A Mini Review: Wave Energy Converters Technology, Potential Applications and Current Research in Indonesia

Abstract

Wave energy is a promising renewable resource and is increasingly in demand in most countries, including Indonesia. The potential for the use of wave energy is quite large in Indonesia, especially in areas with coastlines that are directly exposed to open ocean waters. The use of this wave energy has the potential to be integrated with breakwater buildings in several locations as an alternative that can be considered. This is a significant solution, especially in areas where the implementation of network connections is not possible. However, wave energy technology among other renewable technologies is still considered in ongoing development. Another obstacle is the challenge of energy transfer where there is a requirement for a steady and uninterrupted energy supply, while the voltage generated from the surge can vary continuously. Therefore, this paper shows a general overview of wave energy converter (WEC) technology and power conversion. A solid perception concerning them is outlined. Furthermore, this paper describes research and projects for energy conversion and wave power as well as alternatives to WEC technology and suitable locations in Indonesia.

Full text

九州大学学術情報リポジトリ
Kyushu University Institutional Repository
A Mini Review: Wave Energy Converters
Technology, Potential Applications and Current
Research in Indonesia
Muhammad Alfan Santoso
Integrated Port-Coastal Zone Planning and Management Research Group, Research Center for
Hydrodynamic Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN)
Wijayanti, Yureana
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Bina Nusantara University
Ridwan Budi Prasetyo
Integrated Port-Coastal Zone Planning and Management Research Group, Research Center for
Hydrodynamic Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN)
Setyandito, Oki
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Bina Nusantara University
他
https://doi.org/10.5109/7151712
出版情報：Evergreen. 10 (3), pp.1642-1650, 2023-09. 九州大学グリーンテクノロジー研究教育セン
ター
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EVERGREEN Joint Journal of Novel Carbon Resource Sciences & Green Asia Strategy, Vol. 10, Issue 03, pp1642-1650, September 2023
A Mini Review: Wave Energy Converters Technology,
Potential Applications and Current Research in Indonesia
Muhammad Alfan Santoso1, Yureana Wijayanti2,*, Ridwan Budi Prasetyo1,
Oki Setyandito2, Nizam3, Aprijanto1, Andri Subandriya4, Aries Taufiq Kurniawan5,
Agus Sudaryanto6, and Bayu Sutejo7
1Integrated Port-Coastal Zone Planning and Management Research Group, Research Center for
Hydrodynamic Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jakarta, Indonesia
2Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia 11480
3Department of Civil and Environment Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Gadjah Mada University,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
4Research Center for Energy Conversion and Conservation, National Research and Innovation Agency
(BRIN), Jakarta, Indonesia
5Master Program in System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia
6Research Center for Environmental and Clean Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency
(BRIN), Banten, Indonesia
7Geospatial for Disaster and Energy Potential, Geospatial Research Center, National Research and Innovation
Agency (BRIN), Bogor, Indonesia 16911
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:
Email: yureana.wijayanti@binus.ac.id
(Received February 8, 2023; Revised August 15, 2023; accepted September 2, 2023).
Abstract: Wave energy is a promising renewable resource and is increasingly in demand in most
countries, including Indonesia. The potential for the use of wave energy is quite large in Indonesia,
especially in areas with coastlines that are directly exposed to open ocean waters. The use of this
wave energy has the potential to be integrated with breakwater buildings in several locations as an
alternative that can be considered. This is a significant solution, especially in areas where the
implementation of network connections is not possible. However, wave energy technology among
other renewable technologies is still considered in ongoing development. Another obstacle is the
challenge of energy transfer where there is a requirement for a steady and uninterrupted energy
supply, while the voltage generated from the surge can vary continuously. Therefore, this paper
shows a general overview of wave energy converter (WEC) technology and power conversion. A
solid perception concerning them is outlined. Furthermore, this paper describes research and projects
for energy conversion and wave power as well as alternatives to WEC technology and suitable
locations in Indonesia.
