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Göbekli Tepe is well-known for its monumental buildings with anthropomorphic T-shaped pillars, decorated with reliefs of wild animals which have been featured prominently in earlier works. The abandonment which occurred some 1500 years after the initial occupation of the site, however, remains virtually unexplored. This paper attempts to reconstruct abandonment practices and routines within and parallel to phases of occupation. A crucial source of data for the abandonment of Göbekli Tepe is provided by considerations relating to site formation, including the topography of the site with its mounds, steep slopes, and hollows where strong winter rainfalls potentially favoured erosional processes. I clearly oppose the widespread yet outdated interpretation of ‘ritual backfilling’ of the monumental buildings. Instead, I propose that the inhabitants of the Neolithic settlement were strongly intertwined with their landscape and built environment, which is reflected by the continuous rebuilding of structures as a response to slope slide events, the use of ruins for extracting recycled building material, and the creation of memory spaces by following a specific habitus. I argue that by applying microarchaeological approaches and the social sphere of ‘detachment from place’ the heterogeneity of settlement layout can be reconstructed by including the engagement of ancient people with ruins, abandonment, and memory.
In: Christian W. Hess and Federico Manuelli (eds.) Bridging the Gap: Disciplines, Times, and Spaces in Dialogue Vol. 1. Sessions 1, 2, and 5 from the Conference Broadening Horizons 6 held at the Freie Universität Berlin, 24–28 June 2019, p. 212–239. Oxford: Archaeopress Access Archaeology.
Open Access full volume:
https://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/displayProductDetail.asp?id={2BAEAD08-B78C-4945-A482-66588CEDED48}
Southeast Anatolia is home to some of the earliest and most spectacular Neolithic sites associated with the beginning of cultivation and herding in the Old World. In this article we present new archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological data from Gusir Höyük, an aceramic Neolithic habitation dating to the 12th-late 11th millennia cal BP. Our results show selective use of legume crop progenitors and nuts during the earlier part of this period, followed by the management of cereal and legume crop progenitors from the mid-11th millennium cal BP. This contrasts with data available from other Anatolian habitations indicating broad spectrum plant use with low crop progenitor inputs. Early aceramic Neolithic Anatolian plant and animal exploitation strategies were site-specific, reflecting distinctive identities and culinary choices rather than environmental constraints. A multivariate evaluation of wheat grain metrics alongside botanical and radiometric data indicate that early wheat domestication in southeast Anatolia occurred at a faster pace than predicted by current hypotheses for a protracted transition to farming in Southwest Asia. We argue that this phenomenon is best explained as a corollary of the increasing importance of cereals in feasting at southeast Anatolian sites characterised by increasing architectural complexity and elaboration during the 11th millennium cal BP.
This study analyzes the wheat farming activities currently carried out by some rural communities in south-eastern Anatolia. The region is in the northern part of the so-called Fertile Crescent, which played a crucial role 10,500 years ago in domestication of wheat, Triticum monococcum L. and Triticum dicoccon (Schrank) Schübl. in particular. Ethnobotanical investigations were conducted between November 2013 and July 2014 in the rural areas of the provinces of Diyarbakır, Mardin, Şırnak and Elazığ. All the examined locations were documented at all stages of the wheat cultivation, except for the preparation of soil. Certain similar agricultural techniques between the contemporary villagers and the prehistoric communities were recorded. In particular, in some villages, silos made exclusively with earth, stones and tree branches, the same types of materials also used during the prehistoric period, were documented. It was also demonstrated that there has existed a continuous exchange of seeds even at long distances through specialized harvesters. This exchange has allowed transmission of cultivation techniques, which are thought to have also existed in the prehistoric period. In addition, manual harvesting was also documented. Based on ethnobotanical observations, it is proposed that manual harvesting was also used during the prehistoric period. During the research, it was observed that women were the protagonists at all stages of production of cereals, from sowing to harvest. Hence, it is suggested that women may have played a leading role in agricultural activities during the prehistoric period, starting from the Neolithic.
