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Water committees in the implementation of decentralization measures in the water
sector in Gaza Province, Mozambique: ownership and resistance
Alves Francisco Nhaurire *, Tanya Wells-Brown and Rehana Capurchande
Sociology, Eduardo Mondlane University: Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
*Corresponding author. E-mail: alvesfr_nhaurire@yahoo.com.br
AFN, 0009-0004-5121-1155
ABSTRACT
As part of the process of decentralization of water supply services in Mozambique, Water User Committees play a key role in the manage-
ment of water systems. However, they struggle with sustainability issues, which affect the access to water in the communities. With this
paper, we intend to understand the sustainability of water systems in Mozambique based on the socio-cultural dynamics, normative and
institutional framework, and the interaction of social actors involved in the community management of water systems. This is a qualitative
study based on phenomenology principles whose experiences were based on fieldwork carried out in Gaza Province, Mozambique. The study
revealed that community management of water supply systems in Mozambique was a policy option for decentralization of water supply man-
agement, in response to the weak capacity (resources and technicians) for this purpose. The study shows that in practice, there has yet to be
much success in achieving the objectives of the Water User Committee, as they have proven to be less effective in meeting water access
needs. There are challenges affecting the sustainability of the Water User Committee, such as weak understanding of their roles, conflicts,
transparency, accountability and, in turn, the sustainability of water sources.
Key words: decentralization, Mozambique, sustainability, Water User Committees
HIGHLIGHTS
•Understand how water committees implement the promotion of WASH in study sites in Mozambique and how the water committees pro-
mote the sustainability of WASH.
•Recommend changes to water committees’guidance and policy to increase their outcomes.
•Understand the different interpretations and perspectives on WASH supply and the complexities involved in the triangle of policymakers,
water committees’members, and users.
INTRODUCTION
In 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)s were adopted, including SDG6 –universal access to water and sani-
tation by 2030, recognizing that access to these basic services is essential for human health and development. While some
progress has been made toward achieving SDG6, the proportion of the global population using safely managed drinking
water services
1
increasing from 70% in 2015 to 74% in 2020 (UN 2022).
The coverage of safely managed drinking water services varies considerably globally, regionally, across wealth quintiles and
sub-national regions. Of those who have safely managed drinking water services, 1.9 billion (1 in 3) live in rural areas (Idem).
In sub-Saharan Africa, more than half of the population (328 million people) have basic access to water compared to 400
million without access to safe water (Kanyangarara 2021). The UN-Water Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation
and Drinking Water (GLAAS) suggests that, in many countries, insufficient financial resources are a major impediment to
achieving higher levels of investment (WHO 2017).
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY 4.0), which permits copying, adaptation and
redistribution, provided the original work is properly cited (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
1
Safely managed: Drinking water from an improved water source that is accessible on premises, available when needed and free from faecal and priority
chemical contamination (JMP).
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The situation of access to water in rural areas is more critical than in urban areas and between rich and poor (Moriarty et al.
2013;Van et al. 2017). In the Democratic Republic of Mozambique, hereinafter referred as Mozambique, a lower-middle
income country, in Sub-Saharan Africa, only half the population has access to safely managed water (DNAAS 2018)
2
.
Although most of the population resides in rural areas, DNAAS (2018) indicates that only 37% of rural areas have access
to safe drinking water, in contrast to the situation in urban areas, where access to water through pipes is around 58%
(INE 2019)
3
.
Consistently to this slow increase in access to water, the water sector is struggling with the problem of the sustainability of
the infrastructure built, which negatively affects the progress of rural water supply. Studies suggest that in rural sub-Saharan
Africa, up to one-third of the handpumps are nonfunctional at any given time (RWSN 2010;Chowns 2015;Fisher et al. 2015).
For its part, World Bank (2018) also indicates that the water sector in Mozambique is facing sustainability problems, with
approximately 35% of handpumps in rural areas having broken down.
To address this sustainability challenge, Mozambique has adopted a decentralized model in which community members
have a responsibility to manage water points at the community level. For the purpose of guiding the operating modalities
of community management of water sources, in 2002, the Implementation Manual for Rural Water Supply Projects
(MIPAR). The manual sets out the guiding principles for community participation in the provision of water services, it
also stipulates that committees are expected to play an important role in the sustainable management of water supply systems.
However, little is known about who legitimizes the decisions of policymakers in the water sector and who resists and what
motivations may lie behind these positions.
Therefore, the research was driven by the following question: are the committees acting in accordance with the legal frame-
work in the context of decentralization as laid out in the MIPAR? The aim of this study is to understand the role played by
committee members, and the extent to which the functioning of the committees may or may not contribute to the sustainabil-
ity of water sources. The article seeks to understand the sustainability of water systems in Mozambique from the perspective
of socio-cultural dynamics, the regulatory and institutional frameworks, as well as the interaction of social actors involved in
community management of water systems.
For the purposes of this research, we use the concept of a Water User Committee from Uckrow & Stephen (2012), who
consider the Water User Committee as a group of individuals representing the users of a water source in a certain area.