Keywords: wave energy; power take-off; renewable energy; ocean energy; power conversion
1. Introduction
Wave energy has emerged as a renewable energy
source1), besides solar2–5), wind6,7), biomass8–11), and
geothermal12,13), which already developed earlier, due to
the energy crisis and environmental concerns14,15). One of
the many benefits of wave energy is the percentage of
power generation. Wave energy power is up to 90%
compared to wind or solar devices is 20-30%1). Also, it has
high applicability regarding the location where around
37% of the world’s population lives in the coastal area16)
and it has relatively low obstacles from the coastal
environment1) and from social conflict17,18). However,
there are challenges in wave energy technology, such as
wave energy implementation requires stages to convert
the oscillatory motion of waves into electricity output to
the grid19,20), the power level varies in accordance with
wave height and period which inquire certain energy
storage system types to ensure a regular power output21,22)
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EVERGREEN Joint Journal of Novel Carbon Resource Sciences & Green Asia Strategy, Vol. 10, Issue 03, pp1642-1650, September 2023
and funding barrier as the wave energy converter plant
needs large investment23). Important factors to evaluate
wave energy resources are wave variability24), wave
climate availability25), and power estimation16). A steady
and moderate wave is more reliable than a strong but
unsteady wave, hence the sites with a such steady wave
are more appropriate for the implementation of wave
energy26). Many researchers have conducted research and
evaluation on wave energy resources of areas or countries,
such as Swedish27), Australia28), Africa29), China30–33), and
Indonesia34,35).
The policy of Indonesian national energy stated that the
renewable energy target is at least 23% of the total energy
power must be met by 202536). In the meantime, in 2022,
the quantity of renewable energy power plants is around
11.6%, which is still below the target of national installed
capacity37). Water for energy is one of the alternatives to
the problem of an increase in energy demand38,39).
Indonesia has a coastline of 54,716 km40) and is located
between two oceans that have enormous potential to be
used as new renewable energy. Rizal and Ningsih35) have
conducted research on 20 locations of wave energy
throughout Indonesia. A site can be selected for the
placement of a wave power generation system if the
annual mean wave energy is > 15 kW/m41). Furthermore,
the southern location of Java also has the potential for
wave energy42,43), and even Bali and West Nusa Tenggara
have wave energy available throughout the year44). This
finding is in alignment with other research results and
shows that south java45) and the sea south of Kuta Bali are
potential locations for the placement of a wave energy
generation system46). Meanwhile, a study on Sumatra’s
west coast was conducted regarding evaluating the
potential for wave energy47). Ribal et al.48) have developed
a map of wave energy flux in Indonesia using a satellite
with a high resolution of about 5.5 km (Figure 1).
Fig. 1: Wave energy flux climate in Indonesia48)
The mean wave power in Indonesia can reach up to 30
kW/m or potentially higher. Small islands located farther
north and west of Sumatra can also tap into wave power
as an alternative energy source, reducing their reliance on
electricity from the mainland. The study also revealed that
wave energy is consistently accessible year-round in
certain areas, such as the southern part of Java Island, Bali
Island, and West Nusa Tenggara. In the west Sumatera
region, wave energy shows great potential specifically
from March to November, offering a substantial resource
during that period.
There have been many studies related to wave energy
potential and studies related to technology35,36), however,
it is still rare to discuss the Power take-off (PTO)
technology which is the core part of the wave energy
converter (WEC) that has the potential to be applied in
Indonesia. Likewise, when carrying out efficiency
calculations and economic feasibility studies depend on
the PTO system49).
This paper aimed to review the wave energy converters
and power conversions in Indonesia that can be used to
understand their status and further research direction in
energy conversion or PTO systems. This paper will briefly
describe WEC and PTO, then proceed with looking at the
research studies on WEC and PTO that have been carried
out to understand the description of their applications in
Indonesia.
2. Methods
The approach employed in this review relies on a
scoping review protocol developed using the Preferred
Reporting of Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analysis (PRISMA). Figure 2 shows the PRISMA flow
diagram.