In the last decade, our understanding of rice domestication has improved by new archaeological findings using advanced analytical techniques such as morphological and morphometric analyses on rice grains, spikelet bases and phytoliths, and ancient DNA analysis on rice remains. Previous studies have considered the size of rice bulliform phytoliths as a proxy for tracking the domestication process. These phytoliths are often abundant and well preserved in sediments, and their shape is under the control of numerous genes, which may shift toward larger sizes by genetic mutation in domestication. Therefore, it has been assumed that the bulliforms of domesticated rice are usually larger than those of wild ones; however, morphometric data supporting this assumption are lacking in the literature, thereby requiring additional evidence to test its veracity. In this study, the vertical and horizonal lengths of bulliform phytoliths were measured in four rice species (domesticated Oryza sativa and wild Oryza rufipogon, Oryza officinalis, and Oryza meyeriana) from different regions of southern China. We found that the bulliform morphometric data of wild and domesticated rice overlapped and that there was no statistically significant difference between them. Therefore, bulliform size could not be used as a diagnostic indicator to distinguish domesticated rice from wild species and is a supporting rather than conclusive proxy for determining the domesticated status of rice in archaeological research. We further found that larger rice bulliform sizes likely occurred at the locations with higher temperature, precipitation, and water levels, indicating hydrothermal environment is an alternative factor influencing the size of rice bulliform phytoliths. For further archaeological use of an increasing size trend of bulliform phytoliths to reveal the process of rice domestication, we present some suggestions for controlling the influence of hydrothermal factors. Even so, the combination of bulliform phytolith size with other established criteria is strongly suggested to provide precise identification of wild and domesticated rice in future research.
We analyze the processing of cereals and its role at Early Neolithic Göbekli Tepe, southeastern Anatolia (10th / 9th millennium BC), a site that has aroused much debate in archaeological discourse. To date, only zooarchaeological evidence has been discussed in regard to the subsistence of its builders. Göbekli Tepe consists of monumental round to oval buildings, erected in an earlier phase, and smaller rectangular buildings, built around them in a partially contemporaneous and later phase. The monumental buildings are best known as they were in the focus of research. They are around 20 m in diameter and have stone pillars that are up to 5.5 m high and often richly decorated. The rectangular buildings are smaller and–in some cases–have up to 2 m high, mostly undecorated, pillars. Especially striking is the number of tools related to food processing, including grinding slabs/bowls, handstones, pestles, and mortars, which have not been studied before. We analyzed more than 7000 artifacts for the present contribution. The high frequency of artifacts is unusual for contemporary sites in the region. Using an integrated approach of formal, experimental, and macro- / microscopical use-wear analyses we show that Neolithic people at Göbekli Tepe have produced standardized and efficient grinding tools, most of which have been used for the processing of cereals. Additional phytolith analysis confirms the massive presence of cereals at the site, filling the gap left by the weakly preserved charred macro-rests. The organization of work and food supply has always been a central question of research into Göbekli Tepe, as the construction and maintenance of the monumental architecture would have necessitated a considerable work force. Contextual analyses of the distribution of the elements of the grinding kit on site highlight a clear link between plant food preparation and the rectangular buildings and indicate clear delimitations of working areas for food production on the terraces the structures lie on, surrounding the circular buildings. There is evidence for extensive plant food processing and archaeozoological data hint at large-scale hunting of gazelle between midsummer and autumn. As no large storage facilities have been identified, we argue for a production of food for immediate use and interpret these seasonal peaks in activity at the site as evidence for the organization of large work feasts.
This contribution provides a first characterization of the environmental development for the surroundings of the UNESCO World Heritage site of Göbekli Tepe. We base our analyses on a literature review that covers the environmental components of prevailing bedrock and soils, model-and proxy-based climatic development, and vegetation. The spatio-temporal scales that are covered are mainly the Eastern Mediterranean region and the Late Quaternary-whereby special attention is given to available data from the close vicinity of Göbekli Tepe. Information on Late Quaternary geomorphodynamics is largely absent for the environs of Göbekli Tepe, we therefore included remote sensing data, different terrain modeling approaches and field-based geomorphological mapping to gain insights into past process dynamics. The findings indicate that the environmental conditions at Göbekli Tepe during its time of occupation differed significantly from today, showing denser vegetation and a wide spread sediment cover. Different hypotheses are developed that aim to guide future research on environmental changes and their variations during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. These activities are crucial for a more profound understanding of the environment of the site, its potential perception by humans and therefore for the development of narratives on their landscape creation motives.