The perspective brought by Uckrow and Stephan, allows us to understand how social-cultural and political conditions
should be considered for the functioning of a committee.
There is no precise definition of sustainability. For this paper, we use the approach of Abrams et al. (2000) who define sus-
tainability as the continuity in the availability of water services in quantity and quality for the period for which the system was
designed. Certain elements should be included, such as the technical aspects, social factors, financial elements, the environ-
ment, gender and equity aspects, empowerment, and institutional arrangements (Abrams et al. 2000).
For the analysis of the individual motivations for membership to the committees, this study applies the concept of reasons
proposed by Alfred Schutz’s phenomenological perspective (1997). Therefore, based on this theoretical perspective, we
understood the reasons, and motives for, the involvement of communities in water committees. In the phenomenological
theory, the reasons why can only be understood from the knowledge of the individual’s life history, of what led the individual
to practice such actions. These motives are rooted in their personality, in the learning they have accumulated throughout their
life; only by knowing their past does one have the possibility of knowing the type of mind that undertook such action
(Zeferino & Carraro 2013). Thus, this study contributes to the following:
(1) understand how water committees implement the promotion of WASH (water, sanitation, and hygiene) in the study sites
in Mozambique and how the water committees promote the sustainability of WASH.
(2) understand the different interpretations and perspectives on WASH supply and the complexities involved in the triangle
of policymakers, water committees’members and users of WASH.
(3) recommend changes to water committees’guidance and policy to increase their outcomes.
2
National Directorate of Water Supply and Sanitation.
3
National Statistical Institute.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
The determinants of rural water supply sustainability
The discussion on the sustainability of water supply systems is not a new subject. It is a concept whose pivotal point of dis-
cussion dates to 1987 when the international conference on sustainable development was held, and the focus of the
discussion was on the management of natural resources. The literature review reveals that there are a few scientific studies
on the topic of sustainability of water supply specifically for Mozambique. The available studies, by Jansz (2011),Uandela
(2012),Forquilha (2013) and Van (2017, 2022) show that sustainability issues are strictly linked to the decentralized water
management models, weak financial, technical, and management capacity of the Water User Committee. Most of the avail-
able analysis on this topic is a result of consultancies commissioned by non-government organizations that support water
supply in Mozambique.
The discussion on the sustainability of water supply services in rural areas has been the subject of much debate in academic
circles and at the level of non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Initially, debates and project evaluation reports tended to
refer to a more technical discussion in the sense of the technical capacity of communities to maintain functional systems.
However, there are now debates that seek to understand the influence of various social, policies, and financial factors.
From a technical and financial perspective, Lockhood (2004) argues that most of the community cannot guarantee the
maintenance of the water systems by themselves, and they require some external support for long-term assistance, and
part of the solution has been the involvement of NGOs, private sector, local and provincial government, and the support
associations for access to funding and monitoring. However, the criticism of this perspective is the fact that it does not con-
sider the social, cultural, and political environment in which this same technology was applied.
Gebrehiwot and Beyene (2010) consider the existence of the following two determinants for the sustainability of water sys-
tems in rural regions: (1) pre-intervention factors that comprise community participation, choice of technologies, choice of
site, quality of construction, the population and training and (2) post-intervention factors that encompass on-going technical
support, community satisfaction, institutional, and financial management. In the same view, Abrams et al. (2000),Loucks &
Gladwell (1999) and Carter (2011), Marks & Davis (2012) present a more complex approach to sustainability which in their
view should include broader factors such as technical, social, financial, environmental, gender, equity, empowerment, and
institutional arrangements.
Other explanatory variables for the poor sustainability of water infrastructures in rural areas have been introduced in
studies over the last few decades. Fisher et al. (2015);Marks & Davis (2012);Harvey (2004) consider that functionality
depends on source age, management, hydrological determinants, tariff collection, the number of other sources in the commu-
nity, and the district. In the same view, Carter (2016) argues that social factors can suggest a more qualitative dimension of
sustainability analysis and thus provide more information than quantitative indicators.
By analyzing the various explanatory perspectives on the problem of access to water, we can understand that sustainability
depends on a range of complex factors, including social, technological and/or economic factors, the formulation of public,
and environmental policies. As such, there is an urgent need to understand the phenomenon of sustainability, with a view
to find the strengths and weaknesses that do or do not favor the formulation and implementation of appropriate public pol-
icies and management systems that guarantee sustainable access to water for communities.
The role of communities in rural water supply management
The community water management model was adopted by many countries to address sustainability challenges. As a result,
the rural water sub-sector has increasingly incorporated community participation (Marks & Davis 2012). The introduction of
community management models follows a general trend toward the decentralization of services that characterized the 1980s
and 1990s in several sub-Saharan African countries such as Mozambique.
