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Acta Adriatica 64 (2023)
https://doi.org/10.32582/aa.64.2.6
Attempts to locate and sample the white shark,
Carcharodon carcharias (Lamniformes: Lamnidae),
along the Italian coasts in the Mediterranean Sea
Primo Micarelli1,2*, Francesca Romana Reinero1, Andrea Marsella1,3, Enrico Vernelli1,
Enrico Vittorini1, Luca Monteleone1,4, Matteo Vailati1, Letizia Marsili2, Fausto Tinti4,
Emilio Sperone5
1 Sharks Studies Center – Scientific Institute, Italy
2 DSFTA, Department of Physical Sciences, Earth and Environment, University of Siena, Italy
3 IZSVe, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Italy
4 BiGeA, Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Italy
5 DiBEST, Department of Biology, Ecology, and Earth Sciences, University of Calabria, Italy
Abstract: Carcharodon carcharias
Keywords: Carcharodon carcharias;
SažetakCARCHARODON CARCHARIAS
Carcharodon carcharias
Ključne riječi: Carcharodon carcharias
*Corresponding author:
INTRODUCTION
The great white shark (WS), Carcharodon car-
charias (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lamniformes: Lamnidae), is
widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions of
all oceans with temperatures ranging from the 5°C of
Alaska to 27°C observed in tropical areas, such as Dur-
ban (Martin, 2003; Compagno et al., 2005). Recently,
it was observed that the WS can reach a depth of 1128
m with temperature variations between 1.6 and 30°C
(Skomal et al., 2017). The use of satellite telemetry on
WSs off South Africa and the West Coast of the United
States (Bonfil et al., 2005; Weng et al., 2007) showed
that they can cross ocean basins and use pelagic habitats
for months. Despite its distributional range, the species
is quite rare. There are currently a few hotspots in which
this predator is relatively abundant: California (Chapple
et al., 2011) and Mexico (Hoyos-Padilla et al., 2016) in
the Northeast Pacific; United States in the Northwest
Atlantic (Klimley and Anderson, 1996); South Africa
throughout the coastline into the Mozambiquan Chan-
nel (Kock et al., 2022); Australia (Bruce and Bradford,
2012), and New Zealand (Francis et al., 2015). In Japan
(Christiansen et al., 2014), in the Mediterranean Sea
(Micarelli et al., 2011; Micarelli and Sperone, 2016;
Moro et al., 2020), and in Central Chile (from Punta
Angamos to Punta Lavapie) (Martin, 2003), the abun-
dance of this predator is quite low compared to the other
areas. Notably, WS is one of the 48 species of sharks
that has been observed in Italian waters (Vacchi and
Serena, 2010; Serena et al., 2021).
The Mediterranean basin is a model system for
both marine ecological and biogeographical research.
The unique combination of geological and climatic
SHORT COMMUNICATION
Micarelli et al.
Acta Adriatica 64 (2023):
factors has led to the development of characteristic and
highly diverse biota, as reflected by the inclusion of the
Mediterranean among the most important biodiversity
hotspots (Bilecenoglu et al., 2013). The WS has been
observed throughout the Mediterranean basin (Bradai
and Saidi, 2013; Micarelli and Sperone, 2016; Tiralongo
et al., 2020; Kabasakal et al., 2022). The WS population
of the Mediterranean Sea is listed as critically endan-
gered by the IUCN Red List, due to a 52-96% decline of
its population (Moro et al., 2020). Micarelli et al. (2011)
showed that in Italian waters 42.2% of the sightings
are located along the coasts of Sicily and 39.0% along
the coasts of Sardinia, Calabria, Tuscany, and Liguria.
The average total length (TL) of sharks observed in
Italian waters was 395.70 ±155.72 cm (Micarelli et al.,
2011). According to Fergusson (1996), although the
WS is essentially rare in the Mediterranean Sea, this
area should be classified as one of the global centers
of reproduction and abundance for the species. There-
fore, it should be a priority to direct efforts on tagging
with satellite transmitters specimens along the Sicilian
coasts and further localities, where juvenile and adult
WSs are seasonally encountered or known to aggregate.
Investigations by Leone et al. (2020) suggests that
the Mediterranean population has an older origin than
previously thought and that this isolated population is
genetically disconnected from the adjacent Atlantic one.
This means that the Mediterranean population can be
seriously threatened by factors causing animal losses.
In the present study, authors aimed to sample and tag
specimens of WSs off the coasts of Sicily, particularly
around the waters of the Island of Lampedusa, the most
cited of areas in the sightings and catches recorded at
various times of the year with peaks during the summer
season (Micarelli et al., 2011; Tiralongo et al., 2020).