This chapter tackles one of the most enduring questions posed by prehistoric archaeology worldwide attracting the interest of prehistorians, anthropologists, economists, geographers and natural scientists alike: how and why did late Palaeolithic societies abandon long-lived and highly successful foraging and hunting economies in order to adopt farming? The chapter provides a critical overview of how this transformation unfolded in Southwest Asia, the place of origin for some of the economically most important contemporary plant and animal food staples, at the very end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene some 12,000 years ago. It focuses in particular on the nature of plant management practices during this period and how they were intertwined with changes in climate and vegetation, seasonality patterns, local micro-ecological variability, people’s historical experiences and perceptions of the landscape, mobility strategies, community interactions, and associated symbolic and ritual behaviours. Some of the currently accepted notions about the nature, ecology and economic returns of predomestication cultivation, the causes and evolution of the morphological domestication syndrome in crop progenitor species, and the predicted impacts of climate and environmental change on economic decision-making are critically reviewed and revisited. The chapter concludes by discussing some of the implications of the Southwest Asian case study for understanding the nature and evolution of prehistoric human economic behaviours, and the central role that resource ecologies play in determining the directionality and pace of macroeconomic change.
(chapter available upon request - the book is available for ordering at http://www.exoriente.org/bookshop/detail.php?b=61)
Studying the responses of phytoliths to warming is a new approach to interpret how grassland ecosystems respond to global change. We used an infrared radiator to simulate warming on Phragmites communis in the Songnen Grassland, China – three warming treatments and a control were used to study the relationships between phytolith size and temperature. Warming changed the size of different types of phytoliths. During June–October, the average size of saddle phytoliths decreased and that of hair cell phytoliths and silicified stomata increased with warming. The responses of phytolith size to warming differed among months. With warming, the size of saddle phytoliths, hair cell phytoliths and silicified stomata increased in July and September, but decreased in October. Overall, the results demonstrate that P. communis phytoliths were sensitive to warming. This study provides experimental evidence for phytoliths as reliable proxy indicators for reconstruction of paleo-environments.
Morphometric analysis (measurements of size and shape) has become a significant research tool in phytolith studies. The International Phytolith Society (IPS) appointed the International Committee for Phytolith Morphometrics (ICPM) to establish methodological standards for the discipline. This paper presents current recommendations of the ICPM. It discusses the role of morphometric analysis in phytolith studies and recommends a paradigm for its application, criteria for data collection and publication, definitions for basic measurements and software for computer-assisted image analysis.
There are 6 supplementary files that provide the open-source morphometric software and instructions: installPhytolithsBatch.fiji.ijm, Phytoliths_.class, Phytoliths_.java, PhytolithsBatch.ijm, PhytolithsBatch.fiji.ijm and mmc1 (instructions). The two files Phytoliths_.java and Phytoliths_.class are provivded in researchgate under the same name (Phytoliths), but are two different files.
Recent fieldwork in the main excavation area at Göbekli Tepe has focused on the excavation of deep soundingsto reach the natural bedrock in preparation for the construction of a shelter, urgently required for the protection of the exposed Neolithic architecture. Eleven deep soundings have been excavated to the bedrock. At several locations, considerable amounts of carbonized botanical material were discovered, so far unique for excavations at Göbekli. A series of more than 150 samples has been produced either on site or by flotation of the relevant soil units. To test the quality of the material for radiocarbon dating, five samples from the area of the large enclosures from Layer III were submitted for AMS-radiocarbon dating. These new data, together with a further age made on collagen from an animal tooth, are presented and discussed in context with previously available absolute chronological evidence.
Phytoliths produced by the inflorescence bracts from three species of wheat,Triticum monococcumL.,T. dicocconSchrank., andT. aestivumL., were analysed using computer-assisted image and statistical analyses with the intent to develop taxonomic tools to distinguish among the taxa. A classification key and discriminant functions based on significant differences among the morphometry means of the silica cell and dendriform phytoliths produced by each species were created and tested. The classification key and the discriminant functions proved to be reliable tools for distinguishing among phytoliths produced in the inflorescence bracts of the three wheats considered.
