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Everyday racism as a threat to the masculine social self: Framing investigations of African American male health disparities.
... Further, to counter everyday racism and pervasive negative stereotypes and representations of Black men as threatening, criminals, and aggressive (Collins, 2005;Dottolo & Stewart, 2008;hooks, 2004;Hammond & Mattis, 2005;Staples, 2004), many Black men in the United States enact a form of masculinity known as "cool pose" that is characterized by impression management, behavior, and physical posturing to convey pride, strength, and control (hooks, 2004;Majors & Billson, 1992). Furthermore, scholars note that racism exacerbates the precarious nature of masculinity for Black men, who may engage in a variety of behaviors to reassert power and control, including healthpromoting behaviors and spiritual practices or risky and at times combative behavior (Hammond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016). Finally, Black men are often expected to conform to dominant notions of manhood that involve aggression, competition, and dominance while simultaneously satisfying African American cultural norms of cooperation and group promotion (McClure, 2006;Oliver, 1989;Pierre et al., 2001). ...
... Nevertheless, they continued to use these same standards of masculinity when evaluating whether they and others are "real men" (i.e., gender policing; Levy, 2007). When one considers these findings in the context of the precarious state of manhood as a status that can be revoked if not continually maintained (Hammond et al., 2016;Vandello & Bosson, 2013), our results have strong implications for mental health practitioners, highlighting how expectations of manhood may be rewarding in many ways, but also have significant costs for men's psychological and physical health. In particular, attempts to meet masculine ideals may reduce certain types of self-care, such as seeking counseling or medical treatment (Vandello & Bosson, 2013;Wong et al., 2017). ...
... Additionally, traditional masculinity ideology is the dominant cultural standard of masculinity, yet it marginalizes men of color (Connell, 1995;Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005;Levant & Richmond, 2007). Because men may use their engagement in masculine behaviors in their own self-evaluations (Witt & Wood, 2010), this may especially create problems for Black men who continue to face barriers in their access to traditional masculinity (e.g., via everyday racism; Hammond et al., 2016). Mental health professionals should address these pressures of traditional masculinity, and attend to the relational traditional masculinity that we found among the Black men in our study, as it may help to counter these negative effects by increasing feelings of self-efficacy related to enacting masculinity (Maddux & Gosselin, 2012). ...
Traditional masculinity delineates a hegemonic set of beliefs and expectations about manhood in the United States that are most applicable to White men and marginalize men of color. In this study, we used an intersectional, qualitative framework to examine the role of race and power in shaping Black (n = 11) and White (n = 12) men’s perceptions and experiences of manhood. Analysis of focus group data revealed two ways in which power was linked to manhood. First, men expressed that manhood was linked with responsibility—however, Black men were responsible to a wider network of individuals (e.g., extended family, the Black community) than White men, who were primarily responsible to their immediate family. Nevertheless, both groups of men perceived that responsibility provided them with power and status, but was also precarious. Second, although both Black and White men acknowledged their gender privilege, they simultaneously positioned themselves as targets of oppression, but in different ways. Together, our results suggest that whereas White men’s experiences of manhood are consistent with traditional masculinity, Black men’s experiences are more relational and interdependent in nature, reflecting racial power dynamics and sociohistorical context. Our intersectional approach enabled us to critically analyze race for both Black and White men, thereby naming and interrogating Whiteness in experiences of manhood and destabilizing its status as normative. Our results have implications for researchers and mental health practitioners, calling them to critically consider the role of race, power, and privilege—including Whiteness—when engaging with masculinity and manhood.
... Although neuroticism is a personality feature that is potentially important in understanding forgiveness, we also take note of empirical findings that implicate masculinity norms as important forces in the ERD-forgiveness dynamic among men. Indeed, recent theoretical frameworks and empirical findings suggest that the way that masculinity norms play a role in the primary appraisal of racial discrimination (Hammond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016;Matthews et al., 2013) and that these norms are generally linked to diminished forgiveness (Hammond et al., 2006;Walker & Doverspike, 2001). In particular, masculinity norms encouraging emotion restriction were associated with lower forgiveness of racial discrimination scores particularly among younger African American men and facilitators of forgiveness among older men (Ham-mond et al., 2006). ...
... Racial discrimination demeans and dehumanizes individuals, erodes hope, increases anxiety, contributes to cardiovascular disease and poor health outcomes and disrupts individuals' access to the opportunity structure and to critical resources including employment and health care (Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999;Watkins, 2012). For African American men, racial discrimination may also serve as a challenge or threat to gender roles including the role of provider or breadwinner (Hammond et al., 2016). In community contexts, gendered forms of racism (e.g., racial profiling of men) can increase men's levels of stress, carry substantial financial costs associated with lost wages and the need to secure legal protection against the assaults of transgressors, and cost men their lives. ...