Obtained data could be valuable to better understand
WS’s spatial movements along the Mediterranean Sea
and thereby assisting conservation efforts aimed at this
species, even if not sufficient to improve studies on
population dynamics.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Sampling area
Four attempts for tagging and sampling the Mediter-
ranean WS were performed in 2017, 2018, 2021, and
2022 (Fig. 1). Three preliminary areas were selected
for these attempts according to the most recent sight-
ings recorded. The selected sites were located at a depth
varying between 18 and 35 m, far from the coast, where
specimens of WSs had been sighted or fished in the past.
The first three areas were:
The Adriatic Sea: three days during the end of
October 2017, off the coast of Rimini, in an area close
to the following coordinates: 44°12’ 86” N; 12° 46’ 64”
E, from 06:00 in the morning until 19:00, baiting activi-
ties were carried out for approximately 13 consecutive
hours a day. The boat was anchored at 28 m depth not
far from the Antonella hydrocarbon extraction platform.
This specific site was chosen after a news report on
the sighting of a WS on 26 October 2017, 15 miles off
the Adriatic coast close to the mentioned platform by
two fishermen (http://www.riminitoday.it/video/squalo-
bianco-avvistamento-adriatico-rimini-26-ottobre2017.
html).
The central Tyrrhenian Sea: on 15 November 2018,
off the coast of Civitavecchia at the following coordi-
nates: 42° 8’ 12” N; 11° 47’ 27” E, from 10:00 in the
morning until 19:00, baiting activities were carried out
for nine consecutive hours. The boat was anchored at 35
m depth close to the Asia wreck. This specific site was
chosen following reports from fishermen of short fin
mako sharks (Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810) and
occasionally WS sightings.
The Channel of Sicily: three days during November
2021, off the coast of Lampedusa at Secca di Levante
(Fig.1, and 2) at the following coordinates: 35° 26’ 093”
N; 12° 49’ 740” E. The third baiting attempt was per-
formed continuously, without interruption, for 72 hours
and the boat was anchored at about 18 m depth.
The fourth attempt was performed in July 2022,
in the same area of the third attempt, off the coast of
Lampedusa at Secca di Levante. Here, the longest-
lasting baiting activity was carried out continuously,
without interruption, for seven days with prevalent
north-west surface currents.
This site was chosen since this area is considered as
one of the global centers of reproduction and abundance
for the species (Fergusson, 1996).
Data collection and chumming
Four different vessels were used in different sam-
pling areas: a 10 m long boat in the Adriatic Sea in
2017; a 10 m long boat in the central Tyrrhenian Sea in
2018; a 12 m long boat in 2021, and a 10 m long one
Fig. 1.
Attempts to locate and sample the great white shark in the Mediterranean Sea
in 2022 in the Channel of Sicily. Sharks were attracted
using olfactory stimulants (chum), following the meth-
ods described by Laroche et al. (2007). The chum was
a mixture of seawater, cod liver oil, fish blood and, in
addition, 2–3 kg slices of tuna and swordfish heads
were used as bait and kept at the sea surface by floats
as described by Sperone et al. (2010) (Fig. 2A,C). Sar-
dines, squid slices, and tuna oil were added to the sea-
water mixture as commonly used for ecotouristic cage
diving activities in Mexico (Torres-Aguilar et al., 2015),
Australia (Bruce and Bradford, 2013), and South Africa
(Laroche et al., 2007). Teams of two operators shifted
every two hours to proceed with manual chumming and
observations, without interruption in 2021 and 2022.
In the central Tyrrhenian Sea and in the Adriatic Sea,
50-70 kg and 200 kg of chum were used respectively for
a total of 48 hours of observation time. Regarding the
two attempts at Secca di Levante, approximately 240
kg and 540 kg of chum were used, respectively (Fig 2
A). Observations made from the boats lasted 24 hours/
day as well as underwater observations at nine meters
of depth with underwater fishing camera. Observation
time lasted 72 hours during the first attempt and 168
hours during the second one, producing a total observa-
tion time of 240 hours. The overall duration of these
activities depended on the availability of funds for each
attempt.
Tagging and sampling tools
The following instruments were available to monitor
and tag sharks: two Spot-253 (Wildlife Computers Inc.,
Redmond, WA, USA) Smart Position and Temperature
Transmitting (SPOT) satellite tags (Fig. 2B), a sam-
pling rod, an underwater camera placed at 9 m depth
and the sampling steel rod, already used for cetaceans
in the Mediterranean Sea and WS’s skin-biopsy in
South Africa (Marsili et al., 2016). An aerial Drone DJI
Mavic air was used two hours during the last attempt
in Lampedusa. In order to monitor the arrival of sharks
during the night, a night vision device Dsoon Binoculars
Night Vision 2K Photo 1080P Video was used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
No WSs or any other shark species were sighted
after four attempts carried out over an overall of 288
hours of baiting and observations, during which approx-
imately 1030 kg of chum was used. Observations were
performed by two operators and through underwater
camera and aerial drone. The average surface water
temperature recorded by the underwater camera at 9
meters of depth, only in Lampedusa, was 27.6 ± 0.3°C.