Fig. 2: PRISMA flow diagram for the study
It consists of several steps50) such as defining eligibility
criteria, defining information sources, study selection,
data collection process, data item selection, and eligibility
criteria. A systematic search was conducted to find all
articles published in English and other languages related
to the subject of the current review from 2000 to 2022 in
Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, Taylor and
Francis as well as Google Scholar databases51,52). Scopus,
being widely recognized for its extensive range of
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A Mini Review: Wave Energy Converters Technology, Potential Applications and Current Research in Indonesia
bibliometric data52-53), is the preferred choice. Previous
authors54,55) who conducted systematic literature reviews
on construction materials also utilized the Scopus
database, thus validating its selection as the data retrieval
tool for this review. To ensure the relevance of journal
articles to the current investigation, an inclusion/exclusion
criterion was established. The search strings or keywords
used for the search are "wave energy, wave energy
converter, power technology in coastal and marine areas,
site for wave energy converter, tidal energy, marine
renewable energy, and ocean current power generation".
The articles found were then selected according to the
scope of the subject of this current review.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Variety of wave energy converters
WEC devices are designed and developed according to
their location of harvest. It can be located offshore,
nearshore, or onshore, which is defined by the gap
between the beach line and the sea water level of the WEC
location16,56) (Figure 3).
Fig. 3: A typical WEC location at the marine waters16)
WEC devices located onshore are either attached to a
breakwater or placed on the coastline area. The working
principles that are suitable for this location are oscillating
water column (OWC) or overtopping (OT) devices. In
OWC, the water pressure is directed across a chamber
column19), while in OT, the water pressure is captured in
the form of a reservoir wave energy extraction57). The
objective of these techniques is to increase the wave’s
pressure58) or air pressure59) to generate electricity.
The advantage of the onshore location is easy to
maintain, has a lower cost (absence of mooring cable), and
has fewer obstacles60). On the other hand, waves onshore
are weakened, hence the energy is low. Examples of WEC
onshore devices are Limpet and SSG, for OWC and OT,
respectively56,61) (Table 1).
Table 1. WEC technology categories based on their working
principles and locations16,56).
WEC
categories
Working principles
Location and
example of device
Oscillating
Water
Column
(OWC)
• Onshore : Limpet
• Nearshore :
Oceanlix
• Offshore : OE
Buoy
Oscillating
Body or
Water
Activated
Bodies
(WAB)
• Nearshore : CETO
III, Oyster,
Seareaser,
WaveStar
• Offshore :
Archimides Wave
Swing AWS,
PowerBuoy,
Pelamis
Overtopping
(OT)
• Onshore : SSG
• Nearshore :
Waveplane
• Offshore : Wave
dragon
The working principle suitable for nearshore WEC
devices is OWC, OT, or water-activated bodies (WAB).
The points that should be taken into consideration in
applying these devices are mooring cost, sea cable
placement, and the possibility of medium wave energy
(located before the wave-breaking zone). Some examples
of nearshore WEC devices which has been implemented
are CETO and Oyster in the UK and WaveStar in
Denmark.
Research on WEC around the world in 2017-2021
shows that the oscillating body type is the most studied
type, followed by OWC and WEC overtopping60) (Tab le
2).
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EVERGREEN Joint Journal of Novel Carbon Resource Sciences & Green Asia Strategy, Vol. 10, Issue 03, pp1642-1650, September 2023
Table 2. WEC research locations from 2017-202160)
There are 3 (three) ways to harness wave power:
hydraulically, pneumatically, and mechanically. These
forms of gaining energy are called Take-Off systems or
Power take-off (PTO)62), and they consist of several
phases depending on the types of conversions that occur
(primary, secondary, and tertiary conversion) until gaining
the correct signal for input to the grid63) (Figure 4).
Fig. 4: Stages of wave energy conversion, modified from
Jusoh et.al63)
Primary conversion is the conversion of wave motion
(in airflow, water flow, or body movement) through
hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical systems1). The
objective of this conversion is to transform the waves’ low
frequency (1 Hz) into a quick movement by pneumatic
and mechanical systems, to enhance the velocity of the
flow. Secondary conversion includes the energy
conversion from the generated workflow in the previous
stage, into electricity. The components employed for this
are hydraulic turbines and pneumatic turbines and
electrical generators. Tertiary conversion delivers the
correct power signal for grid input.
PTO systems are a very important element of WEC.
The feasibility of the WEC relies on its PTO system.
