Fruit flesh

is yellow with a greenish-yellow skin.

Reine Claude du Bavey: An excellent Greengage plum that bears

consistently and in plenty. Fruits with a strong taste have skin that is

greenish yellow with an orange flush.

Angele Burdett : Dark purple skin and flesh is small to medium in size.

Fruit with a rich delicious flavour is good for eating. Mid-January marks

the time for fruit ripening.

Prune: French, Sugar, Italian, German, Imperial, and Stanley varieties

are the most popular ones in this category.

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Japenese Plum Cultivars

Santa Rosa: Large, conical plum with deep purple skin and flesh is

tinted pink and yellow. It is juicy and tart. Fruit is excellent for both

bottling and eating.

Red Beaut: It produces high-quality fruit with a moderate flavour. Red

Beaut plums have smooth, vivid red skin that, when completely ripe,

becomes reddish.

Frontier: Fruit is larger than Santa Rosa and skin has reddish-purple

colour, flesh is red, firm, evenly sweet, and has a great flavour. Santa

Rosa is an excellent pollinator.

Mariposa: The fruit has an egg-like form, shiny crimson colour, and a

great taste. It will grow in a variety of climatic conditions.

Black Amber: Large fruits with almost-black skin and luscious, juicy

yellow flesh. It is great for consuming sauces, pies, and puddings. Fruits

start to mature around the end of January.

Shiro: Medium-sized, spherical fruits with yellow skin and flesh are

ideal for eating, canning, and freezing. Late January is when the fruit

ripens.

American Plum

This group is mostly used as rootstock or in cooking. P. americana

(cold-resistant), P. hortulana (vigorous, resistant to brown rot, good for

processing), P. munsoniana (resistant to spring frost and fruit brown rot),

P. besseyi (dwarf rootstock for stone fruits), P. maritime (suitable for

beach cultivation, processing), and P. subcordata (used for preserves and

sauce) are the important species of this group.

Rootstocks

Wild peach, wild apricot, bitter almond, and behmi (a naturally occurring

hybrid of almond and peach) are most popular rootstocks used for plum.

The characteristics of important rootstock are listed below.

Myrobalan (P. cerasifera): Best rootstock, especially for European

plums. Its roots can withstand inadequate soil aeration, adaptable to a

variety of soil types, and resistant to crown rot.

Myrobalan-B: Rootstock known as Myrobalan-B, was developed at the

East Malling Research Station in the UK, is now recognised as the

standard for growing healthy trees.

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Myrobalan C: Although Myrobalan C is robust, resistant to root-knot

nematodes, and water-logging, it has difficulty on excessively heavy

soils.

Myrobalan GF- 31: Myrobalan GF- 31 grows as robust trees and is

primarily produced by cuttings. It grows quickly and thrives even in

rocky, dry soils.

Myrobalan 2-7: It is drought-tolerant, and has excellent K absorption.

Marianna 2624: Marianna 2624 produces moderately robust trees,

tolerant to heavy and wet soils, and is immune to root/knot nematodes

and oak root rot. It efficiently utilises nitrogen.

Marianna GF 8-1: It grows enormous trees and is immune to viruses,

root-knot nematodes, and water logging. It is good for variety of soil

types with wide pH range, according to Okie (1987).

St. Julien: Rootstocks are frequently used in Western Europe. These

rootstocks are dwarfing in nature and are closely related to damsons.

Many clonal stocks are made viz., St. Julien A, St. Julien K, St. Julien

Hybrid I, St. Julien 2 and St. Julien W 61.

Pixy: It is a selection from St. Julien from France by East Malling, UK

and these rootstock are dwarf, induces precocity and promotes earlier

ripening. It is tolerant to bacterial canker but susceptible to drought. It is

found to be compatible with European plums.

Prunus americana: According to Tukey (1964), this rootstock is

effective as a moderately dwarfing rootstock. It has been demonstrated to

be compatible with wide variety of European plum cultivars, Japanese

plums, and Native American varieties.

Beach Plum (Prunus maritima): According to Okie (1987), it is a

severely dwarfing stock with weak anchoring and low output. Seeds are

used for its propagation.

Field Preparation:

The root system of the grafted saplings should be accommodated by

digging out larger square pits of 1 m in width by 1 m in length by 80 cm

in depth one month early, then planting (DAFF, 2010). If there is any

hard pan or the rock in subsoil, it should be removed while digging pits

for proper root development. The grafting point should be kept at least

15-20 cm above the ground level at the time of planting.

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Method of Planting

Plums are usually planted in December-January when the plants are

dormant. In general, two-year-old saplings are planted to achieve good

success. In flat areas, square, rectangle or hexagonal system of planting

can be followed. In hills, contour planting or terrace planting is most

desirable.

Propagation and Spacing

Plums are vegetatively propagated for commercial purposes by budding

and grafting on seedling or clonally propagated rootstocks in spring or

autumn. Scion sticks from healthy plants are gathered for grafting during

the dormant season. With arrival of spring and beginning of the

rootstocks sap flow, grafting is carried out using tongue method with

dormant scion sticks. Rootstock of the seedling should have diameter of

pencil thickness. When sufficient plant material could not be grown,

plum can be raised via T-budding and Chip budding in June or October.

In general, planting distance of 6 × 6 m2 is recommended. In sandy soils,

narrower spacing of 5.4 × 5.4 m2 may be used; however, 800-1200 trees

per hectare have been made possible by the availability of dwarfing

rootstocks (Sansavini, 1990).

Irrigation and Drainage

May and June when fruit growth is at its fastest rate are important

irrigation demanding months. Young plants require irrigation in order to

overcome moisture stress. With improved fruit quality, irrigation to plum

orchards boosts production by more than 50%. For production of high-

quality fruits irrigation at 50% field capacity at 12-day intervals is

advised. Because it requires less water annually than flood or furrow

irrigation, drip irrigation system is one of the better solutions.

Weed Management

Weeds can be eliminated by hand or with the use of weedicides. Atrazine

at a rate of 6 kg/ha during pre-emergence stage and grammaxone at a rate

of 2 L/ha during the post-emergence stage of weed development can

successfully control weeds for 4 to 5 months in plum orchards. Weed

management practises have considerable impact on growth, productivity,

leaf-nutrient status, and fruit quality in addition to controlling weeds

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(Bhutani and Joshi, 1995).

Crop Protection Measures

Major Diseases

1. Bacterial Canker

Causal Organism: Pseudomonas syringae

Control: Cleaning the bleeding wounds and using Mashobra paste during

the dormancy break will help to control this disease. Spraying

streptocyclin (3g/10 litres) before the rainy season and copper fungicide

(copper oxychloride @ 0.3%) after the leaf fall are both effective.

2. Crown gall

Causal Organism: Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Control: By using gall free nursery stick or by using gall resistant

footstock to avoid later infection.

3. Oak root fungus

Causal Organism: Armillarella mellea

Control: Soil fumigation in autumn with carbon bi-sulphide. Fumigant

should not be applied closer than 2-2.7 m from any living trees, as it

causes toxicity to living roots.

4. White root rot

Causal Organism: Rosellinia necatrix

Control: Cut ends and healthy roots should be applied with Chaubattia

paste (Red lead, copper carbonate and linseed oil in ratio 1:1:1/4) during

Nov-Dec. Drenching of affected plants with bavistin or MBC (10g/ litre

water) to be applied 15-22 cm deep at a distance of 30 cm each throught

the drip of a tree. Remove the infected roots.

Major Pests

1. Stem borer (Anarsia lineatella):

Control: To prevent this, a cotton wick soaked in fuel, kerosene or

methyl parathion (0.2%) is placed into the hole after it has been cleaned

out with flexible wire, and the hole is then filled with mud. Endosulfan

or Fenitrothion @ 0.05 percent is sprayed in cases of fruit infection.

2. Plum scale (Eulecanium sp.)

Control: Spray monocrotophos (500 ml azodrin/nuvacron 40 EC),

quinalphos (1 litre ekaluxx 25 EC), fenitrithion (500 ml

acethion/folithion/sumithion 500 EC), or methyl demeton (500 ml

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metacystox) as a post bloom spray in May if a dormant oil spray could

not be carried out.

3. Plum fruit moth (Laspeyresia pamonella, L. funebrana)

Control: Carbaryl (0.1%) is administered approximately a month before

the expected harvest date for effective control.

Intercultural operations (Training and Pruning)

Modified central leader system of training is generally followed in

plums. However, open centre system may also be used in locations of the

mid hills and valleys. While upright growing types like Santa Rosa,

Stanley, and Wickson can be trained in modified central leader system

and spreading type varieties like Burbank and Japanese plums trained in

open centre system. However, plums grows more numbers of lateral

branches and water sprouts, which should be periodically removed. To

encourage a spreading habit in varieties which grow upright, heading

back is advised at the desired position.

Pruning of plums is generally modest, but less severe than peach. In pre-

bearing age, it is essential to promote average extension growth of 45 to

60 cm and 25 to 30 cm in bearing trees, which may be controlled by

pruning. It is necessary to remove the undesirable, broken, and water

sprouted limbs.

Harvesting

Ideal plum maturity at which the fruit should be harvested will depend on

a number of important factors, primarily on whether the fruits will be

canned, dried, or placed for sale in local markets. Various indices are

used to determine when to harvest fruits at the right time. These are listed

below:

1. Colour development: Each kind of plum matures with a distinct skin

tone, and when the colour develops fully, it is seen to be ready for

harvesting.

2. Flesh firmness: Fruits picked for distant markets without precooling

at various stages firmness ranges from 4.1 to 9.1 kg/cm2.

3. Days after full bloom are often defined for a certain zone when it

comes to a variety's maturity.

4. Total soluble solids (TSS): European plum has been reported to be an

excellent indicator of maturity when it reaches the threshold value of

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12.5% TSS.

5. Soluble solid to acid ratio: The soluble solid to acid ratio range

between 12-15 is considered satisfactory at maturity.

Yield

Age of tree and management techniques used will both have a major

effect on yield. A plum tree that is fully matured often produces 40–75

kg of fruit. According to Kumar et al. (2018), the average performance of

several plum varieties for fruit yield in the climatic conditions of

Kashmir, India are given below:

Table: Performance of several varieties of plums for fruit yield

Variety Mean Fruit Yield (Kg/ tree)

Beauty 44.50

Frontier 22.40

Green Gage 34.02

Black Amber 28.70

Frontier 22.40

Santa Rosa 20.79

Red Beauty 19.22

Storage

Plums should be stored at temperature between -0.6 and 0ᵒC with relative

humidity of between 85 and 90 percent. Long-term storage at 0°C

induces chilling damage in several types. After 7–10 days, temperature is

adjusted from -0.6°C to around 7°C and maintained for remaining days

of the storage period in order to prevent chilling harm (Cambrink 1993).