The recently discovered Pre-Pottery Neolithic site of Göbekli Tepe (SE- Turkey) is unparalleled in its architecture and art. The latter is particularly rich in animal depictions — stone figurines, sculptures and megalithic pillars decorated with bas-reliefs — and illustrates the prominent role animals played in the spiritual world of PPN human groups frequenting the site. Up to now, ten vertebrate taxa could be identified, nine of which also appeared in the archaeofaunal record of the site. Discussion focussed upon the possible role of the animal species figured at Göbekli Tepe, in particular whether the space demarcated by the pillars could have witnessed the performance of hunting rituals, initiation and passage rites, spiritual encounters or funeral practices. In view of our limited knowledge about the role animals played in the symbolic world of the PPN, in particular with respect to the logic and metaphysics governing the choice of species, the question of what purpose the enclosures served will take much more time to be properly answered.
Variation between phytoliths produced in the laminae, inflorescence bracts, and culms of einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) were examined. Variation in the type of phytoliths produced and in the morphometries of the various types produced was evaluated. Morphometric data were obtained using computer-assisted image analysis. Types of phytoliths produced by various plant tissues included silica cell, large and small prickle, hair cell, trichome base, stomata, sheet element, long cell, and subepidermal cell phytoliths. Laterally dendriform subepidermal cell phytoliths were unique to inflorescence tissue. Long (100–250 μm), sinuate, alate trapezoid phytoliths were unique to lamina tissue. Tukey honestly significant difference comparisons indicated that there are some significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) between the mean morphometries of silica cell phytoliths produced in the lamina tissue and those produced in the culm and inflorescence tissues. Discriminant functions based on the morphometric data obtained were effective in distinguishing between populations of silica cell phytoliths extracted from each of the plant tissue types. These results suggest that (i) when preparing reference matrial for phytolith analysis, each part of a plant should be sampled and evaluated separately, and (ii) discriminant analysis of morphometric data obtained through image analysis is a potentially valuable research tool for the further development and application of phytolith systematics. Key words: phytoliths, image analysis, Triticum monococcum.
Der Aufsatz lotet verschiedene Deutungsrichtungen für die monumentalen Steinkreise des Göbekli Tepe aus. Ausgegangen wird dabei von den regelhaft im Zentrum der Anlagen stehenden zwei Zentralpfeilern, die offenbar den wichtigsten Aspekt der Kreise verkörpern.
The authors discuss several approaches to interpret the monumental stone circles of Göbekli Tepe. The point of departure are the two central pillars, which always stand in the center of the enclosures and seem to be the most important aspect of the circles.
Göbekli Tepe is one of the most important archaeological discoveries of modern times, pushing back the origins of monumentality beyond the emergence of agriculture. We are pleased to present a summary of work in progress by the excavators of this remarkable site and their latest thoughts about its role and meaning. At the dawn of the Neolithic, hunter-gatherers congregating at Göbekli Tepe created social and ideological cohesion through the carving of decorated pillars, dancing, feasting - and, almost certainly, the drinking of beer made from fermented wild crops.
The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture had revolutionary consequences for the development of human societies.
Crops such as wheat, barley, lentil, pea and chickpea played a crucial role in the establishment of complex civilizations
in south west Asia. Wild emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccoides) was one of the first cereals to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent between c. 12,000 and c. 10,000years ago. This
step provided the key for subsequent bread wheat evolution. Wild emmer is found today in the western Fertile Crescent in Jordan,
Syria and Israel, the central part of southeastern Turkey and mountain areas in eastern Iraq and western Iran. In this review,
we summarize issues concerning geography and domestication of wild emmer wheat based on published molecular and archaeobotanical
data and on our recent findings. We suggest that modern domestic tetraploid wheats derived from wild emmer lines from southeast
Turkey. However, our understanding of emmer domestication is not complete. The “dispersed-specific” domestication model proposed
for einkorn might well be appropriate also for emmer.