Many various concepts have been conducted to design the
PTO system of the WEC49) (Figure 5). The PTO system’s
working methods most used methods are the hydraulic
motor, turbine transfer, and direct mechanical and direct
electrical drive. Yet, there are some new methods such as
hybrid systems, triboelectric nanogenerators, and others.
Fig. 5: The PTO system’s working principles, modified from
Ahmed et al.49)
Estimating the economic value of a newly developed
wave energy converter during its journey from
conceptualization to commercialization poses a challenge.
The widely accepted metric for assessing the economic
potential of energy technologies is the levelized cost of
energy (LCoE)64). Nevertheless, estimating the LCoE for
wave energy technologies is complicated by the absence
of dominant technology and uncertainties related to
untested PTO system65,66,59,67).
3.2. Discussion
WEC system research and projects are developed into
simulation and experimental. The experimentation
consists of laboratory and small-scale prototypes. Several
simulation models, laboratory-sized experiments, and
small-scale prototypes are included in this paper. In
Indonesia, several researchers have also studied the
potential application of WEC technology in electrical
energy such as OWC, oscillating body, and overtopping.
A summary of the WEC research in Indonesia is presented
in Table 3.
Table 3. Types of W E C Research in Indonesia
WEC
PTO
Reference
Oscillating water column
(OWC)
Pneumatic
68,69,70,71,72)
N/A
73,74,75,76)
Oscillating body (water
activated bodies) using
Pelamis, AquaBuoy &
Wavebob located offshore
Hydraulic
77)
Oscillating body, Floating
WEC using RM3
Hydraulic
78)
Oscillating body, Floating
WEC using WaveStar,
located onshore
N/A
74,79)
Hybrid, Floating WEC
with solar & wind energy
Hydraulic
80)
Author
Affilia tio n
Year
2017-2021
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
China 256 353 471 620 754 504 680 856 1038 1382 9 16 18 17 33
Indo nes ia NA 3224544128NA NA NA NA NA
So uth Kore a 28 27 33 32 47 74 77 88 71 91 6 NA 212
Japan 30 40 44 61 57 78 100 115 119 118 2 2 1 2 2
Ma lay sia 11 5 11 13 10 19 16 24 23 31 3 NA NA NA 1
Singap ore 9 24 18 23 17 36 52 38 43 39 1 1 1 2 NA
Tha iland 23683366 915NA NA NA NA NA
Vietnam 2 3 4 4 2 4 10 9 18 6 1 NA NA 1NA
Canada 48 65 65 78 77 96 96 115 121 180 NA 5 1 NA 3
Germany 110 88 108 112 126 223 222 232 245 267 NA NA NA NA 1
France 95 105 99 110 121 165 158 169 218 218 3 1 1 NA 1
Italy 81 95 92 82 102 163 177 200 173 184 3 2 8 8 3
Netherlands 27 32 28 41 31 62 70 60 79 54 1 1 NA 3 2
Sp a in 121 96 116 114 127 131 131 169 159 170 9 9 14 8 1
UK 78 90 99 143 121 170 214 196 219 246 5 9 14 4 11
USA 211 230 219 278 280 410 393 443 458 518 5 5 7 4 3
Os cillat ing Wa ter C olumn
Oscillating Water Body
Ove rtopp ing (WEC)
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A Mini Review: Wave Energy Converters Technology, Potential Applications and Current Research in Indonesia
Rahman & Setiyawan69) simulate the OWC devices that
the electricity generated is enough for Alindau Village
demand. Other researchers conducted a laboratory
experiment on the ocean wave characteristics’ effect on air
pressure in OWC68). The potential of electrical energy
generation by the OWC located at 3 locations on the
nearshore of Baron Beach was simulated, and one OWC
device can produce 4.7 MWh/year of electricity70). OWC
was also studied by integrating simulation and prototype
approach to determine the potential rotation of electric
motor drive shaft in the design of the ocean wave power
plant buoy system, located in Bangka Island,
Sumatera71,72). A laboratory experiment was also
conducted by Husain75) on OWC modification using a
double-water-chamber type seawall, which was designed
to enhance the effective wavelength to increase the
efficiency rate and decrease the reflection wave.