To better categorize community participation, organizations have adopted the concept of Water User Committee, which we
previously defined from the perspective of Uckrow & Stephen (2012). However, some actors call them water management
committees, but they refer to the same social group. This committee is elected by the users or community to carry out water
infrastructure management activities for the mutual benefit of the community, operator, and local authorities. The core of the
community management model is the water point committee, typically a group of 6–10 villagers elected or otherwise del-
egated by their community to take responsibility for the water point (Chowns 2015). For the specific case of Mozambique,
according to MIPAR (2001) the committee is composed of 6–12 people (50% female and 50% male) and they should be
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democratically elected. However, the filed data indicated that most of the members are delegated, meaning that in this pro-
cess they are not following the MIPAR procedures, this result is in line with Nhaurire (2017), in his study he found that in
many cases, people are involved in committees by appointment rather than by election, as MIPAR advocates. However,
there is always an acceptance of the tasks on the part of the people chosen. The majority of those chosen justify that they
cannot deny the choice made by the population, which in many cases is made in the presence of community leaders. A
choice or election along these lines generates fear of denying or rejecting work in favor of the population’s well-being
(Nhaurire 2017).
Uckrow & Stephen (2012) consider that specific tasks of a Water User Committee can be divided into social management,
technical management, and financial management. A salient factor in the authors’)definition is that for a Water User Com-
mittee to function properly and meet the needs of the community, members must be elected. The committee should consider
and represent all members of the community –irrespective of wealth, inclusive of gender differences, ethnicity, and disadvan-
taged and vulnerable groups such as those living with a disability.
The challenge of a rural water supply management model
Studies signify two critical expectations regarding the role of communities in the management of rural water supply systems.
Chowns (2015) illustrates that first, improvements in technical performance would result from more frequent maintenance
and repair works by local technicians. Second, an improvement in financial sustainability is expected insofar as users
would have a direct interest in making contributions because they would see a clear and necessary link between the fees
and the continued functionality of the source. However, optimism in community management is now being challenged
and debates are growing about the shortcomings of the model (Chowns 2015).
The reliance on community management is not perceived as entirely adequate for the sustainable provision of access to
water. In Carter’s (2009) view, traditional structures, especially in rural areas, are threatened by modernizing influences.
His argument positions that development itself weakens the traditional forms and community values that would make com-
munity management of development projects possible, even if these projects may increase the availability of resources.
Therefore, community management of water supply services without robust external support is questioned in the current
context.
The MOPH (2001)
4
considers that the non-operational or obsolete state of water sources is essentially the result of poor
community involvement. Conversely, in the view of the International Water & Sanitation Centre (2012), the community man-
agement model of water services has been encouraged in many countries to give communities greater control and ownership
over their water supplies. However, the sense of ownership by the communities has been pointed out in the current research
as one of the challenges of community management linked to this aspect, which is what Van (2022) called the ‘romantic idea
of participation’, referring to the fact that communities are not effectively involved in decision-making, for example, in decid-
ing the type of technology and the type of the management model.
However, little is known about the engagement and participation of water committee members in Mozambique, and
this study aims to contribute by analyzing the roles of the selection processes, the profile, and the motivations of the
members in carrying out their roles as members. It also analyses the extent to which these members are playing their
role in accordance with what the legislation or policymakers expect of them to respond to the challenges of sustainable
water services.
METHODOLOGY
This study is an empirical study, based on fieldwork carried out in Gaza Province, a province of Mozambique. Gaza is in the
south of the country and its capital is the city of Xai-Xai, situated about 210 km north of the national capital, Maputo. With an
area of 75,709 km
2
and a population of 1,446,654 inhabitants according to the 2017 census, this province is divided into 14
districts (Figure 1).
Gaza is linked to the province of Manica province, to the northeast to Inhambane and to the south to Maputo. It is also
bordered by South Africa on the south and to the west with Zimbabwe. In the south-eastern region, it also has about 200 km
of coastline with the Indian Ocean. The province is predominantly inhabited by the Changana ethnic group. The main
4
Ministry of Public Works and Housing
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economic activities are agriculture, cattle-raising, and tourism. The water supply and distribution network are composed of
scattered springs, water networks from surface water sources, and traditional wells that supply about 71% of the population
according to DNAAS data (2018).
Gaza Province was selected as the study site as it has some of the highest numbers of water committees experiencing oper-
ational issues influencing functionality and access to water in the southern-zone provinces. DNAAS (2018) indicates that of
the 1,534 committees constituted in Gaza Province, 784, (about 51%) are not operational, as compared to the Inhambane
Figure 1 |Gaza Province map. Source: Mozambique Government portal.
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Province, for example, where only 41% of committees (315) are not functional. The functionality of the committees is
measured by whether water committee meetings are held.
A qualitative method was used for field-based data collection. Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were con-
ducted with key informants and water point users. This was accompanied by a documental and bibliographical analysis of
official government documents (Poverty Reduction Action Plan –PARP), National Programme for Water Supply and
Rural Sanitation (2009), National Water Strategy, Water Policy (1991), statistical data obtained from the Manjacaze and
Xai-Xai SDPIs,
5
and academic works. The official documents used were obtained through an internet search, for district cov-
erage data and water committees, we used the DNAAS database (mSinas)
6
.