KeywordsArchaeobotany–Domestication–Emmer wheat–Evolution–Molecular diversity–
Triticum dicoccoides
Analysis of microfossil silica phytoliths is becoming an increasingly important research tool for taxonomists, archaeobotanists, and paleoecologists. Expanded use of phytolith analysis by researchers is dependent upon development of phytolith systematics. In this study phytoliths produced by the inflorescence bracts from four species of wheat, Triticum monoccocum, T. dicoccon, T. dicoccoides, and T. aestivum, and two species of barley, Hordeum vulgare, and H. spontaneum, were analyzed using computer-assisted image and statistical analysis with the intent to develop taxonomic tools to distinguish among the taxa. A classification key based on significant differences among the mean morphometries of the inflorescence phytoliths produced by each species was created and tested. Discriminant analysis of the morphometries of several morphotypes of phytoliths was also conducted to determine whether this computer-assisted statistical procedure could be used as another method to classify the taxa and to determine which morphotypes have measurements that can best be used in discriminant functions. Test results indicated that, at the genus level, both the classification key and discriminant analysis of certain morphotypes of phytoliths were relatively reliable tools for distinguishing among phytoliths produced in the inflorescence bracts of the taxa considered. For distinguishing among the taxa at the species level, the classification key was most reliable. Of the discriminant analyses tested, that based on all the phytolith morphotypes combined was more reliable than those based on only one morphotype.
The diploid wheat Triticum monococcum L. (einkorn) was among the first crops domesticated by humans in the Fertile Crescent 10,000 years ago. During the last 5,000 years, it was replaced by tetraploid and hexaploid wheats and largely forgotten by modern breeders. Einkorn germplasm is thus devoid of breeding bottlenecks and has therefore preserved in unfiltered form the full spectrum of genetic variation that was present during its domestication. We investigated haplotype variation among >12 million nucleotides sequenced at 18 loci across 321 wild and 92 domesticate T. monococcum lines. In contrast to previous studies of cereal domestication, we sampled hundreds of wild lines, rather than a few dozen. Unexpectedly, our broad sample of wild lines reveals that wild einkorn underwent a process of natural genetic differentiation, most likely an incipient speciation, prior to domestication. That natural differentiation was previously overlooked within wild einkorn, but it bears heavily upon inferences concerning the domestication process because it brought forth 3 genetically, and to some extent morphologically, distinct wild einkorn races that we designate here as alpha, beta, and gamma. Only one of those natural races, beta, was exploited by humans for domestication. Nucleotide diversity and haplotype diversity in domesticate einkorn is higher than in its wild sister group, the einkorn beta race, indicating that einkorn underwent no reduction of diversity during domestication. This is in contrast to findings from previous studies of domestication history among more intensely bred crop species. Taken together with archaeological findings from the Fertile Crescent, the data indicate that a specific wild einkorn race that arose without human intervention was subjected to multiple independent domestication events.
The Poaceae family produces diagnostic phytoliths commonly called Grass Silica Short Cell Phytoliths (GSSCP), of which shapes and sizes are very distinguishable from those produced by other plant families. Grass Silica Short Cell Phytoliths are usually classified into four main categories: the rondels, bilobates, crosses, and saddles. Among them, the bilobates have in common a general "dumbbell" shape consisting of two lobes inter-connected by a shank. They represent the dominant morphotypes observed in the leaf tissues of many Panicoideae grass species. Besides, they tend to often be related to this subfamily in the fossil record, especially when they occur in large amounts. Several studies based on modern African grasses have however demonstrated that bilobates were also abundantly produced by a few members of the Aristidoideae, Chloridoideae, and Oryzoideae grass subfamilies which, like Panicoideae, are today mainly distributed in tropical low-altitude areas. The relationship between bilobates and Panicoideae is thus not so direct in the tropics. As a result, it can lead to significant misinterpretations when applied to paleoenvironmental and archaeological surveys.
This study investigates variations in the size of bilobate phytoliths in 15 African grass species, including eight Panicoideae, three Aristidoideae, two Chloridoideae, and two Oryzoideae, with the intention to explore new alternatives for refining their identification in the past deposits of tropical Africa. Different statistical analyses (Principal Component Analysis, Mann–Whitney tests, decisional trees) applied to the previous dataset allowed testing whether: (i) bilobate length and width significantly vary between grass species; (ii) these variations (if so) have the potential to be used as taxonomical and/or ecological proxies.