Adoption of superior storage method, specifically controlled atmosphere

(CA) storage, can further increases shelf life. Fruits may be kept for 1-2

months in CA storage with CO levels kept at 2-8 percent and O levels

kept at 2-3 percent.

Conclusion:

Plums stand as noteworthy deciduous stone fruit with rich history and

diverse applications. Their journey from being a dessert fruit to gaining

commercial significance underscores their versatile nature. With origins

spanning Europe, Asia, and America, plums have found a global

presence, becoming a vital dietary component in numerous cultures. The

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economic importance of plums extends beyond their nutritional value.

Successful plum cultivation necessitates an understanding of its unique

growth requirements. From type of pollination to suitable soils, climates,

and nutrient management, each aspect influences the quality and quantity

of plum yields. The significance of rootstocks, propagation methods,

training systems, and pest management practices further highlight the

careful attention required for successful orchard management.

Harvesting, storage, and post-harvest considerations round out the

process, emphasizing the need for precision in determining maturity

levels, proper storage conditions, and the adoption of advanced

techniques like controlled atmosphere storage to extend shelf life.

Overall, the journey of the plum, from its taxonomic roots to its

cultivation and utilization, showcases its significance in both traditional

and modern contexts. With its rich cultural history, diverse applications,

and adaptability, plum remains a testament to the intricate relationship

between humans and natural world.

References:

Anonymous.2023. Plum production.https://worldmapper.org/maps/plum-

production/

Arora, R. L., & Singh, R. (1990). Pollination requirement in subtropical

plum (Prunus salicina). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 34, 143.

Bhutani, V.P., & Joshi, V.K. 1995. Plum. In D. K. Salunkhe & S. S.

Kadam, (Eds.), Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology:

Production, Composition, Storage and Processing (pp. 206).

Marcel Dekker, New York.

Blazek, J. 2007. A survey of the genetic resources used in plum breeding.

In 8th International Symposium on Plum and Prune Genetics.

Breeding and Pomology. 734: 31–45.

Cambrink, J. C. 1993. Plums and related fruits. In R. MaCre, R.K.

Robinson, & M. J. Sadler, (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Food Science,

Food Technology and Nutrition (pp. 3630) . Academic Press,

London.

Chadha, L. K. 2019. Plum. In: Handbook of Horticulture (vol.1), Indian

Council of Agricultural Research (pp.328–335.) Directorate of

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Knowledge Management in Agriculture New Delhi.

Crane, M.B., & Lawrence, W.J. 1952. The Genetics of Garden Plants

(4th ed.). Macimillan, London. www.wikipedia.com, the free

encyclopedia.

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF). 2010. Plums

Production Guidelines. DAFF, Republic of South Africa.

Ertekin, C., Gozlekci, S., Kabas, O., Sonmez, S., & Akinci, I. (2006).

Some physical, pomological and nutritional properties of two

plum (Prunus domestica L.) cultivars. Journal of Food

Engineering, 75(4), 508-514.

Faust, M., & Suranyi, D. (1999). Origin and dissemination of

plums. Horticultural Reviews, 23, 179-231.

Kumar, D., Srivastava, K. K., & Singh, S. R. (2018). Morphological and

horticultural diversity of plum varieties evaluated under Kashmir

conditions. Tropical Plant Research, 5(1), 77-82.

Moutounet, M. (1976). Carotenoids in d’Ente variety plums and in

prunes made therefrom. Ann. Technol. Agric., 25, 73-84.

Nakatani, N., Kayano, S. I., Kikuzaki, H., Sumino, K., Katagiri, K., &

Mitani, T. (2000). Identification, quantitative determination, and

antioxidative activities of chlorogenic acid isomers in prune

(Prunus domestica L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food

Chemistry, 48(11), 5512-5516.

Okie, W. R. 1987. Plum rootstocks. Rootstocks for Fruit Crops. (pp.

321). John Wiley, New York.

Sansavini, S. (1990). The fruit industry in Italy. Chronica

Horticulturae, 30(1), 3-5.

Somogai, L. P. (2005). Plums and prunes processing of fruits science and

technology. CRC press, 21, 513-530.

Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis, M., Bowen, P. E., Hussain, E. A., Damayanti-

Wood, B. I., & Farnsworth, N. R. (2001). Chemical composition

and potential health effects of prunes: a functional food. Critical

reviews in food science and nutrition, 41(4), 251-286.

Teskey, B. J. E., & Shoemaker, J. 1978. Tree Fruit Production (3rd ed.).

AVI, Westport, CT.

Thakur, N., & Thakur, B. S. (2014). Studies on the effect of integrated

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nutrient management on growth and yield of plum cv. Santa

Rosa. Asian Journal of Horticulture, 9(1), 112-115.

Tukey, H.B. 1964. Dwarfed Fruit Trees. MacMillan Co., New York.

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CHAPTER

6

AMARANTHUS

Arushi Yadav

Department of soil conservation and water

management, Chandra Shekhar Azad University

of Agriculture & Tec., Kanpur ,U.P

*Corresponding Author Name:

Rupam Nehta

Corresponding Author E-mail Id:

arushi58211@gmail.com

Abstract

Amaranth encompasses a diverse range of 60-70 species, with 40

originating from the Americas. Thriving in both temperate and tropical

climates, these plants are cultivated for their utility as grains or

vegetables. Renowned for their rich nutritional profile, they are abundant

in vitamins and minerals. Their leaves, shoots, tender stems, and grains

are commonly used in cooking, incorporated into sauces, soups, and

main dishes, either individually or alongside other vegetables. Amaranth

plants serve as a valuable forage for livestock. In traditional practices,

the boiled leaves and roots have been employed as laxatives, diuretics,

anti-diabetic agents, antipyretics, anti-snake venom remedies,

antileprotic treatments, anti-gonorrheal aids, and expectorants, aiding

breathing in cases of acute bronchitis. Amaranth is also recognized for its

anti-inflammatory, anti-androgenic, and anthelmintic properties.

Keywords: Amaranth, species, nutritional value, anti- nutritional factors,

nitrates.

Introduction:

The cultivation of grain amaranths traces back to ancient times,

displaying initial promise but eventually lagging behind traditional

cereals, despite their nutritional parity. Amaranths possess the

adaptability to thrive across a wide spectrum of soil types, including

marginal areas, with minimal agronomic demands. Vegetable amaranth

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holds significant presence in tropical regions, particularly as a crucial

leafy vegetable in Amaranth, an annual and rapidly growing herb, finds

its roots in the lowlands of Africa and Asia. This versatile plant can be

easily grown in both home gardens and large-scale commercial setups. It

stands out as a highly nutritious choice, abundant in protein, calcium,

iron, and essential vitamins like A, C, and K. Additionally, it contains

significant levels of riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), vitamin B6, and folate

(B9). Amaranth species manifest as erect or spreading annuals, often

featuring a rough or prickly texture. Grain amaranths showcase diversity

in flower, leaf, and stem colors, with a prevailing maroon or crimson hue

across all three parts. Some variants exhibit green or golden flowers,

while deep crimson varieties create a striking visual during full bloom.

Plant height spans between 0.3 m to 2 m, contingent upon species,

growth habitat, and environmental conditions. Remarkably, amaranth

displays a strong tolerance for arid environments. For successful

germination, amaranth seeds require soil temperatures between 18°C and

25°C, with growth optimization at temperatures exceeding 25°C; growth

halts below 18°C. The cumulative growing degree days throughout the

growth cycle play a pivotal role in amaranth plant development. Lower

temperatures and shorter daylight hours induce flowering, subsequently

decreasing leaf yield.

Scientific cultivation of Amaranths :

Common name: Pigweed (English), Hanekam (Afrikaans), Thepe

(Sesotho), Imbuya (isiZulu), Vowa (Tshivenda)

Chromosome number:

The Chromosome number varies with species in amaranth. The diploid

species have 2n=32

or 34. A tricolor is with 2n=34 white A. cruentus and A. tristis have

2n=32. The tetraploid

species, A dubius has 2n=64

Origin and distribution

A significant global Among the earliest cultivated food sources,

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amaranth was developed in America, and there is evidence of its

cultivation dating back to 6700 BC. Nearly 60 species make up the genus

Amaranth, some of which are grown for their leaves, grains, or

decorative qualities while others are weeds. Throughout the last few

thousand years, different grain amaranth species have played a

significant role in diverse regions and eras of the world. Amaranth is

currently widely grown in various temperate and tropical areas as a leafy

green vegetable. In regions like Africa, India, and Nepal, amaranth had

spread over the world and had established itself as a source of food both

the grain and the leaves. Grain amaranth has been cultivated throughout

the past 200 years in a variety of places, including Mexico, Central

America, India, and Nepal. Amaranth can be consumed as a grain, but it

is more commonly used as a pot herb that can contribute significantly to

diets in terms of protein, minerals, and vitamins.

The most popular leaf vegetable growing in Tamil Nadu and Kerala is

amaranth. Vitamins A and C, calcium, and iron (38.5 mg/100g), as well

as the succulent stem and leaves, are all abundant in these plant parts.

However, amaranth has a poor absorption of calcium. Only between 15.2

and 53.6% of the total iron is readily available. Numerous species' leaves

have been found to contain contains significant amounts of oxalate (1-

3%) and nitrate (1.7- 8.9 g/kg dry matter). It is a preferred crop of

farmers since it can be cultivated easily, yields well, responds quickly to

manures and fertilizers, and is available in a variety of kinds that are

suitable for different agro-climatic conditions. The fight against

malnutrition among the poor involves both leaf and grain varieties.

Amaranth's primary diversity centers are in Central and South America,

India, and South East Asia, with additional regions in West and East

Africa. India are the origin of leaf amaranth.

Classification:

Amaranth taxonomy is categorized into two main sections, namely

Amaranthus and Blitopsis. The Amaranths section encompasses

significant grain varieties characterized by a terminal inflorescence. In

contrast, the Blitopsis section comprises leafy types with clustered

flowers found in the axils of leaves.

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Local Designations:

Amaranth is referred to by various names across different regions:

Cambodia: Phtii

Indonesia & Malaysia: Bayam

Laos: Hôm

Papua New Guinea: Aopa

Philippines: Kulitis

Thailand: Phakkhom-suan

Amaranth Characteristics:

Amaranth is an annual herb with an upright growth habit, displaying

variable branching patterns ranging from sparse to abundant. The stem is

succulent and can exhibit shades of green, purple, or a mix of both. The

leaves are simple, alternate, and can take on an obviate to lanceolate

shape. Leaf coloration varies, including shades of green or red.