The document analysis sought to understand the content of government policies and strategies aimed at increasing the
levels of coverage in the country and examine the strategies that have been adopted by the government to address the
issue of sustainability of water sources.
The field study focused on two water committees in the rural context of Manjacaze district. The target group was made up
of members of the Water User Committees and other members of the community, with a particular emphasis on women who
usually play the role of providing water for family use in Mozambique. From a total nominal population of 24 committee
members (12 committee members per target community), we interviewed 15 people.
For the interviews we adopted three criteria for the selection of interviewees: first, be a member of the community where
the study was carried out; second, not belonging to other committees of the same type for we would be sure that we are talk-
ing about the committee that constitutes our target group. Also, finally, to be a user of the water source under analysis,
because then we believe that, for these, possibly the committee could have some impact on their lives and on the lives of
their family members. Table 1 shows the socio-economic characteristics of the interviewees. The data showed that of the
15 people interviewed, 10 were female and 5 males, revealing a greater participation by women in water-related issues. In
terms of education, the data showed that only 1 person had a secondary education, the majority (9) had a primary education,
and the rest (4) had no education at all. In terms of income-generating activity, the majority (10) practiced agriculture, follow-
ing the trend of national statistics. In terms of marital status, the data showed that the majority were married, with two cases
of widows.
Table 1 |Characteristics of the Water User Committees
Sex Age Schooling Profession Marital status Committee
Female 40 Primary Trader Married Chiculute
Female 72 Illiterate Trader Widow Chiculute
Male 66 Illiterate Trader Widow Chiculute
Female 30 Secondary Trader Married Chiculute
Female 46 Primary Trader Married Chiculute
Female 53 Primary Farmer Married Chiculute
Male –Primary Farmer Married Chiculute
Male –Primary Trader Married Chiculute
Male –Primary Farmer Married Chiculute
Female 50 Illiterate Farmer Married Sumbanine
Female Not known Illiterate Farmer –Sumbanine
Female 49 Illiterate Farmer Married Sumbanine
Female 25 Primary Farmer Sumbanine
Female 41 Primary Farmer Sumbanine
Male 41 Primary Farmer Sumbanine
5
District Planning and Infrastructure Services
6
http://sinasmz.com/lizmap/lizmap/www/index.php/view/.
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Characteristics of key informants
The key informants interviewed were selected at three levels: district, provincial, and national. We used purposive sampling
to select eight key informants at all levels. The choice of informants allowed for an in-depth view of the functioning of the
water sector in Mozambique, including plans and strategies for the sector. In terms of profile, two of the informants at the
district level fulfill technical functions, two fulfill political functions, and all are male. In the province, we interviewed a
key informant who performs technical functions and has extensive experience in the country’s water sector. At the central
level, the three key informants have extensive experience in the water sector, one of them female with a political function
and the other two males with a technical function, and have participated in the formulation of policies, plans, and the
implementation of water supply projects in Mozambique.
DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
In the data collection process, we developed a question guide that directed one-to-one interviews with key informants, com-
mittee members, and source users. The interview guides were also used to guide the focus group interviews. The main topics
considered were, firstly, related to the history of the committee to understand the process of setting up the committee, as well
as establishing the key milestones in its life. Secondly, we also included topics to understand the process of selecting commit-
tee members, their responsibilities, the role of the committee in ensuring the functioning of the water source, the users’
contributions, as well as the management of any funds collected. These topics allowed us to understand the motivations
of the members, the benefits of being a member, and the capacity of the committee to remain functional, as well as to under-
stand barriers to implementation and sustainability.
DATA ANALYSIS
We used the model proposed by Richardson et al. (2008) which consists of five steps: (1) transcription of individual interviews
and focus groups; (2) search for categories; (3) detailing and selection of data which consists of grouping them according to
each question asked to the target group, (4) highlighting and selection of data; and (5) elaboration of an analysis scheme (nar-
rative synthesis). We captured the meanings and perceptions that committee members and users have regarding
sustainability, considering the social and cultural context in which they are inserted. We gave greater attention to generaliz-
ations of the responses of the respondents considering the context under analysis.
Several themes emerged from the documentary analysis, including the genesis of the establishment of the community man-
agement model, the role of committee members in guaranteeing sustainability, and the challenge of community participation.
From the empirical data, themes emerged such as the issue of accountability, the social relationships that are established
around the water supply system, and the process of appointing committee members. In addition to analyzing the official docu-
ments, a review of scientific articles on WASH and sustainability was carried out, with a focus on sub-Saharan Africa.
ETHICAL ASPECTS
This study was approved by the National Bioethics Committee of the medical school –Eduardo Mondlane University under
the reference CIBS FM&HCM/P106/2020. To safeguard against ethical issues, respondents were asked to sign an ethics com-
mitment. Respondents were explained in detail the objectives and benefits of the study in their preferred language and that
their participation in the research is voluntary. The research participants were invited to sign an informed consent form to
acknowledge their willing participation.