Our analyses confirm that bilobate length is significant in discriminating dry-adapted Aristidoideae and Chloridoideae species from the other sub-families. In particular, a bilobate base longer than 25 μm is almost exclusively observed for Aristidoideae and Chloridoideae, which is in agreement with previous studies. Although subject to less variations, the length/width of bilobate shanks and the average length of their lobes appear significantly useful to refine grass taxonomical identification and discriminate < 120 cm-high grasses from taller grasses. Yet, it seems that the key towards a robust identification of bilobate phytoliths involves considering the size parameters.
Agriculture is the lever with which humans transformed the earth over the last 10,000 years and created new forms of plant and animal species that have forever altered the face of the planet. In the last decade, significant technological and methodological advances in both molecular biology and archaeology have revolutionized the study of plant and animal domestication and are reshaping our understanding of the transition from foraging to farming, one of the major turning points in human history. This groundbreaking volume for the first time brings together leading archaeologists and biologists working on the domestication of both plants and animals to consider a wide variety of archaeological and genetic approaches to tracing the origin and dispersal of domesticates. It provides a comprehensive overview of the state of the art in this quickly changing field as well as reviews of recent findings on specific crop and livestock species in the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa. Offering a unique global perspective, it explores common challenges and potential avenues for future progress in documenting domestication.
Systematical descriptions of phytoliths from rice species in East Asia are scarce. In order to investigate the relationship among diversity of phytolith morphology, taxonomy and genome, comparative research on phytolith morphology of the wild and domesticated rice species is first performed on the basis of statistics and cluster analysis. All morphological parameters were measured at 500× magnification using a Zeiss light microscope. 3-D plots and cluster analysis are performed by SPSS 10.0 software. The leaves and inflorescences of domesticated and wild rice contain a great diversity of phytolith types including long cells, short cells, bulliform cells, hair cells, irregular epidermal cells, mesophyll and vascular tissues. Comparative research on phytolith morphology demonstrates that most overlap occurs among long cells, short cells, bulliform cells, hair cells and vascular tissues at the species level. Rondels, crosses, long cells, hair cells, parallepipedal bulliform cells, tracheid and vascular tissue exhibit no taxonomical value. Complex saddles and irregular epidermal phytoliths might be diagnostic to the rice species that had not been described before. Further comparative research on the morphological features of three phytolith types from the wild and domesticated rice species has confirmed that double-peaked glume cells measurements can separate domesticated Oryza species from wild ones successfully. Hierarchical cluster analysis on all morphological parameters of bilobates, cuneiform bulliform cells and double-peaked glume cells strongly demonstrates that phytolith assemblage appears to be under genetic control and therefore reflect taxonomical significance. The results are significant for plant physiology, rice cultivation and environmental archaeology.
Societies with low-level food production economies occupy the vast and diverse middle ground between hunting–fishing–foraging and agriculture. Efforts by Ford, Harris, Rindos, Zvelebil, and others to characterize this “in-between” territory are discussed, and a new conceptual framework is proposed. Domestication, the central landmark of this middle ground, is situated well away from the boundaries with hunting–gathering and agriculture, and separates low-level food production economies into two broad categories. Key issues and questions concerning societies with low-level food production, both with and without domesticates, are discussed. Hunter–gatherer and agriculture boundary zones on either side of the middle ground are considered, as are the developmental pathways that traverse them.
Prehistoric cultivation of wild wheat in the Fertile Crescent led to the selection of mutants with indehiscent (nonshattering)
ears, which evolved into modern domestic wheat. Previous estimates suggested that this transformation was rapid, but our analyses
of archaeological plant remains demonstrate that indehiscent domesticates were slow to appear, emerging ~9500 years before
the present, and that dehiscent (shattering) forms were still common in cultivated fields ~7500 years before the present.
Slow domestication implies that after cultivation began, wild cereals may have remained unchanged for a long period, supporting
claims that agriculture originated in the Near East ~10,500 years before the present.
İstanbul ve Chicago Üniversiteleri karma projesi güneydoğu anadolu tarihöncesi araştırmaları -The Joint Istanbul -Chicago Universities Prehistoric Research in Southeastern Anatolia
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Göbekli Tepe: UNESCO Dünya Miras Alanı ve Değişen Yaklaşımlar
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