Flowering and Reproduction:

Flowers are borne in clusters, found both at the tips of stems and in the

junctions of leaves. The basic unit of the inflorescence is known as a

glomerule. The flowers are small, unisexual, and monoecious, meaning

that both male and female flowers are present on the same plant. In most

cultivated varieties, the plants are also monoecious, and the ratio of male

to female flowers can vary within a single inflorescence. Each glomerule

consists of a male flower and several female flowers. Pollination

dynamics are influenced by the balance of male and female flowers

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within an inflorescence and the location of the inflorescence on the plant.

Grains typically favor cross-pollination. The stigma of the female

flowers becomes receptive before the male flowers in the same

inflorescence open. Wind plays a significant role in pollination, as pollen

is carried from the male flowers of one glomerule/inflorescence/plant to

the female flowers of another. Some grain species with colorful

inflorescences may occasionally attract visits from bees.

Popular vegetable amaranth species

Amaranthus blitum

Common names: livid amaranth, slender amaranth (En.); amarante livide

(Fr.); bledo (Sp.).

Amaranthus blitum likely originated in the Mediterranean region and can

be found across a range of climates, from the tropics to temperate

regions. It is a commonly grown vegetable in East and Central Africa, as

well as in India. In southeast Europe (Greece), it is grown in backyard

gardens as a substitute for spinach, especially during hot and dry

summers. However, because it contains notable amounts of hydrocyanic

acid and oxalic acid consumption of fresh leaves is not recommended. It

also behaves as a weed on a global scale.

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Amaranthus cruentus.

Common names: purple amaranth, red amaranth, red shank, bush

greens, African spinach, Indian spinach.

Amaranthus cruentus, originally domesticated as a grain crop in

Mesoamerica, spread to tropical and subtropical regions of the Old

World. It serves both as an attractive plant and a pseudocereal grain,

along with being a leafy vegetable. This species is particularly significant

for the economy in tropical Africa, offering a highly productive and

nutritious green vegetable. It is also cultivated as a leafy vegetable in

Southeast Asia and South Asia. While commonly used as a side dish by

chopping, sautéing, or frying the leaves and tender stems in oil, it is not

suitable for animal feed due to its high calcium oxalate content.

Amaranthus dubius

Common names: spleen

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A.dubius cultivars may have descended from a originating from its wild

precursor in tropical regions of Asia, such as Indonesia and India and

immigrants may have brought these cultivars to Africa and Central

America. It typically takes eight weeks to reach a yield of 25 t/ha during

its normal growth cycle from sea level to 1200 m elevation. Utilised as a

cooked leafy vegetable, the plants. Compared to A. cruentus, A. dubius

is more vulnerable to drought.

Amaranthus spinosus

Common names: spiny amaranth, thorny pigweed

This species most likely came from South and Central America's lowland

tropical regions. Due to the spines and the bad flavor, it is currently

located in the majority of tropical and subtropical climates, including

Africa. It is often harvested for domestic use and consumed cooked,

steamed, or fried; it can help get through dry spells. It is also used as

forage to some extent. The species is used medicinally in numerous

ways. The plant sap is utilized as an eye wash, and the root possesses

diuretic properties.The plant is also used as an expectorant and to help

people with acute bronchitis breathe easier.

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Amaranthus tricolor

Common names: Chinese amaranth, Chinese spinach,

This amaranth species most likely originated in tropical Asia. A.

tricolour is a significant species of leafy vegetable and the most widely

farmed amaranth in South and Southeast Asia, by A. dubius and A.

cruentus. It is sporadically grown in southern, eastern, and western

Africa. Although infrequently eaten fresh in salads, it is typically

consumed as a cooked vegetable. The tender stems are consumed

similarly to asparagus in India. Antinutrients nitrate and oxalate are

present in the leaves and stems, primarily in the stems, although if

consumption does not exceed 200 g per day, negative nutritional

consequences are unlikely. The hazardous ingredients are removed by

cooking in lots of water. Widely grown as ornamentals are varieties with

leaves in shades of red, yellow, and green. A. tricolour is a leafy

vegetable that is simple to grow, fruitful, delicious, and nourishing. In

South and Southeast Asia, seed firms sell commercial cultivars of this

plant. While the cultivar 'Tampala'is ideally suited for growing in the

southern United States, the cultivar 'Lal Sag' is well known in India.

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Amaranthus viridis

Commonly referred to as green amaranth, pigweed, and slender

amaranth.

A.viridis might have come from Asia. It is regarded as a global pan-

tropical weed that has spread to warm temperate areas. Additionally, it is

a ubiquitous weed there that is occasionally farmed. It has a high

nutritional value despite primarily growing as a weed. As a prepared

vegetable, leaves and young plants are consumed. Additionally, the plant

is used as green manure and livestock feed. Traditional medicine uses the

leaves' diuretic and purgative characteristics to treat a wide range of

illnesses.

Varieties of Amaranthus

Following varieties are recommended for cultivation in India,

Badi Chauli: It is ideally suited for industrial farming. It has broad

leaves and a thick, sensitive stalk. It grows best in the summer, and when

planted in the early summer, it keeps producing cuttings until the end of

the rainy season.

Chhoti Chauli: A quick-growing variant with slightly dwarf erect

plants, this one has also been made available by the IARI. In comparison

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to Badi Chauli, the stem and leaves are slimmer. It works best as an early

summer crop and is only appropriate for container gardening and kitchen

gardening

CO-1 (A. dubius): This developed by the Agricultural College in

Coimbatore, is well-suited for cultivating tender greens and thick, fleshy

immature stems. The leaves are broad, thick, and dark green in color,

exhibiting vigorous growth and yielding abundantly.

CO-2 (A. tricolor): These plants have an upright growth habit with

moderate branching. The elongated leaves are green and lanceolate in

shape. The stem is green and highly suitable for tender greens. The

harvest-ready greens are available for picking 20–25 days after sowing,

with a yield of 130q/ha.

CO-3 (A. tritis): This selection, derived from the local type, delivers a

yield of 30.72 tonnes of greens per hectare. It falls under the category of

a clipping type (A. tristis) and supports up to 10 clippings. The harvest

cycle begins 20 days after sowing and provides a continuous supply of

delectable tender greens for three months.

CO-4 (A. hypochondriacus): A green cum grain type from A.

hypochondriacus L., this variety is well-suited for cultivation in both

plains and hills across Tamil Nadu. It offers a yield of 2,555 kg/ha of

grain, in addition to 8,200 kg/ha of leaves, on the 25th day after thinning

in a spacing of 30 x 30 cm. The crop has a duration of 90 days.

CO-5: Thriving between June and September, as well as January and

May, this variety boasts a leaf yield of 40 t/ha. The plants are of medium

height, characterized by a high biomass and nutritive value. The stem

and petiole exhibit a pinkish-red hue, while the leaves are large and

obovate. Additionally, it is well-suited for patio or container cultivation.

Lal Sag: Widely grown and popular in many states of India, this high-

yielding variety produces seeds early but features small flowers.

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Moreover, numerous other locally named varieties are cultivated in

different regions.

Pusa Kiran: Distinguished by glossy green leaves with broad ovate

lamina, Pusa Kiran has a glossy green stem. It is suitable for cultivation

during the kharif season and becomes ready for the first picking 21–25

days after sowing. The harvest duration spans 70–75 days, and it takes

95–100 days to flower, yielding 35 tonnes/ha.

Pusa Lal Chaulai: It can be used for commercial growing in the

northern plains as well as for kitchen gardening. The brilliant red

(magenta) stems and leaves make it suited for aesthetic use as well. Its

plants' red dye can be harvested and utilised as a natural food ingredient.

The dye can also be used for dyeing in the textile or wool industries.

Both the summer and the wet seasons are good for cultivating Pusa Lal

Chaulai. It yields 45 to 50 tonnes/ha on average.

Pusa Kirti: Commercial growing of it is advised during the summer.

Green Pusa Kirti leaves have a broad, obvate lamina that is 6-8 cm long

and 4-5 cm wide. Petiole length is 3–4 cm. 30 to 35 days after seeding, it

is suitable for the first plucking. Following cuttings may be made at

intervals of 10–12 days, with a yield of 50–55 tonnes/ha.

Climate and Soil

In both tropical and subtropical areas, amaranthus is widely dispersed. A

warm-season crop, leaf amaranth is adapted to hot, humid weather. In

tropical climates, it is grown all year round, and in temperate climates, it

is grown in the autumn, spring and summer. The majority of leaf types

have a day-neutral habit, however they have variable day length

preferences and have varying reactions to variations in light and

thermoperiodism. A. caudatus, A. cruentus, and A. edulis are grain types

that have short days, whereas A. hypochondriacus has a day-neutral day.

In well-drained, loamy soil that is rich in organic materials, amaranth

grows wellThe optimal pH range for growth is between 5.5 and 7.5,

although certain varieties can thrive in soils with pH levels as high as

10.0. Bright sunlight is essential for the development of vibrant colors in

red amaranth.

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Land preparation and sowing

Amaranth is collected through frequent (multicultural) cuttings as well as

pulling out. The technique of harvest, the amount of time, the variety's

growth pattern, and other factors affect cultivation practices. A fine tilth

is achieved on the ground by vigorous ploughing and harrowing. At the

time of the final ploughing, well-decomposed and powdered organic

matter (at a rate of 20–25 t/ha) is mixed with the soil.

Direct sowing

The field is divided into smaller sections for direct sowing, typically

measuring 3.0-3.5 meters in length and 1.6-1.8 meters in width.

Irrigation channels are established between every two plots to ensure

proper water distribution. For pot watering irrigation, the plot width is

reduced to a range of 90-100 cm. To facilitate even distribution, the tiny

amaranth seeds are mixed with fine sand before being scattered

consistently. Afterward, a thin layer of sand or soil is gently spread over

the seeds, followed by a light irrigation. Regular and consistent irrigation

is essential to maintain soil moisture. Around 30 days after sowing,

mature seedlings are meticulously uprooted and sold in small bundles

with their roots intact. The recommended seed rate for direct sowing

ranges from 2.0 to 2.5 kg per hectare. After the initial pulling of

seedlings, urea is broadcasted onto the beds and then irrigated to promote

the rapid growth of the remaining seedlings. This enables the possibility

of a second pulling out of seedlings 10-15 days after the first round. This

process is repeated to ensure that the final pulling out of seedlings is

completed by the 55-60 day mark after sowing.

Transplanted method

This generally applies to multi-cut types. After carefully leveling and

ploughing the ground, it is shaped into shallow basins or trenches that are

50-60 cm wide and of a practical length. Manure from a farmyard that

has been properly degraded is spread in trenches and dug deeply into the

soil. Seedlings that have already been grown in a nursery for 20-25 days

are transplanted in trenches with a 20-25 x 10-15 cm spacing. The

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amount of seed needed per hectare for transplanted crops is merely 500

g.