FINDINGS
The process of setting up the committees
The findings revealed that most participants agreed that the committees arose from the need to respond to the precepts of
decentralization, combined with the lack of human resources on the part of the District Planning and Infrastructure Services
for the management and permanent monitoring of dispersed sources.
The respondents explained that after Mozambique gained independence from Portugal in 1975 the communities were
grouped in communal villages to better serve the communities with basic services. Prior to the institutionalization of
Water User Committees under the guidance of MIPAR, there had always been ‘non-formalized’institutional mechanisms
for organizing communities to manage water supply services.
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In the context of the implementation of the rural water supply program which is extended to suburban neighborhoods, the
committee designated other positions, such as fountain caretaker and community manager. In line with this perspective of the
creation of a Water User Committee, Uandela (2012) considers that the institutionalization of Water User Committees in
Mozambique is the direct result of the decentralization process.
The assumption of decentralization as a factor in consolidating water committees is also supported by Moriarty et al. (2013)
considering that over the decade community management emerged not only as the main management model, but largely as a
reaction to the failure of centralized government service deliver. Moriarty also positions that the water committees emerged
as a by-product of the project approach of most NGOs and donors. Donors believed in the importance of giving people at the
grassroots greater influence over decisions that affect them (Manor 2004).
The decentralization of rural water supply to rural communities promoted a particular articulation of the roles and respon-
sibilities between the state and the community (Hope 2015). These theoretical perspectives are part of a neoliberal
perspective on reduced state involvement, water as a basic human right, water as an economic good, and empowerment
approaches putting users at the forefront (Harvey & Reed 2006). These authors consider that there are two more reasons
for establishing the Water User Committee approach: on the one hand, the need for NGOs and bilateral cooperation partners
to ensure the sustainability of water supply systems through the involvement and ownership of communities leading to
enhanced accountability, and on the other hand, related to the hegemonic nature of development in the sense that commu-
nity management was a concept developed predominantly in the West (Pigler apud Harvey & Reed 2006).
Selection of members
About the selection of members, the results showed that the democratic principles advocated by MIPAR for the election of
committee members were not obeyed. The community’s involvement was often by appointment, a task often delegated to the
committee president under the advice of community leaders or the neighborhood secretary. Once the committee members
have been pre-selected, they are then presented to the community for legitimization. It is therefore a top-down process at
the community level. In an interview, one participant when asked how some members were chosen, replied as follows:
‘…. They didn’t say anything, they just said that José will be our committee member…’ On how the committee came about,
he replied as follows: ‘…The owners sent Father Leonardo to build that water committee club to organize the community,
to keep the area that has water clean…’. These answers lead us to conclude that, in the perception of some members,
there is an organizational structure above them that makes decisions. In another example, there are cases where being a
member of the management committee is by inheritance as one of our interlocutors described.
‘….I was elected to replace my husband as a member of the committee, the first was my husband and I started working when
my husband lost his life and the other members said that I had to take over the position and continue drawing water with
them, I accepted…’ (Committee Member, Female).
In Gaza Province, the findings illustrated that since the departure of one of the NGOs that supported the government’s
objective of implementing the Water User Committee approach, communities have been struggling with problems of
access to water services. This phenomenon is also seen in other African countries where most water supply projects are
funded by donors and NGOs (Kativhu et al. 2018). So, the question emerges as to what changes the decision to establish
Water User Committees guarantee sustainability in a context of strong external dependence and a top-down approach. There-
fore, the analysis of the water policy indicates that Mozambique has a robust legal and regulatory framework that clearly
addresses the issue of sustainability and there is a well-structured institutional framework at four levels: 1 –Central rep-
resented by DNAAS; 2 –Provincial represented by the provincial directorates; 3 –District by the district planning and
infrastructure services; and 4 –at the local level represented by the Water User Committees capable (in theory) of responding
to the sustainability challenges of the water supply services. However, the way in which the legal processes and framework
are implemented in practice is problematic.
The role of committees in the management and provision of water services
There was unanimity among the respondents that the Water User Committees have a relevant role in the provision of water
supply services to the communities, in so far as from the users’point of view this allows regular maintenance of the water
source and receiving and managing contributions from communities for the purchase of spare parts in case of breakdown.
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Another relevant role of the Water User Committees is to guarantee the cleaning of the water source. When it was setup,
members were identified whose role would be to keep the fountain clean so that it would not be a source of disease. As
such, this group should sensitize users not to throw rubbish around the fountain, and prevent domestic animals from roaming
around the fountain so that they do not spread excreta that could contaminate the water. However, this group has no respon-
sibility for monitoring water quality. The health authorities, in coordination with the district planning and infrastructure
services, have the role of regularly taking samples and sending them to the laboratory for water quality analysis, which
does not happen regularly.