Floating WEC located onshore was studied by Madi et
al.79), where a laboratory scale experiment was performed
in a 1:20 scale model of a flap-float horizontal WEC to
study the effect of its arm design. Further study should be
conducted using irregular waves. Aji et al.78) conducted a
simulation of a floating-point absorber buoy, using the
RM3 device on the Sumatras’ west coast (south Pagai
Island II, Enggano Island), southern coast of Java (Cilacap
and Jember area), and south coast of Bali. Another
simulation on floating WEC was performed by Jufri et
al.64)
Haryuda et al.80) proposed hybrid wind energy,
photovoltaic (PV), and floating WEC system with a
hydraulic system to rotate a 1 KW power 3 phase power
generator. The result of this experiment shows that solar
PV systems hybrid with WEC produce electricity higher
than a hybrid with wind turbines. Setyandito et al.83)
conducted a laboratory experiment of overtopping WEC,
where this device was intended to be attached to the
breakwater structure. However, this study is still
preliminary and should continue to determine the PTO
system that is suitable for this type of WEC. Wahyudie et
al.77) was determining the most suitable locations for the
WEC installation on the south coast of Yogyakarta and
Central Java province. After that, the performance of 3
(three) floating WEC devices of the Pelamis (offshore
semi-submerged slack-moored WEC), the AquaBuoy
(offshore semi-submerged heaving WEC), and the
Wavebob (offshore two-body heaving WEC), was
examined in two sites off the coast of Penyu Bay and
Yogyakarta. For these sites, the Pelamis produced the
highest average annual energy yield of 1.35 GWh, and
1.11 GWh, for the Yogyakarta site and Penyu Bay site,
respectively. It is because regarding wave-to-wire
efficiency, the Pelamis has higher efficiency of wave
power in low intensities. The electrical energy yielded by
solar photovoltaic and floating WEC is 3,574 KW.
The electrical energy produced by wind turbines and
floating WEC is 3,397 KW. The hybrid WEC incorporates
other renewable energy sources to ensure a continuous
power supply84). This integration could also benefit
lowering the cost by using the established offshore wind
turbines20) or/and solar photovoltaic.
4. Conclusion
The effective utilization of renewable resources holds
great promise in Indonesia due to its extensive coastline
and abundant wave resources. One of the challenges,
however, lies in refining the method of harnessing wave
power. Across the globe, there has been substantial
research and implementation of Wave Energy converter
(WEC) devices. This brief review aims to shed light on
the existing WEC technology, encompassing its power
conversion systems, as well as the ongoing WEC research
landscape in Indonesia. Additionally, this review unveils
select studies pinpointing optimal wave energy harvesting
locations. These locations are situated in south Java, Bali,
and west Sumatra. The southern location of Java, even
Bali, and West Nusa Tenggara have wave energy available
throughout the year reaching 30 kW/m. Several
researchers have also studied the potential application of
WEC to electrical energy such as OWC, oscillating body,
and overtopping. The potential locations for the WEC
installation are on the Indian Ocean, on the south coast of
Yogyakarta, and in Central Java province. The Pelamis
produced the highest average annual energy yield of 1.35
GWh. Regarding wave-to-wire efficiency, the Pelamis has
higher efficiency of wave power in low intensities. This is
an interesting finding that the Pelamis device shows high
energy production The potential for this wave energy
market niche is developed in small and remote islands in
Indonesia which are far from the reach of integrated
electricity such as the coastal areas of North Maluku, West
Papua and Papua, NTT or the WEC system installed in
this location can be an alternative energy source for
electrical energy has increased. Hence, the WEC system
installed in this location could be an alternative energy
source for this area. The integration of WCE and other
established offshore renewable energy source (e.g wind
turbine or/and solar PV) not only stabilize power output
fluctuations but also could reduce the cost. Hence, it will
increase competitiveness in its implementation.
The research on WEC is mainly focused on developing
WEC extraction devices, optimizing WEC devices, and/or
oceanography study. The research on PTO system
development in Indonesia is still at an early phase,
therefore further research in energy conversion or PTO
system is encouraged to understand the efficiency,
reliability, and cost factor of the overall WEC system.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our institutions of National
Research and Innovation Agency, Bina Nusantara
University, and Gadjah Mada University which facilitate
us in conducting collaboration work.
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