Manures and fertilizers:

Amaranth is a high producing, nutrient-demanding plant. A basal dose of

20–25 tonnes of FYM and 50–25–20 kg NPK per ha is advised. When

consecutive seedling pulling out is done using Applying the pulling out

technique, it is recommended to top dress with 20 kg of nitrogen twice.

For cutting varieties, a dosage of 75:25:25 is still advised. Each time you

clip or cut something, apply N. The best way to encourage more

development and a large yield is to spray the leaves with diluted cow

urine or 1% urea at each harvest.

Irrigation:

A shortage of watering can lead to early flowering, a reduction in

output, and a lower quality for the market, even if some amaranth species

are rather drought tolerant. To create a strong stand, watering is crucial

after sowing or transplanting. In places with scarce water supplies, drip

irrigation or tiny sprinklers are advised. It is best to avoid using sprinkler

watering in the late evening since it may encourage the spread of

infections. Plant survival and growth during the rainy season depend on

proper drainage. Following a heavy storm, extra water can be quickly

drained thanks to raised beds, clear furrows, and wide drainage canals.

Pests and Diseases

Leaf blight and white rust; pose significant challenges of amaranth.

Leaf blight, caused by Rhizoctonia spp., is particularly troublesome

during the rainy season, especially in warm and humid conditions. This

disease is characterized by the development of irregular and whitish

spots on the surface of the leaf lamina, rendering the produce unsuitable

for the market.

To effectively manage leaf blight, the following measures are

recommended:

 Consider cultivating the resistant green amaranth variety, CO-1,

especially during the rainy season.

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• Minimize the use of splash irrigation to prevent the spread of the

disease.

• Apply a fine droplet spray of Mancozeb at a rate of 4g per 1 liter of

cow dung supernatant. Ensure thorough coverage of the plants, including

the undersides of the leaves, to allow the spray solution to reach all areas

effectively.

Intercultural:

Amaranth is a crop with a limited shelf life and weak roots. To keep soil

loose and prevent soil crust formation after irrigation, use mild hoeing.

The field should not have any weeds, especially in the beginning.

Mulching is recommended to reduce soil compaction and erosion,

maintain soil moisture, and suppress weed growth. Weed seeds should

not be included in organic mulching materials. Herbicides should only be

used in extreme cases.

Harvest

A variety of the species and harvesting technique, amaranth can be

harvested 20 to 45 days after transplanting or seeding. Plants might be

harvested just once or more than once. Species with rapid growth and

maturation, like A. tricolour, are suited for single harvesting. Whole

plants with roots are removed from the ground 20 to 30 days after

transplanting, cleaned, and tied into bundles. Some farmers harvest their

crops by making horizontal cuts. The recommended harvesting technique

is repeated cutting with larger spacing. After transplantation, the initial

cutting is performed, followed by subsequent ones every two to three

weeks. To allow for future growth, at least two leaves and buds, which is

made at a height of 10-15 cm. Low cutting slows bolting and permits up

to 10 cuttings spaced two weeks apart. The plants eventually begin to

blossom and put forth less leaves. Amaranth plants, like other leafy

vegetables, have a high surface-to-volume ratio and rapidly lose water. It

is best to harvest in the early time at morning or late afternoon to

minimize water loss. In summer crops can be harvested 3 weeks after

planting (single harvest), whereas winter crops need 40–50 days to

achieve harvestable maturity. After harvest, the food needs to be washed

and stored in a cold area to minimize losses. Quality and yield

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degradation often occurs after the flowering stage. Bolting, a

phenomenon characterized by the rapid growth of flowering stems, is

commonly linked to the cultivation of short-day varieties between

November and December, insufficient nitrogen levels, exceptionally high

temperatures, and inadequate soil aeration.

Yield:

Maintain a minimum isolation distance of 200 meters for certified seed

production in amaranth, and a larger 400 meters for foundation seed

production. For seed production purposes, transplant seedlings with

wider spacing, approximately 3-45 x 30 cm. Once the plant has

undergone one or two rounds of cutting for vegetable harvest, it can be

allowed to proceed to seed production.

Harvesting of the inflorescence should be carried out harvesting is

recommended when the glumes turn brown and the seeds achieve a black

coloration The harvested spikes are initially sun-dried to reduce moisture

content to around 15%. To extract the seeds from the dried inflorescence,

pliable bamboo sticks are employed. Subsequently, the seeds are

winnowed and sieved through a 2 mm mesh. A final drying step is

performed to achieve a moisture content of 7% before storing the seeds.

On average, seed yield ranges from 450 kg to 500 kg per hectare.

Conclusion:

Amaranths have been hailed as a potential cornerstone of future

agriculture. However, an examination of existing amaranth research

literature underscores the unfortunate lack of attention this crop has

received, considering its immense potential. While previous research has

primarily focused on the significant nutritional value amaranths offer as

both human and animal feed, as well as fundamental biological aspects

and breeding techniques, certain crucial aspects have been sorely

neglected. Specifically, aspects such as precise taxonomic classification,

phylogenetic relationships, germplasm preservation, and the application

of biotechnological methods within breeding programs have been

overlooked. The underutilization of weed amaranths in breeding

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endeavors is also a notable oversight. These include enhancing valuable

agronomic traits, fostering desirable growth characteristics, employing

biotechnological strategies for genetic enhancement, ensuring

adaptability to varying environments, refining grain amaranth processing

techniques, elevating seed yield and protein content in grain varieties,

bolstering resistance against pests and diseases, optimizing leaf yield,

improving food quality, and addressing anti-nutritional factors within

vegetable amaranths. Moreover, the full scope of industrial applications

and nutraceutical potentials that amaranths could offer remains largely

unexplored. Although many amaranth varieties are day-neutral,

variations in day length requirements do exist among them. When

compared to traditional cereal crops, grain amaranths have faced

challenges resulting in comparatively low yields due to obstacles in the

realms of breeding and cultivation.

References

Ali ,M.B., Kandahar, L., Oba, S (2009) Comparative study on

functional components, antioxidant activity and color

parameters of selected colored leafy vegetables as affected by

photoperiods. J. Food, Agriculture & Environment 7(3&4):

392-398. Cluj 37(1): 195-199.

Das, S. (2011) Systematics and taxonomic delimitation of vegetable,

grain and weed amaranths: a morphological and biochemical

approach. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. March 24

Grubben, G.J.H., (1994) Amaranthus L. In: Siemonsma JS, Piluek K

(eds.) Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 8. Vegetables.

PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Pp 82-86.

Law-Ogbomo KE, Ajayi SO (2009). Growth and yield performance of

Amaranthus cruentus infl uenced by planting density and

poultry manure application. Not. Bot. Hort. Agrobot.

Martirosyan, DM., Miroshnichenko, L.A., Kulakova ,S.N., Pogojeva,

A.V., Zoloedov. (2007) Amaranth oil application for coronary

heart disease and hypertension. Lipids in Health and Disease 6:

1.

Moosavi ,A., Tavakkol, Afshari, R., Sharif-Zadeh, F., Aynehband,

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A., (2009). Effect of seed priming on germination

characteristics, polyphenoloxidase, and peroxidase activities of

four amaranth cultivars. J. Food Agriculture & Environment

7(3&4): 353-358.

Moosavi, A., Tavakkol, Afshari, R., Sharif-Zadeh, F., Aynehband,

A., (2009) Seed priming to increase salt and drought stress

tolerance during germination in cultivated species of Amaranth.

Seed Sci. & Technol. 37: 781-785.

Pospisil, A., Pospisil, M., Macesic, D., Svecnjak, Z., (2009) Yield and

quality of forage sorghum and diff erent amaranth species

(Amaranthus spp.) biomass. Agriculturae Conspectus Scientifi

cus 74(2): 85-89.

Repo-Carrasco-Valencia, R., Hellström, J.K., Pihjava, J-M., Mattila,

P.H., (2010) Flavonoids and other phenolic compounds in

Andean indigenous grains: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa),

kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) and kiwicha (Amaranthus

caudatus). Food Chemistry 120: 128-133.

Shukla,S., Bhargava, A., Chatterjee ,A., Pandey, A.C., Mishra, B.K.,

(2010) Diversity in phenotypic and nutritional traits in vegetable

amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor), a nutritionally underutilized

crop. J. Sci. Food Agric. 90: 139-144.

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CHAPTER

7

OKRA

Pavan K. Patel1* and Dr. Khushbu D. Rathod2

1Ph.D. Research Scholar in Vegetable Science,

Department of Horticulture, B.A.C.A., AAU, Anand

2Ph.D. (Horticulture) in Fruit Science, Department of

Horticulture, B.A.C.A., AAU, Anand

*Corresponding Author Name:

Pavan K. Patel

Corresponding Author E-mail Id:

pavan26111997@gmail.com

Okra

Botanical name: - Abelmoschus esculantus Moench.

Family: - Malvaceae

Chromosome no.: - 2n=130

Edible Part: - Pod

Synonymous: - Bhindi, Bhendi, Dheras, Tori, Dhenrosh, Venda, Vendi

Safed tori, Benda Bendakaya, Vendaikkay, Bhinda,

Bhida, Okra, Bendekayi Ramturai, Tindisha,

Gandhmula, Babniyah, Bandaka, Ladies finger, Gumbo

(french), Youn-padi-si, Kachang-lindir.

Introduction

Okra, a prominent vegetable crop thriving in tropical and

subtropical regions, is commercially cultivated in various areas including

West Africa, India, Southeast Asia, southern United States, Brazil,

Turkey and northern Australia. In India, it holds a significant presence,

being extensively grown throughout the nation as a warm-season

vegetable crop appreciated for its tender, immature green characteristics.

Notably, it gains popularity in regions such as Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu as a winter crop. The global production of

okra reaches approximately 4 million tonnes, predominantly within

tropical, subtropical and Mediterranean climates. The current demand

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trends focus on canned and dehydrated okra fruits, contributing around

4% of total vegetable consumption in many developing nations

(Siemonsma, 1982a). Exploiting its export potential, India earns a

considerable revenue of around 102 crore rupees from fresh vegetable

exports, with approximately 65 crores (equivalent to 60% of total fresh

vegetables excluding potato, onion and garlic) attributed to okra.

Origin and distribution

Okra, a tropical vegetable originating in Ethiopia and extending

slightly northward to the Sudanese region, is reported to have thrived

along the Nile River. Dating back to the 13th century, this vegetable was

referred to as “Lady`s Finger” in English, “Gombo” in French, “Bhendi”

in Hindi and “Bamiah” in Arabic. The domestication of okra likely took

root in ancient Egypt, with traces reaching back to Neolithic times

(Charrier, 1984). The early 16th century saw the introduction of new

culinary treasures to North America, South America and the West Indies

through the African slave trade. The etymology of the term “okra”

remains uncertain; however, okra brought by Angolan slaves was termed

“Ochinggombo”, later abbreviated to “Ngombo”. In Louisiana, Indian

populations discovered okra`s thickening properties, utilizing it to enrich

a stew of vegetables and seafood, subsequently named “Gumbo”. During

the 17th century, black slaves transported okra to Brazil and Dutch

Guiana, where it seamlessly integrated into their cuisines, flourishing

within those tropical settings.