The findings also revealed that there is community recognition by water users of the role that the committee plays in
making water available and thereby enabling improved hygiene. The roles and responsibilities of the Water User Committee
demonstrate the significance it has for the community in terms of access to water. One of the roles played by the committee is
to ensure the management, maintenance of the infrastructure and repair of the source in cases of breakdown. The manage-
ment committee is defined based on its function. This committee is elected by the users or community to carry out water
infrastructure management activities for the mutual benefit of the community, operator, and local authorities. However, as
we mentioned in the previous chapter, the findings of this study revealed that the democratic principle of electing members
is not always followed.
The activities carried out by the committee should be on a voluntary basis according to Uckrow & Stephen (2012). In gen-
eral, this is fulfilled through the formation of a community water committee that is responsible for operating the system,
setting, and collecting water tariffs, and managing maintenance and repair activities. Although some community members
have a positive perception of the role of the committee in water source management, others from the same community
have the perception that there is a lack of transparency and accountability in the management of funds as illustrated by
the statement of one of the interviewees.
‘…They (the water users committees) used to have regular meetings but since last year there are no meetings and they don’t
explain why there are no meetings, when there were, they dealt with the payment of the water and the opening of a bank
account for the deposit of the amount of the water payment and they also talked about the amount available…’
(Member of Committee 2, Woman, 50 years old).
In line with this view, there are some studies that found a less positivist view of the committee’s role in the community
management of water sources. Chowns (2015) considers that community management cannot be called a ‘success’because
it has imposed unrealistic management burdens on users. Users do not fully value the health benefits of clean water, and they
face serious collective action problems in managing water supplies themselves. As a result, performance is sub-optimal: com-
munity management is not an efficient or effective framework for public service delivery. In the same perspective, Lockhood
(2004), Carter et al. (1999), Harvey et al. (2006), consider poor planning, services delivery operations and maintenance of the
water infrastructure as causes of community management failure. This may contradict expectations regarding the principles
of adopting this decentralized model by governments.’
Despite the issues that users and committee members described with the committee model, there is nevertheless a recog-
nition of the role of the committees in ensuring the functioning of water sources. The role that the committee plays in
guaranteeing access to water in the community is linked to the meaning that water has in the community. There is a gener-
alized perception that does not escape a global perception about the meaning of water …without water there is no life. The
discussion has revealed the importance of water committees as described by both the primary data and the theoretical frame-
work, but the analysis has made it possible to take a critical approach to the role of the committee and the actions of
committee members. The committees evaluated in this study have shown accountability problems and do not act effectively
in carrying out their roles.
Financing and technical issues
Findings of the study revealed that the weak willingness and capacity to pay for water, combined with poor management of
funds constitutes a financial problem that affects the sustainability of water sources. One of the systems was once supported
by an international NGO, but with the departure of the NGO from the District, the problems have been exacerbated.
This finding is in line with the Lockhood (2004) perspective. His argument is that most of the community cannot guarantee
the maintenance of the systems by themselves, and they require long-term external technical support. The solution for this, in
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part, has been the involvement of NGOs, the private sector, local and provincial government and or support associations for
access to funding and monitoring. The financial determinant matches with one of three determinants of water supply sustain-
ability from the perspective of Foster (2013).
One of the key technological factors was that in one of the communities visited in this study, the water supply system was
powered by solar panels and it was not efficient in its operation, especially on days when the sunlight was not intense. This
resulted in many days without the system supplying water. Also, and importantly, the fact that communities’members were
not trained to ensure maintenance of the water solar panels installed in one of the water sources. Therefore, when the system
breakdown they must require technical support from the district technicians. This finding is in line with Sousa et al. (2020)
and Harvey & Reed (2006) when they revealed that the technical training of the members of the community organization
responsible for maintaining the supply service is a fundamental element for the success of the model.
The complexity of the type of the system (solar panels) exacerbates the weak technical and managerial capacity of the com-
munity to manage, maintain and repair in the event of a breakdown, leading to dependence on technicians from the Province
or District.
Social-cultural issues
The social relations between members are not always harmonious, the interviews revealed the existence of conflicts between
committee members, between users and between members and users. Most of the conflicts result from a lack of understand-
ing about some decisions taken by the committee members on management and use of user contributions funds. Another
aspect that leads to conflicts among users results from the disagreement on the amount of water each member draws as illus-
trated in the following interview excerpt.
‘…Sometimes there were water conflicts because the one who drew more water in relation to the others, the community con-
trols the quantity of water measured by a 20-litre drum’(Community Member 1, female, 46 years old, Sumbanine).
The results of the study also showed that the conflicting relationships between members stem from the fact that the water
system cannot provide enough water for users, with the aggravating factor that some take the water to irrigate their fields, as
observed in the Sumabanine community. According to Mozambique’s water policy, the minimum amount of water needed
per person per day to meet their needs is 20 l for dispersed sources. Due to the frequency of conflicts between users, the com-
mittees have established rules to resolve them. In some cases, conflictive users who do not comply with the coexistence rules
are fined.