The presence of the WS in the Italian waters has
been documented since year 1666 in the MEDLEM
database (Mancusi et al., 2020). In particular, waters
around Sicily showed the highest frequency of records
among all the Italian regions. Based on the seasonal pat-
tern, Micarelli et al. (2011) suggested that in spring and
summer WSs could be attracted by tunas and cetaceans
present in the western Mediterranean basin. Indeed,
the bluefin tuna comes to spawn in the Mediterranean
Sea during spring and summer from the Atlantic Ocean
(Block et al., 2001, 2005) and cetaceans are concen-
trated in the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas during this
season (Marsili et al., 2001). In order to suggest and
implement conservation strategies to preserve the WS
species in the Mediterranean Sea, tagging specimen and
following their movements in this basin is an important
goal.
Fig. 2. A B
C
A
B
C
Micarelli et al.
Acta Adriatica 64 (2023):
The island of Lampedusa is located in the center
of the marine area between Sicily, Malta, and Tunisia
in a sort of triangle where it is assumed that mature
females of WSs move for breeding. Fergusson (2002)
suggested that some breeding areas may lie not far
away from the neritic shelf close to the Pelagie Islands,
extending eastwards and southwards to the Tunisian
coats, where neonatal sharks are most regularly caught.
Also, Sperone et al. (pers.comm.) suggested that around
Sicily, and in particular in the Sicily-Tunisian Ridge,
female WSs could give birth to pups. Several authors
(Micarelli et al., 2011; Moro et al., 2020) agreed with
the hypothesis suggested by Cigala-Fulgosi (1990) and
by Fergusson (1996) that the waters around Sicily could
represent a potential breeding site for this species in the
western Mediterranean. In the last years, several records
of catches or sightings of WSs close to the Lampedusa
Island occurred (Micarelli and Sperone, 2016; Tiralongo
et al., 2020) and for this reason this site was chosen for
the longest attempt.
Micarelli et al. (2011) analyzed the temporal dis-
tribution of WS’s sightings in the Italian waters and
showed that 33.7% occurred in spring, 48.83% in sum-
mer, 17.44% in autumn, and 12.05% in winter. In order
to chum, on the basis of what was tested by Soldo and
Peirce (2005) and proposed from stable isotopes analy-
sis in the vertebrae of WSs by Bevacqua et al. (2021),
the use of bony fish was privileged, and the technique
used in South Africa by Micarelli et al. (2021) and
Sperone et al. (2010), was followed in order to bring
WSs closer to the boat. Surely, a further, greater, and
more prolonged effort is needed to be able to spot,
mark, and sample specimens of WS to evaluate their
chances of survival in the Mediterranean Sea. Recently,
Kabasakal (2020) reported the occurrence of another
nursery ground of WSs in Bay of Edremit (northeastern
Aegean Sea, Turkey), which should also be considered
as a hotspot and protected, as well in the Gulf of Gabès
(southern Tunisia, central Mediterranean Sea) (Bradai
and Saidi, 2013).
In the light of activities carried out, the results
obtained highlighted the need to provide data of fun-
damental importance for the species C. carcharias,
identified by the European Union as a target species for
assessing the health status of the Mediterranean (Macias
Moy et al., 2018). Extinction risk for charismatic
marine animals and bottlenecks in the conservation pro-
cess underscore the tremendous need to address global
threats to marine biodiversity on an appropriately large
scale (McClenachan et al., 2012).
Acknowledgements: We are grateful to the boat
owners: Mr. Matteo Mantuano; Mr. Stefano Terribile
of Gruppo Nasim Diving Center; Mr. Alessandro Turri
of the Blue Dolphin Diving Center in 2021, and Mr.
Andres Barreca in 2022.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no con-
flict of interest.
Authors’ contributions: P.M., F.R.R. and E.S. con-
ceived the ideas; P.M., F.R.R., E.S., A.M., E.Ve., E.Vi.,
L.M., G.G., M.V. collected the data; P.M., F.R.R., E.S.,
L.M. and F.T. analyzed the data; P.M., F.R.R. and E.S.
directed the writing.
Ethical principles: The study and experimentation
protocols were reviewed and approved in accordance
166 with the Directive 2010/63/EU.
Sampling and field studies: CITES Permits pro-
vided by Accademia dei Fisiocritici 1691 n.161-2021
& n.79-2022.
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