Currently, a collection of 3600 distinct accessions is upheld at

NBPGR, Issapur Farm (New Delhi) and Regional Station, Akola,

Maharashtra State. Within the genus Abelmoschus, 9 species are

documented (IBPGR, 1991). Among these, Abelmoschus moschatus and

A. nanihot exhibit semi-wild characteristics and a more extensive

diversity than the cultivated variants (Hamon and Hamon, 1991).

Notably, Abelmoschus moschatus stands apart morphologically and

genetically from the other species (Hamon and Yapo, 1986).

Geographically, species of Abelmoschus are widely distributed across

diverse regions of Asia and Africa, as explained in the tabular form

below.

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Worldwide distribution of Abelmoschus species

Species Ch. no. Distribution

Abelmoschus angulosus 2n=56 India, Sri Lanka

Abelmoschus tuberculatus 2n=58 India

Abelmoschus Manihot 2n=60-68 India, Sri Lanka

Abelmoschus moschatus 2n=72 India, Nepal, Sri

Lanka

Abelmoschus ficulneus 2n=72 India, Bangladesh

Abelmoschus esculentus 2n=124/130 Worldwide

Abelmoschus tetraphyllus or A.

tetraphyllus var. pungens

2n=138 India, Nepal, Sri

Lanka

Abelmoschus crinitus 2n=138 India, Sri Lanka

Abelmoschus caillei 2n=198 India

Charrier (1984)

Fig .1 Area and production of okra of different states of India (2020-

21)

Okra displays a global presence across tropical, sub-tropical and

warm temperate regions. Remarkably, India stands as the world's leading

producer of okra. Beyond India, this vegetable holds significant

cultivation status in regions such as Africa, Pakistan, Middle East,

Greece, Turkey, Caribbean region, South America and USA. In India,

the cultivation of okra spans approximately 523,000 hectares, yielding an

annual production of around 6.416 million metric tons. Notable states

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

GUJARAT WEST

BENGAL

MADHYA

PRADESH

BIHAR ODISHA

Area (000' ha) Production (000' MT)

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contributing to okra cultivation in India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha,

West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Assam (Anonymous,

2020-21). The distribution of West African okra is primarily confined to

tropical and sub-tropical climates within the African continent, situated

between the latitudes of 12°N and 12°S.

Use

Okra is cultivated primarily for its premature fruits, which find

common use as a culinary vegetable. These youthful fruits are

additionally recognized for their elevated mucilage content, making them

valuable for enhancing the consistency of soups, stews and sauces. In

certain cases, the fruits are sun-dried either whole or in sliced form for

preservation purposes. In Egypt, a blend of okra seed flour with maize

flour is consumed. Furthermore, the leaves of okra are also consumed as

a vegetable in select African nations.

The release of mucilage upon chopping renders okra a superb

natural thickening agent, often harnessed to enhance the texture of soups,

sauces, and vegetable stews. Its roots and stems yield a mucilaginous

substance which is used to clarify sugarcane juice, a process integral to

the production of jaggery or brown sugar (Chauhan, 1972).

The crude fibres derived from mature okra fruits and stems have

found extensive application within the paper industry. Mediterranean

countries and regions in the East utilize okra oil as a culinary medium.

Commercial

cultivated

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Furthermore, okra seeds have garnered significant attention as a

promising source of oil and protein, boasting an oil content of

approximately 18-20% and a crude protein content of 20-23%.

Occasionally, the seeds are roasted, ground and used as a coffee

substitute, particularly in Turkey (Mehta, 1959).

Botany

 Morphology:

 Stem: Okra plants are characterized by an erect growth habit.

As the plant matures, its stem becomes woody and somewhat

rigid. The main stem initiates branching from the base, giving

rise to lateral branches.

 Height: The typical height of okra plants ranges from 60 to 180

cm. However, specific varieties can attain exceptional heights of

up to 4 meters found in the central parts of Nepal.

 Leaves: The leaves of okra are palmatifid to palmatisect, which

means they have lobes that are divided into segments, giving

them a distinct and characteristic appearance. These leaves are

arranged alternately along the stem and are present at each node.

These leaves are present at each node, with a chordate base,

toothed (serrated) margins, and an acute apex, as detailed by

Bhat et al. in 1988.

 Leaf Structure: The base of the leaf is chordate, resembling the

shape of a heart. The leaf margins are toothed or serrated,

adding to the overall texture of the leaf. The apex of the leaf is

acute, featuring a pointed tip.

 Reproductive Structures:

 Pollination: Cross-pollination can occur at rates of up to 63%,

contingent upon environmental conditions and temperature.

Plant Flower Pod

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Consequently, okra is generally considered to be an often-cross-

pollinated crop.

 Flowers: Okra plants produce hermaphroditic flowers, meaning

each flower possesses both male (stamens) and female (pistil)

reproductive structures. The flowers are typically golden yellow

in colour. They emerge from the axils of the leaves and are

solitary in nature.

 Flower Arrangement: Okra flowers appear between the 3rd and

19th nodes following the style. They are positioned centrally and

surrounded by a stamen column. The anthers, which carry

pollen, are arranged concentrically in superimposed circles, with

about 5-6 anthers per circle.

 Pollen and Pollination: Pollen grains of okra are sticky,

allowing them to adhere to surfaces. During anthesis (flower

opening), pollen grains are not necessarily in direct contact with

the stigma, the receptive surface of the pistil. Instead, pollen

transfer occurs mechanically during the day, facilitated by the

elongation of the stamen column.

 Fruit and Seed Characteristics:

 Fruits: Okra produces distinctive fruit pods that are upright in

orientation. The fruits are typically ridged and exhibit a

characteristic shape. Each leaf axil on both the main stem and

lateral branches can bear erect fruits. In terms of composition,

the fruits are composed of around 55-62% pericarp, 30-40%

seeds and 1-11% axil, as indicated by Singh and Agarwal`s

research in 1988. The tender and fresh okra fruits are a rich

source of dietary fibre, carbohydrates, protein and vitamins (A,

B and C) along with essential minerals such as calcium,

potassium, phosphorus, sodium, sulphur and iron. Minimal

disparities exist between fresh and dried samples in terms of fat,

protein, carbohydrate, calcium, potassium and other mineral

content. However, dried samples experience significant vitamin

loss, particularly vitamin C and riboflavin, as highlighted by

Okoh in 1984. Notably, okra fruits are an exceptional source of

iodine which is a key element in the management of goitre.

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Table 1: Nutritional value of okra pod (As per 100 g)

(Aykroyd, 1963)

Water

89.6 g

Sulphur

30 mg

Dietary fibres

1.2 g

Iron

1.5 mg

Protein

1.9 g

Copper

0.19 mg

Carbohydrate

6.4 g

Vitamin

-A

88 µg

Fat

0.3 g

Thiamin

0.07 mg

Minerals

0.7 g

Riboflavin

0.6 mg

Calcium

66 mg

Niacin

0.60 mg

Phosphorus

56 mg

Ascorbic acid

13 mg

Sodium

6.9 mg

Oxalic acid

8 mg

Potassium

103 mg

Energy

K.cal

 Seed Characteristics: The seeds of okra are relatively large and

heavy, with an average weight of 50-60 grams per 1000 seeds.

They exhibit a light green to grey colour when of high quality.

The seeds vary in shape, ranging from round to reniform

(kidney-shaped).

 Seed Surface: The surface of the seeds can be glabrous

(smooth) or occasionally exhibit hirsute (hairy) or scattered

simple short hairs known as trichomes.

Climate

The crop demonstrates fundamental adaptability to tropical

climates, necessitating warm and humid conditions to optimize growth

and productivity. Its vulnerability to frost necessitates an extended frost-

free duration to establish a robust crop stand and achieve elevated yields.

Germination of the seeds is inhibited below 17°C, with the ideal

temperature for seed germination hovering around 30°C. Research

indicates that emergence of seeds takes 17 days at 20°C, 13 days at 25°C

and 7 days at 35°C (Siemonsma, 1982a). Reduce the plant growth and

fruiting above 34.5°C, while increase flower drops above 42°C day

temperature (Chauhan, 1972). Prolonged periods of rainfall prove

deleterious to the crop. The temperature range of 25° to 30°C offers the

most conducive environment for growth, flowering, and fruiting. A

majority of okra cultivars necessitate a brief photoperiod to trigger floral

bud formation (Nwoke, 1986). Optimal conditions for seed production

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encompass diminished precipitation, low relative humidity, and intense

luminosity coupled with dry weather during the seed maturation phase

(Singh et al., 1988).

Soil

Okra exhibits adaptability to a diverse range of soil types, with

optimal crop performance observed in sandy-loam to loam soil textures

characterized by substantial organic content and moderate water holding

capacity. Although viable cultivation can be achieved in denser soils, it

necessitates proficient drainage systems, especially during the rainy

season. To facilitate successful seed germination and growth, the soil is

ideally prepared to a depth of 20-25 cm, ensuring a fine tilth prior to

sowing. The most favourable soil pH range for optimal okra cultivation

is 6.0-7.5, while an ideal pH falling between 6.0 to 6.8.

Varieties

Varieties Developed through

IARI

Pusa Sawani Selection (IC 1542 × Pusa Makhamali)

Pusa A-4 Selection from Inter-varietal cross

IIVR

Kashi Lila Selection from (NIC 9305 × HRB 9-2) × IIVR-50

PAU

Panjab Padamini A. esculentus × A. manihot ssp manihot

Panjab No. 7 A. manihot ssp manihot × A. esculentus

Panjab 8 Mutation through EMS (Pusa Sawani)

IIHR

Arka Anamika Selection from inter-specific cross (A. esculentus

(IIHR 20-31) × A. tetraphyllus)

Arka Abhay Selection from inter-specific cross (A. esculentus

(IIHR 20-31) × A. tetraphyllus)

MAU

Parbhani Kranti Selection from inter-specific cross (A. esculentus

cv. Pusa Sawani × A. manihot)

CCS HAU

Hissar Unnat Selection (Selection 2-2 × Parbhani Kranti)

Varsha Upkar Selection (Lam selection 1 × Parbhani Kranti)

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Sowing time

The cultivation of okra involves two distinct sowing periods

within a given year in the northern and eastern regions of India. In

regions characterized by low elevation and resistance to frost, the initial

sowing phase takes place during the months of February and March,

primarily targeting the summer crop cycle.