The study revealed that conflicts are common among the water committees studied. Conflicts occur both between commit-
tee members and users, as well as between committee members. The main sources of conflicts are related to water scarcity
and mismanagement of funds by the committee. These results corroborate the studies of Ndelwa (2014), in the sense that in
his studies he reveals that resource conflicts occur when resource scarcity causes competition and disagreement. Solutions for
conflict management are established at the committee level, which reveals the relevance of the committee in managing water
conflicts at the community level. The field data revealed that individuals are identified at the community level who are respon-
sible for supporting the committee in resolving water conflicts. As such, some of the procedures adopted to resolve conflicts
consist of imposing monetary fines on members who break the rules on the amount of water established for each user, while
another mechanism involves sensitizing community members who get involved in conflicts. However, there are situations in
which they are unable to resolve such conflicts due to their complexity. It should be noted that the procedures governing the
functioning of the committees do not include any measures for resolving conflicts.
Ndelwa (2014) reveals that water use conflicts are a common feature in Tanzania and affect the management and sharing of
water among the users themselves, in many cases these conflicting behaviors lead to violent actions. In the case of the com-
mittees studied in this research, there were reports of cases of witchcraft and suspected poisoning among community
members, which probably without the committee’s intervention would end in serious violence in the community.
Most of the conflicting issues observed and reported during the interviews involved women. One of the hypotheses we can
assert is the fact that most of the people who fetch water from the water points in Gaza Province are women and children.
The distribution of tasks in the communities is disaggregated by gender, with women being assigned hygiene and cleaning
tasks, while men are responsible for tasks considered heavier, such as the maintenance and placement of the fountain’s
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protective fence. In line with this, studies carried out by Van (2016) and Nhaurire (2021) show how gender roles, marital
status, and division of labor are connected to everyday water practice.
In line with the study results, Jayashree (2022) indicates that lack of access to safe water and sanitation facilities dispropor-
tionately affects girls and women: women and girls continue to have the bulk of care responsibilities (in rural communities in
particular), which includes managing the water supply and water usage, as per household needs.
Committee members’routines and motivations
The committees do not function based on an elaborate plan, plans are made based on identified problems, for example, when
there is a need to discuss an issue related to breakdowns, payments, or even when the committee receives information that
somebody from local or district government will visit the committee. Most of the committee members have income-generat-
ing activities. As committee members they do not receive payment, so to satisfy their needs, they practice some economic
activities such as agriculture or informal commerce. Like most rural communities in Mozambique, the main economic
activity of the communities surveyed is agriculture and informal trade. Therefore, the committee members’day is limited
to these activities, and they only meet when there is an issue to discuss. The meetings, when they happen, are attended by
a small number of participants, and the meetings must always take place after returning from the fields.
‘…The community understands that there is no good work because they no longer do the same work of bringing us together
as in the beginning. If they have been interrupted because of some problem with the community, they should inform the
offended parties so that they can apologize in a confiding manner so that the activities can be resumed…’ (Committee
Member, Female).
As described in the guidance of water committees, they should organize regular meetings with the participation of the water
source users; however, this study showed that these meetings do not happen regularly. The irregularity of the routine meetings
by committee members with the participation of the water source users is described by some community members as bad.
Community members’perception is that the lack of these meetings constitutes a limitation to discuss the main issues that
affect the functionality of the water point. This idea is corroborated by the IRC (2012) when it considers that one of the factors
affecting the sustainability of water infrastructure is the irregularity with which committee members meet to discuss infra-
structure management issues.
Rendering of accounts
On accountability, the results showed that the practice of rendering accounts is not exercised regularly. The meetings often
take place only when there is some breakdown of the source or when the source does not supply water regularly. The result of
this lack of regularity of meetings is that some members are no longer recognized as committee members. When asked about
the membership of the ‘Chiculute committee’, members present at the interview found it very difficult to count and name
members. However, there is an acknowledgement that initially there were 12 members, and that each member had some role.
‘You have some committee members who do not have an active participation only show up when there are meetings and
sometimes, we wonder if they are still part of the committee…stated one of the committee members’(Committee
Member 1, Male).
The lack of regular meetings among members, and between members and users, leads to a lack of regularity in sharing
information on the functionality of the committee, as well as on available funds. The lack of information on the financial
status of the committee extends to the committee members themselves. Therefore, although the committee plays a key
role in maintaining the water sources, the challenge of accountability puts the committee in a survival challenge, as users
are not motivated to make their monthly monetary contributions due to a lack of transparency. The following transcripts illus-
trate this finding:’
‘….In terms of that amount that we contributed, I’m not seeing the certain responsibility……and of that amount, because
that amount was an amount that we used to talk about that we could open a group account, but for month being an
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account of three people, then monthly we deposit that money, so until now I’m not seeing anything’.(Community member 1,
Male)
Although it is an issue that affects all the committee members and users, in general, it is the men who have shown great
concern for the way in which accountability is done. At the committee level, although women are usually responsible for
the collection of money from the water users, there is always a male element supporting the collection and management
process.