The optimal timeframe for this activity spans from the 15th

February-15th March. Subsequently, the secondary sowing period is

undertaken from 25th May-15th July. Mostly observed the lower

susceptibility to the yellow vein mosaic virus when contrasted with those

sown in July. In hilly region, the sowing window extends from April to

July, while cultivation of okra year-round, including the winter months in

the southern regions of India. Among the three growing seasons (winter,

spring-summer and rainy season), the highest yield of pods is attained

during the rainy season which are followed by the spring-summer

season. In a study conducted by Raghav in 1996, the cultivar Pusa

Sawani achieved its peak green pod yield (57.32 quintals per hectare)

when sown on the 1st March.

Seed rate

The seed rate is depending upon seasonal conditions and

germination percentage. Seeds displaying a germination rate of 80-90 %

necessitate a seed quantity of 18 to 22 kilograms per hectare for spring

season and 8 to 10 kilograms per hectare for sowing during the rainy

season. Conversely, an extra early crop, sown in early February,

demands a higher seed rate of 30 kilograms per hectare due to

suboptimal seed germination.

Seed treatment

The outer covering of the seed is tough, so it requires more

water and time to start growing. Usually, if you put the seeds in warm

water for a day before planting, it helps them start growing better. But if

you're planting them in early spring, after you soak the seeds and wrap

them in cloth, keep them in warm places until they begin to sprout. This

method makes the seeds grow faster and stops them from decaying in the

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soil because they were there for a long time. Before you plant them, treat

the seeds with substances like Captan, Thiram, Captafol, or Foltaf @ 2.5

to 3.0 grams per kilogram of seeds. This will stop diseases that can harm

the seeds and prevent them from rotting in the soil. Also, remove any

seeds that float in water because they're not good for planting.

Sowing

Seeds are typically sown at intervals of 15 to 30 cm along the ridges,

which themselves are spaced 30 to 45 cm apart. This particular sowing

technique, while effective, is associated with higher costs and a

significant investment of time. Alternatively, a flat field can be utilized

for sowing, with rows spaced 30 to 45 cm apart, the specific distance

contingent upon the prevailing season and the variety of okra being

cultivated. In the rainy season, the optimal inter-line separation should be

45 cm, whereas during the summer, a narrower distance of 30 cm is

advised. The plant-to-plant distance may vary within the range of 15 to

45 cm. It is recommended that the seeds be sown at a depth of 2.5 cm.

For optimal early germination, seeds are sown at a depth of 3-4 cm.

Ridge-bed method: During the rainy season, this approach proves more

advantageous compared to the flatbed sowing method, serving to

mitigate the risk of damage caused by undesirable flooding conditions.

Within this technique, two seeds are carefully inserted into the ridges'

peripheries, at a depth ranging approximately from 2.0 to 2.5 cm. This

method contributes to a consistent supply of water to the plants,

facilitating uniform growth. Furthermore, it aids in the prudent

conservation of water resources during periods of dryness, concurrently

addressing weed-related concerns and facilitating efficient water

drainage during excess rainy spells. Notably, in soils characterized by

salinity, the practice of sowing seeds alongside the ridges' flanks

augments both germination rates and seedling development. This

positive outcome arises due to the systematic irrigation channels, which

effectively diminish the salt concentration at the base of the ridges by

countering the salt accumulation process occurring at the ridge's upper

surface during evaporation.

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Flatbed method: This technique finds applicability in regions

characterized by well-drained, light-textured soils with a balanced pH,

lacking susceptibility to water stagnation and equipped with ample

irrigation resources. While particularly effective for cultivating crops

during the spring-summer period, its suitability during the rainy season is

considerably limited. Within flatbed cultivation, various methods for

seed placement are employed across different geographical locations,

including broadcasting, line sowing, or dibbling techniques (Singh and

Bhagehandani, 1967). Among these approaches, line sowing is preferred

over broadcasting due to its facilitation of both weeding and harvesting

procedures.

Plant spacing

The inter-row and intra-row spacing in okra cultivation exhibit

variability based on the diversity of cultivars utilized, the time of sowing

and soil fertility levels. Typically, for the spring-summer crop sown

during March-April, the recommended arrangement for open-pollinated

varieties is 45×30 cm. However, for early spring-summer crops, Singh

and Bhagchandani (1967) advised a distance of 30×15 cm. Anonymous

(1983) discovered that the optimal spacing for the rainy season crop is

between 45-60 cm between rows and 25-30 cm between plants. Given

the greater branching tendencies of hybrids, a wider spacing of 60×40 cm

is employed for rainy season sowing. In the specific environmental

conditions of Coimbatore, Kamalanathan et al. (1970) determined that a

spacing of 60×20 cm yielded better results for both stand and yield of

okra crops. For seed production, Ludhiana and Faizabad favoured a

spacing of 30×20 cm, Hisar advocated 45×15 cm and under Himachal

Pradesh conditions, 60×45 cm spacing proved effective.

Manures and fertilizers

The requirement of manures and fertilizers needed is influenced

by the soil type. Under usual circumstances, it's recommended to

incorporate 20-25 tonnes per hectare of farmyard manure during the final

harrowing. Furthermore, for medium soil types, about 100-150 kg of

nitrogen, 50-60 kg of phosphorus, and 40-60 kg of potash per hectare are

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necessary. Half of the nitrogen should be administered as a basal dose,

while the remaining half, along with the full quantities of phosphorus and

potash, should be applied around 35 to 40 days after seed sowing.

Use of Plant Growth Substances

The application of growth regulators has been documented as a

means to enhance vegetative growth and improve both early and overall

yield. A single foliar application of Cycocel (CCC) at a concentration of

100 ppm has been shown to enhance early and total yield by reducing the

time taken for flowering and increasing the number of pods per plant, as

evidenced by Zayed et al. (1985). Treating seeds with a 100 ppm

solution and applying Cycocel via foliar spraying at a concentration of

500 ppm has been found to delay the onset of yellow vein mosaic virus

during the rainy season, when compared to untreated control plants,

according to Arora et al. (1990). The yield increase can be attributed to

the restrained vegetative growth, which promotes favourable yield and

yield-related characteristics.

Irrigation and drainage

Ensure the optimal seed germination through the applied pre-

sowing irrigation. The frequency and volume of irrigation vary according

to the crop's growing season and the characteristics of the soil. For

instance, advisable to irrigate the crop every fifth day in the summer

months, while irrigation should be limited to instances of insufficient

rainfall during the rainy season. It's important to note that excessive

water during this period can negatively impact the crop, underscoring the

necessity for effective drainage arrangements.

Weed control

During both growing seasons, the crop experiences significant

challenges from weed growth. To ensure a higher yield and top-notch

quality, it's imperative to keep the crop weed-free during its initial stages.

Consequently, performing three to four rounds of weeding at intervals of

10 to 15 days is recommended, with the frequency determined by the

weed infestation level. Another method to manage weeds involves

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utilizing the basalin weedicide. This chemical can be applied by

dissolving 1.0 kg per 1000 litres of water. The resulting solution is then

sprayed over one hectare of land and thoroughly mixed into the soil prior

to seed sowing.

Harvesting

Harvesting of pods should take place during their premature and

green stage when they have reached a suitable size for consumption. This

size varies across different cultivars, typically ranging from 5 to 20 cm.

In a similar vein, findings by Singh et al. (2003) emphasize that for

optimal yield and nutritional value, pods should be collected 6-9 days

after their formation. In the rainy season crop, pod growth occurs rapidly,

enabling harvesting intervals as short as 24 to 48 hours. Delaying the

harvest leads to the development of fibrous and overripe pods that lack

desirable edible quality. Such subpar fruits fetch lower prices in the

market, resulting in reduced income for the cultivators. Throughout the

crop cycle, harvesting is typically carried out in ten to fifteen rounds. The

ideal pod length for harvesting purposes ranges between 8 to 10 cm.

Yield

The crop yield is influenced by the prevailing agro-climatic

conditions, the specific cultivar, and the agronomic techniques employed

during its cultivation. On average, the summer crop yields approximately

50 to 75 quintals of green pods per hectare, whereas the rainy season

crop can yield a higher range of 100 to 125 quintals per hectare.

Packaging and storage

After the harvest, it is advisable to store the pods in a sheltered

area. Damaged, diseased, and overly mature pods should be eliminated

from the selection. Longer pods are more suitable for the fresh market.

The chosen pods can be packed into baskets or gunny bags based on the

intended market quantity. Employing packaging helps to preserve the

green hue of the fruits for a more extended period compared to

unpackaged ones. When immature and mature fruits are placed in

polyethylene film bags and stored at a temperature of 11±2°C, their shelf

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life and appealing appearance can be extended to 5 and 7 days,

respectively.

For storage, the preferred practice involves cooling the fruits

before placing them in jute bags or baskets, which are then covered or

sewn shut. Sprinkling water over the pods helps to maintain their cool

and fresh state. At room temperature, pods can be stored for 2 to 3 days

by sprinkling water on them during the day and at night. Alternatively,

when stored at a temperature of 0°C to 2°C with a relative humidity of 60

to 75 percent, the pods can be preserved for 8 to 10 days. Similarly, at

temperatures of 7-10°C and a relative humidity of 90-95%, they can be

stored for 7-10 days (Welby and McGregor, 1997).

For Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storage, pods can be preserved

with 5% O2 and 10% CO2. For export purposes, paper cartons of

appropriate sizes (5-8 kg) are preferred. Pre-cooled fruits are packed into

these cartons and transported, preferably in refrigerated vehicles. The

primary aim of okra pod storage is to retain their original colour, texture,

and weight.

In some developing countries in Africa and Asia, sun drying of

okra pods is a common practice for off-season consumption. The typical

procedure involves sun-drying whole or sliced pods for 7-10 days to

reduce moisture content to 5%. Solar dryers can also be utilized for

dehydrating whole or sliced okra pods. Employing pre-drying methods

such as sulfiting and salting can help maintain 92% mucilage and 72%

colour retention in okra fruits (Echetama, 1991).

Insect-pest

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum)

Symptoms: -

 Transmitted through the soil and affects plants. Leaves turning

yellow and the plants not growing properly. The fungus attacks

the roots, hindering the uptake of water and nutrients from the

soil. Eventually, the entire plant wilts and perishes. Infected

stem, you'll notice the vascular tissues have turned brown.

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Control: -

 Eradicate and dispose of any plants affected by the disease.

Apply a treatment of Carbandazim or Mancozeb @ 3 g/kg of

seeds and administer a soil drench of copper oxychloride @ 3

g/lit. of water to the soil.

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium alboatrum)

Symptoms: - Plants exhibit a yellowing of mature leaves, which

frequently takes on a scorched appearance, especially along the edges of

the leaves, and this is usually followed by the plant drooping or wilting.

Control: - To reduce the occurrence of the disease, refrain from planting

okra in soils known to be infected with Verticillium. Take measures to

eliminate and dispose of plants that show signs of the disease.

Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora abelnoschi and C. malayensisi)

Symptoms: - Cercospora leaf spot becomes a significant issue in humid

weather. In the case of C. abelmoschi, it leads to the development of

small angular spots that range in color from brown to deep black.

Meanwhile, C. malayensisi causes brown angular spots to form on both

leaf surfaces. When infections are severe, both types of leaf spot diseases

can cause leaves to drop prematurely.

Control: - Apply a crop spray using either 500 grams of Bavistan per

hectare, or a solution of copper oxychloride at a concentration of 0.3

percent, or Indofil M-45 or Dithane Z-78 at 0.2 percent. It is

recommended to repeat the spray every 14 days.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum)

Symptoms: - The disease exhibits greater severity in South Indian

conditions. Leaves display a white-grey powdery coating on both their

upper and lower surfaces. Leaves that are severely affected demonstrate

yellowing, rolling upwards, and eventually shedding.

Control: - Clear the area surrounding the crop field of any alternate host

plants. Apply a weekly spray to the crop using wettable sulfur, Bavistin,

or Benlate at a concentration of 0.2 percent.

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Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris)

Symptoms: - Initially, water-soaked lesions emerge on the underside of

the leaves. These lesions later turn brown with dark brown edges,

increasing in size and adopting angular and irregular shapes.

Control: - There is no effective control measure for bacterial leaf spot.

Yellow vein mosaic virus

Symptoms: - The disease is transmitted through the insect vector

whitefly (Bemisia tabaci). The distinctive symptom of this disease is the

clearing of veins. At first, the veins turn yellow, and eventually, the

entire leaf displays pronounced yellowing. The veins undergo thickening,

causing the plants to become stunted and yield a limited number of

small, yellowish-green fruits.

Control: - Opting for the cultivation of cultivars resistant to yellow vein

mosaic is a more feasible method for controlling the disease.

Nevertheless, the presence of the insect vector can be reduced by

applying systemic pesticides such as Malathion 50 EC at a rate of 14

liters per hectare. Additionally, eliminate alternative host plants from the

surroundings of okra fields.

Nematodes (Meloidog yne javanica and M. incognita)

Symptoms: - Nematodes induce the development of galls on the lateral

roots, which hampers the plants' capacity to absorb nutrients. This results

in the plants appearing feeble, unwell, and exhibiting stunted growth.

Control: - Avoid planting okra in nematode infested soils and grow

resistant varieties.

Insect-pests and their Control

Jassid/ leafhopper (Amrasca biggutula biggutula)

Symptoms: - This pest is known for its wide-ranging diet, affecting

Spotted

bollworm

Red spider

mite

Whitefly Jassid/

leafhopper

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various plants, and both its nymphs and adults feed by extracting cell

sap. Leaves that are impacted turn yellow and exhibit curling upwards

along their tips and edges. When infestations are particularly severe, the

leaves can even take on a brick-red hue and become brittle, potentially

leading to defoliation.

Control: - Apply a crop spray using either Malathion 50 EC at a rate of

1.25 liters per hectare or Confidor at 0.5 grams per liter of water. If the

issue persists, it's advisable to reapply the spray every two weeks.

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

Symptoms: - This pest has a varied diet and causes harm to crops

through its cell sap-sucking behavior. It also excretes honeydew,

fostering the growth of sooty mold, and acts as a carrier for the yellow

vein mosaic virus. The severity of this pest increases notably during hot

and arid weather conditions.

Control: - Apply a crop spray using either Metasystox 25EC or Rogor

30EC (dimethoate) at a dosage of 750 ml per hectare, or Confidor at a

concentration of 0.5 grams per liter of water. If the issue persists, it is

recommended to reapply the spray every ten days.

Red spider mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus and T. neocaledonicus)

Symptoms: - Mites pose a significant threat during periods of hot and

arid weather, causing harm to crops through their cell sap-sucking

activity. These minuscule red insects are observed beneath finely woven

nets on the undersides of leaves. The upper surfaces of leaves display

numerous white spots. When infestations become severe, extensive

webbing develops, which collects dust particles and might lead to the

shedding of leaves.

Control: - Remove the insects by washing them away with plain water

using a high-pressure spray pump. If necessary, apply a crop spray using

Metasystox 25EC at a rate of 625 ml per hectare.

Spotted bollworm (Earias vittella)

Symptoms: - The spotted bollworm primarily harms the growing tips,

causing the young shoots to hang downwards. Impacted plants respond

by producing lateral shoots, resulting in a dense, bushy look. Fruits that

come under bollworm attack display holes, deformation, and reduced

size.

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Control: - Eliminate and dispose of shoots and fruits that are infested.

Avoid planting okra near cotton or other alternative host crops. Apply a

crop spray using Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvelerate) at a rate of 250 ml per

hectare, or Confidor at 0.5 grams per liter of water. Initiate spraying at

the onset of flowering and repeat every two weeks.

References

Anonymous (1983). Package of Practices for Kharif Crops of Punjab.

Punjab Agricultural (Punjab).

Anonymous (2021-22). Indian Horticulture Database, National

Horticulture Board, Gurugram.

Arora. S. K, Dhankar, B. S. and Sharma, N. K. (1990). Effect of Cycocel

and NAA on vegetative flowering, fruit set and incidence of

YVMV of okra. Res. Dev. Rep., 7, 123-129.

Aykroyd W. R. (1963). The Nutritive Value of Indian Foods and the

Planning of Satisfactory Diets. ICMR Special Report Series, No.

42.

Bhat, R. B., Inamdar, J. A. and Weber, D. J. (1988). Leaf architecture of

some Molvaceae. Angewandte Botanik, 62, 135-146.

Charrier, A. (1984). Genetic resources of the genus Abelmoschus Med,

(okra, English translation). IBPGR.

Chauhan, D. V. S. (1972). Vegetable Production in India (3rd Edn.). Ram

Prasad and Sons, Agra.

Eenetama, J. K. (1991). Development of sun-dried okra product (using a

seesaw solar drier). Tech. bull. Nat. Hort. Res. Inst., Ibadan, 15,

16.

Gupta, A. (1990). Response of spring planted okra to bring varying

levels of irrigation and plant spacing. Veg. Sci., 17, 16-19.

Hamon, S. and Hamon, P. (1991). Future prospects of the genetic

integrity of two species of okra (Abeimoschis esculentus and

Abelmoschus caillei) cultivated in West Africa. Euphytica, 58,

101-111.

Hamon, S. and Yapo, A. (1986). Perturbation induced within the genus

Abelmoschus by the discovery of a second edible okra species in

West Africa. Acta Horticulturae, 182, 133-143.

IBPGR (1991). Report on international workshop on okra genetic

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resources. IBPGR, Rome, PP. 2-3, 8-12.

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(L.) Moench). Madras Agri. J., 57(1), 10-17.

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Abelmoschus esculents (L.) Moench. J. PI. Physiol., 125: 417-

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Saimbhi, M. S., Singh, D., Sandhu, K. S., Kooner, K. S. and Dhillon, N.

P. (1997). Effect of plant spacing on fruit yield in okra. Agri. Sci.

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Thesis Univ. Wageningen, the Netherlands.

Singh, G., Singh, H. and Singh, G. (1988). Effect of simulated rains on

seed quality of okra cultivars. seed Res., 16, 226-228.

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of root-knot nematode (Melotdogyte incognita) through mahua

(Madhuca indica) oil-seed cake and/or fungal bioagent

Aspergillus fumigatus in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). Pl.

Archives, 3(1), 57-61.

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and chemical composition of okra plants as affected by some

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CHAPTER

8

TURNIP

Harshavardhan Mohan Totawar1*, Madhan

Gowda S.1 and Harish Kumar1

1Division of Vegetable Science SKUAST-K,

Shalimar, Srinagar-190025

*Corresponding Author Name:

Harshavardhan Mohan Totawar

Corresponding Author E-mail Id:

harshavardhantotawar@gmail.com

Abstract

The brief overview gives information on modern turnip producing

methods (Brassica rapa subsp. rapa). It emphasises cutting-edge

techniques such as precision agriculture, biotechnology-driven breeding,

controlled environment agriculture (CEA), and data-driven approaches.

These innovations optimise resource use, improve crop resilience, and

assure consistent harvests. Integrating technologies like GIS, GPS, and

remote sensing allows for more precise resource management. Marker-

assisted selection and genetic modification are two biotechnological

approaches that increase resistance and nutritional content. CEA

techniques such as hydroponics and vertical farming allow for year-

round growing while using less resources. IoT and automation-based

data-driven solutions improve real-time monitoring and labour

efficiency. This abstract highlights how new production methods are

transforming turnip agriculture, improving sustainability and

productivity in order to fulfil global demand.

Keywords: Agriculture, IPM, precision agriculture, turnip.

Scientific Cultivation of Turnip

1. Common name: Shalgom.

2. Scientific Name: Brassica rapa

3. Family: Brassicaceae.

4. Chromosome no.: 2n= 2x = 20

5. Closely related species: Brassica rapa var. napobrassica

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6. Origin: Turnips are said to have started off as a crop in the colder

regions of Europe, perhaps from biennial oilseed varieties. The crop

has been grown since antiquity, and at the start of the Christian era, it

was known to the Greeks and Romans. The Romans brought it from

France to Britain, and in the 17th century, early European settlers

brought it to North America.

7. Geographical Distribution: The oldest Brassica rapa vegetable is

the turnip. Through trade routes, it is said to have spread from middle

east and persia to South-East Asia and Africa. Brassica rapa, often

known as neep crops, has a vast range of variations that have

developed in various regions of the Eurasian continent. The turnip is

regarded as a well-known healthy root vegetable in Eastern America,

Asia, and Europe. It was grown as a staple diet in ancient Rome and

Greece (Lo Scalzo et al., 2008).