On accountability of the committee, Huston & Moriarty (2018) consider that clarity is required on the services to which
users are entitled and the payments they are expected to make for those services. In line with this perspective, projects should
adopt clear and transparent rules that allow users to select the level of service, technology, and location of facilities that best
fit their needs, with a clear understanding of the costs and responsibilities that these options bear (UNDP & World Bank
2018).
We have highlighted in this section that some practices, such as a lack of transparency in the management of the commit-
tee’sfinances, and failure to render accounts both among the members and to the users of the water source, can lead to
communities perceiving committee members as untrustworthy and in turn not feeling encouraged to pay the tariffs for
water use, with consequences for the sustainability of the system. Without funds, the committee will not be able to guarantee
the purchase of spare parts for regular maintenance of the water pump, which contrasts with the logic by which community
management was established.
Participation in committee management
The data revealed that there is resistance from some water committee members to comply with the rules established by the
committee for its operation. Resistance is often illustrated by absenteeism at meetings scheduled by the committee, and by the
reluctance of some users to contribute to the maintenance of the source. These facts are illustrated in the following excerpt:
‘…There are situations that may cause me not to participate in meetings, for example, death and when there is a meeting at
the Party Headquarters (circle), the committee meeting is cancelled, my private activities do not get in the way of the meet-
ing, and I am able to reconcile the activities and meetings of the committee’.(Committee Member 1, male, 66 years)
The process of selecting committee members goes beyond the voluntary basis or election as described in the MIPAR (2001)
guidance. It has become common for both committee members to be nominated by local leaders. Appointment of committee
members by the local leadership is a strong acceptance factor, as members cannot rationally refuse a leader’s request because
he or she represents the highest point of leadership in the community. As such, members become complacent with water
policy guidelines regarding community participation in the management of water infrastructure. The MIPAR guidelines
are often promoted by NGOs. For the case of the committees under review, the promotion of community participation in
the management of water sources was promoted by the international NGO World Vision
7
.
In both water committees, we found that there are cases of resistance from its members regarding participation in the role
of the committee. It is important to note that the low participation of members is not always due to the resistance of the com-
mittee itself. There are cases in which members do not participate due to illness or because they have other activities which
are more important than participating in the water committee meeting, as illustrated in the findings. Community participation
can be stimulated by a community itself, or by others, and begins with dialogue among members of a community to determine
who, what, and how issues are decided, and to provide an avenue for everyone to participate in decisions that affect their
lives.
However, it is important to note that although there is recognition of the role and relevance of the water committee in the
management of the source and the fact that the policy describes the principles of participation, reality has shown that water
committee members do not always get involved in the committee willingly or through their own choice and in turn have
demonstrated that they are not fully committed and not been dedicated enough to keep the committee running efficiently.
7
International Non-Government Organization operating in Mozambique
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One of the examples of resistance found during the study is related to the refusal to pay any money to guarantee the main-
tenance and repair of the water source in case of breakdown, which goes against the principle of participation recommended
by the national water policy (1991) and Harvey & Reed (2006). In line with this perspective, Hassamo (2015) consider that
the level of accountability of the committees to their members and the destination of the funds resulting from the members’
contributions, makes members reluctant when they are asked to pay monthly dues for the functioning of the committees and
to fix handpump breakdowns in a short space of time. In turn, Van (2022) found in her study that one of the reasons that users
refuse to pay is the fact that they view the well and the rivers as a common resource, indelibly tied to nature, social relations,
and religion or ‘God’, while the planners approached the handpump as a commodity that could be owned by an exclusive
group and had to be paid for.
CONCLUSION
The results of the research showed that in the context of decentralization of water supply services management, there is an
expectation from a political point of view that communities should play a key role in the management of water infrastructures.
However, contrary to political expectations, the community management model adopted in Gaza Province, Mozambique has
not fully fulfilled these expectations and has failed to deliver a satisfactory level of sustainable services. Among the reasons
affecting the performance of the committees, we highlight the following: lack of structures in place to monitor accountability,
lack of transparency, and a weak process of selecting committee members. In addition, internal conflicts between members
and users, and payment of tariffs by users featured heavily as barriers to the success of the committees. From a management
perspective, weak management capacity and resistance to complying with committee rules significantly hampered the legiti-
macy of the Water User Committees. In addition, the wrong perception that communities are driven only by volunteering for
their involvement in water committees emphasized by the MIPAR, proves to be out of context with reality.
Despite these challenges, the findings of these studies illustrate that water committees remain relevant actors in the decen-
tralization process of water supply services at the rural level. However, for their actions to be conducive to the sustainability
of services, it is necessary that technical and managerial support by the local government be constant until water committee
members and users reach a high level of awareness of their role in the provision of services and the exercise of their duties in
response to the decentralization process. Further research on this subject is recommended to improve the understanding of
issues affecting sustainability with a focus on social-cultural factors.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare there is no conflict.
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