8. Economic Importance: Turnips are low in fat and calories yet

abundant in fibre and vitamin C, which sums up their nutritional

worth for human consumption. The following may be found in one

cup (156 grammes) of diced turnips that have been prepared, boiled,

and drained without the addition of any other ingredients: 146.02 g of

water, 34 calories, 1.11 g of protein, 0.2 g of fat, 7.89 g of carbs, 3.1

g of fibre, 4.66 g of sugar, 51 mcg of calcium, 0.28 mcg of iron, 14

mcg of magnesium, 41 mcg of phosphorus, 276 mcg of potassium, 25

mcg of sodium, 0.19 mcg of zinc, 18.1 milligrammes of vitamin C,

0.3 milligrammes of selenium, 0.111 milligrammes of manganese,

0.003 milligrammes of copper, and 0.042 milligrammes of thiamine

(nal, USDA). The fibre, potassium, and vitamin C in turnips are all

located in the root. In addition to Vitamin C, folate, beta-carotene,

lutein, and zeaxanthin, which are all typical antioxidants, the greens

also include Vitamins A and K. Zeaxinthin and lutein have "shown

promise in combating macular degeneration and cataracts in the

eyes." Additionally, research suggests that turnips and other members

of the Brassica family contain a chemical that "induces the death of

cancer cells," making them potentially protective against colon, lung,

prostate, and stomach cancers. (Golub. C, 2007)

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9. Botany of flower and fruits: The hypocotyl is the fleshy, thicker

subterranean section of the turnip. The cultivars affect the colour and

shape of this subterranean section, and the roots can range in shape

from flat to globular to top-shaped and lengthy. While the above-

ground section may be red, white, yellow, or green, the below-

ground portion may be either white or yellow. The lowest portion of

the swelling hypocotyl gives birth to a unique tap root and

subsidiary roots. The centre region of the hypocotyl thickens first,

then the upper and lower regions. Depending on the cultivar and

climatic circumstances, the roots often reach culinary maturity in

40–80 days. The petioles and leaves have coarse hairs and a

yellowish-green tint. Depending on the cultivar and stage of

development, the leaves might be whole, serrated, or even pinnate.

Early-formed leaves are less likely to be pinnate. The inflorescence's

leaves are alternating, oblong-lanceolate, and either whole or

dentate. On the main stem, the inflorescence is a terminal raceme.

10. Type of pollination: Brassica flowers are hermaphrodite and are

borne in racemes. The stigma is receptive for around five days

before to anthesis and up to four days following anthesis, and during

this time frame cross pollination is required. These flowers open in

the early hours of the day, and a few hours later the anthers dehisce

revealing their pollen.( J. Bano, 2020)

11. Soil: Turnip may be cultivated in a variety of soil types, but prefers

well-drained loam and sandy loam soils with enough humus. It takes

a lot of nutrients to sustain fast development in a short period of

time. Extremely light sandy soils and too heavy soils should be

avoided. Plant development is slowed or forked in such soils, and

faulty roots emerge that are unfit for market. The ideal soil pH range

is 5.5-6.8.

12. Climate and season: A cool, moist environment is ideal for

cultivating turnips. It may, however, be cultivated in areas with

moderate summers. At a temperature of 10-15°C, the roots acquire

the optimum flavour, texture, and size. The short day length and cold

conditions encourage optimal root growth. The long day and high

temperature cause early bolting even in the absence of substantial

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root growth. Roots become fibrous, stiff, and smelly in hot

temperatures. Asiatic kinds can withstand high temperatures, whilst

temperate forms develop quickly and thrive in chilly climates.

13. Cultivars: European or temperate varieties:

Pusa Swarnima: This cultivar was created by crossing

Asiatic (Japanese White) and European (Golden Ball) types,

followed by selection. They have a flattish circular shape, are 6-7 cm

long and 7-8 cm in diameter, and have a creamy-yellow skin and

pale-amber flesh with a delicate texture and mild flavour. It has a

medium top and a leaf blade that is not deeply carved. It may be

grown from June to October in the hills and from October to

December on the lowlands. It takes 65-70 days to mature.

Purple top white globe: The most popular and commonly

cultivated temperate group type. It is a high-yielding, deep-rooted

cultivar. The roots are roughly spherical, with a brilliant reddish top

half and a creamy bottom portion. White, firm, crisp, and delicately

flavoured meat. The top is tiny and upright, with chopped leaves. It

is best suited for growing during the colder months.

Pusa Chandrima: This was created by hybridization of

Asian and European species. Its roots are medium to big in size, 8-9

cm long, with a nearly flattened globe to globular skin and fine

grains. The meat is delicate and delicious. Top is medium, and the

leaves are not deeply cut. It is a heavy cropper that matures early

(50-60 days) and has an average yield of 40 tonnes/ha. It is suited for

sowing on plains from October to December.

Asiatic or tropical varieties:

Pusa Sweti: It has wonderful white roots that are medium in

size, spherical, and slightly flattish in shape. The flesh is white,

delicate, fine-grained, and moderately aromatic. It is a fairly early

maturing cultivar (matures in 45-60 days after sowing) and is best

suited for plains seeding in September and October.

Punjab Safed 4: A variety of an indigenous cultivar

produced in Punjab and Haryana. It is a cultivar that matures early;

the roots are pure white, spherical, and medium in size, with a

moderate flavour. The average production is 20 tonnes per acre.

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Turnip L 1: Round, pure white roots that are smooth,

rattailed, and crisp with a moderate flavour. The roots mature in 45-

60 days, and the leaves are upright, medium in size, and dark green

in colour. Its average production is 26 tonnes per hectare.

14. Field preparation:

The land preparation process for turnip is the same as for

radish. Asiatic turnips are planted from July to September, whereas

European turnips are planted from October to December on India's

northern plains. Sowing season in the highlands is typically from

July through September. Its seeds are planted straight in lines or on

ridges. Normally, level beds are used for turnip seeding, however in

low-lying areas or during the rainy season, sowing should be done

on ridges. Thinning is usually done 10-15 days after germination.

Within each row, the plants are placed cm apart. Approximately 90-

95% of seeds germinate. Bold seeds germinate faster than medium

seeds. It takes 4-6 days for seeds to germinate. Under ideal storage

circumstances, seeds can last for 4-5 years.

15. Method of sowing: Seeds are planted on ridges or rows 30 cm apart,

with a row spacing of 5-7 cm. Seeds are planted 1.5 cm deep. To

ensure equal planting, seeds might be blended with sand or ash.

16. Seed rate: General seed rate is 3-4 kg/ha.

17. Nutrient management: The amount of manure and fertiliser to be

applied is determined by climate, fertility condition, pH level, and

soil texture. The precise timing of application is also critical for

maximum plant nutrient absorption and a fair crop. Different NPK

dosages have been proposed for India's diverse agroclimatic zones.

However, during field preparation, a base dosage of 20-25 tonnes/ha

of farmyard manure should be administered. This is reinforced by

the application of 70-100 kg of N and 50 kg/ha of P and K. Before

sowing, apply the full amount of P, K, and half of the N. Before

planting, phosphatic and potassium fertilisers are applied 7-8 cm

deep. Micronutrient requirements are nearly identical to those of

radish. Turnip has a higher B, Ca, and Mo intake. There are several

micronutrient formulations on the market that can be employed

based on the insufficiency.

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18. Irrigation : The crop is typically watered every 8-15 days,

depending on weather conditions. The rise in moisture stress has a

significant impact on its yield. As a result, by irrigating the crop at

the appropriate time, the crop retains the optimal necessary moisture.

19. Weed management and interculture operation: To keep the crop

weed-free and to retain moisture, around 2-3 hoeings are performed.

Thinning is a necessary activity for maintaining an optimal plant

population. To generate superior quality roots, earthing-up is done

during the second and third hoeings following top dressing with

nitrogenous fertilisers. Typically, 2-3 weedings are performed till the

crop is harvested. However, near the end of crop development, fully

grown leaves also inhibit weed growth. Mulching lowers fertiliser

loss by 25%, conserves soil moisture by 50%, controls weeds, and

regulates soil temperature.

20. Crop protection measures: Use of tolerant and resistant cultivars

is recommended to control the damage through insect pest and

diseases. Crop rotation in the fields were previous crop is brinjal.

Use of organic pesticides and fungicides with combination with

synthetic pesticide and fungicides to reduce the total dependence on

synthetic chemicals. Spraying of neem products, use of bio-pesticide

, natural oil are found to be effective on the infestation and

prevention of insect-pest. (Ghosh, 2022).

21. Harvesting and storage : Turnip tender roots are plucked out by

hand when they reach marketable size, before they become over

grown and spongy. Within 6-8 weeks of seeding, it is ready for

uprooting. Depending on the type, the roots are often taken when

they are 5-10 cm in diameter. If the harvest is delayed, the roots

become rough and fibrous. Harvesting should take place in the

evening. The typical output is 20-40 tonnes per hectare, which varies

according on variety, growing season, and management practises.

Turnips are collected roots and green tips together and thoroughly

rinsed to eliminate adherent dirt. To improve their look, the side

roots are clipped. These are delivered to the market in baskets, either

with green tips or after being chopped off around the crown's

surface. When bunched for market, a portion of the foliage is

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eliminated by stripping off old and damaged leaves. To give the

roots an appealing look on the market, they are graded according to

colour, shape, and size. Turnips are rated according to their outward

appearance, size, and faults. These are then promptly delivered to

the market and discarded. Under cold and moist circumstances, the

roots can be securely preserved for 2-3 days. It may, however, be

kept at 0°C and 90-95% relative humidity for 8-16 weeks. Dipping

the roots in hot paraffin reduces respiration, slows shrinking, and

enhances appearance significantly.

22. Yield: the yield ranges from 20-25 t/ha.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the application of advanced production technologies has

significantly transformed turnip cultivation. The sector has improved

efficiency, sustainability, and yield stability through precision

agriculture, biotechnology breakthroughs, controlled environment

agriculture, and data-driven initiatives. These inventions handle resource

constraints, climatic unpredictability, and changing customer

expectations. Turnip producers may optimise resource allocation and

crop attributes by combining GIS, GPS, remote sensing, and

biotechnology. Controlled environment procedures offer year-round

consistency while reducing environmental effect. The use of IoT and

automation improves agricultural practises by allowing for real-time

monitoring and efficient labour management. Turnip farming is prepared

to fulfil future needs for nutritious, tasty, and ecologically conscientious

crops as production technology evolves, highlighting the critical role of

technology in influencing the future.

References

Golub, Catherine. “Be Thankful for Turnips: November Nutrition.”

Environmental Nutrition Nov 2007: 8.

http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

Jasra Bano, Muneer A. S, Barkat H., S Hakeem, Sushil K. and Ajaz.

2020 Foraging behaviour of pollinators of turnip (Brassica rapa)

in Kashmir Himalayas. Journal of Entomology and Zoology

Studies ; 8(4):600-602.

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Lo Scalzo, R., Genna, A., Branca, F., Chedin, M., & Chassaigne, H.

(2008). Anthocyanin composition of cauliflower (Brassica

Lo Scalzo, R., Genna, A., Branca, F., Chedin, M., & Chassaigne, H.

(2008). Anthocyanin composition of cauliflower (Brassica

Lo Scalzo, R., Genna, A., Branca, F., Chedin, M., & Chassaigne, H.

(2008). Anthocyanin composition of cauliflower (Brassica

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(2008). Anthocyanin composition of cauliflower (Brassica

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stability in relation to thermal treatments. Food

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stability in relation to thermal treatments. Food

R. Lo Scalzo, A. Genna, F. Branca, M. Chedin, H. Chassaigne,

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SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES FOR FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CROPS

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