... In community contexts, gendered forms of racism (e.g., racial profiling of men) can increase men's levels of stress, carry substantial financial costs associated with lost wages and the need to secure legal protection against the assaults of transgressors, and cost men their lives. Watkins (2012) and Hammond et al. (2016) propose that the stresses associated with racism accumulate over the life-course, leaving men vulnerable to a range of poor health and mental health outcomes including depression as they age. What remains unclear is which factors moderate the relationship between racism and depressive symptomatology among men. ...
Everyday racial discrimination (ERD) is linked to pronounced depressive symptomatology among African American men. Yet, many African American men do not experience depressive symptoms following ERD exposure often because they use positive coping strategies that offset its effects. Granting forgiveness is 1 coping strategy associated with less depression. However, extant findings about the mental health benefits of forgiveness are somewhat mixed and pay scarce attention to offenses which are fleeting, historically rooted, and committed outside of close personal relationships. Evidence further suggest age-related differences in forgiveness, ERD exposure, and depressive symptoms. We explore the extent to which 3 strategies of granting forgiveness of ERD—letting go of negative emotion (negative release), embracing positive emotion (positive embrace), or combining both (combined)—are associated with less depressive symptomatology in 674 African American men (ages 18 through 79). Building on past findings, we also test whether these forgiveness strategies moderate the ERD-depressive symptoms relationship for men in different age groups (18 through 25, 26 through 39, and 40). Higher combined and negative release forgiveness were directly related to lower depressive symptoms among 18 through 25 year olds. We also detected a less pronounced positive relationship between ERD and depressive symptoms among men reporting high levels of combined (18 through 25 and 26 through 39 groups) and negative release (26 through 39 and 40+ groups) forgiveness. We observed a more pronounced positive ERD-depressive symptoms relationship among 18 through 25 and 26 through 39 year olds reporting lower forgiveness. When faced with frequent ERD, younger African American men may have the most difficult time burying hatchets without marking their location but experience more positive mental health benefits when they do.
... This conceptualization is consistent with other theories of masculinity and African-American men's health. 83 Our model focuses on those racerelated stress events characterized as "everyday racial discrimination" (ERD) because of their chronicity, persistence, and well-established relationship with negative psychological states. 78,80,84,85 We also focus on one specific negative psychological state most consistently associated with ERD, depressed mood. ...
... The RaLes has demonstrated concurrent validity and correlates positively with the Index of Race-Related Stress, a conceptually similar measure and has also shown internal consistency (Cronbach's α=0. 83 to 0.90) in a community-based sample of Blacks 102 . For this study, Cronbach's α was 0.95. ...
... African-American men face a number of race-related threats that are theorized to work in tandem with masculinity to impact their health behavior. 83 We found that the most significant health help-seeking barriers arose among African-American men who reported more frequent exposure to everyday racial discrimination. We also found that men with more frequent everyday racial discrimination reported more barriers to health help-seeking. ...
Men's tendency to delay health help-seeking is largely attributed to masculinity, but findings scarcely focus on African American men who face additional race-related, help-seeking barriers. Building principally on reactance theory, we test a hypothesized model situating racial discrimination, masculinity norms salience (MNS), everyday racism (ERD), racial identity, sense of control (SOC), and depressive symptomatology as key barriers to African American men's health help-seeking. A total of 458 African American men were recruited primarily from US barbershops in the Western and Southern regions. The primary outcome was Barriers to Help-Seeking Scale (BHSS) scores. The hypothesized model was investigated with confirmatory factor and path analysis with tests for measurement invariance. Our model fit was excellent [Formula: see text] CFI = 0.99; TLI = 1.00; RMSEA = 0.00, and 90% CI [0.00, 0.07] and operated equivalently across different age, income, and education strata. Frequent ERD and higher MNS contributed to higher BHHS scores. The relationship between ERD exposure and BHHS scores was partially mediated by diminished SOC and greater depressive symptomatology. Interventions aimed at addressing African American men's health help-seeking should not only address masculinity norms but also threats to sense of control, and negative psychological sequelae induced by everyday racism.
... Several scholars have proposed theoretical conceptualizations about how racism affects men of color's gender identity and stress. Hammond, Fleming, and Villa-Torres (2016) proposed an integrated biopsychosocial model explaining how everyday racism threatens and challenges the masculine social self for African American men. They specified that when the significance and meaning of everyday racism exceeds the resources to overcome them, racism elicits negative evaluations or internal judgments about the core aspects of African American men's identity. ...
... Second, experiences of social rejection, alienation, and marginalization related to racism threatens men of color's power and sense of self as men (Liu, 2002). Third, racism placed men of color at the margin for resource competition, thus affecting their ability to perform masculine gender roles, such as providing for their families (Hammond et al., 2016). ...
Dialecticism, a cultural worldview commonly found in East Asian cultures, embraces the Taoist notion of yin (negative and passive) and yang (positive and active), which represents opposing elements that coexist harmoniously in all things in the world, including the self. This chapter explores four broad areas at the interface of dialecticism and mental health. It begins with a review of research on dialectical lay beliefs about mental health. The influence of dialecticism on mental health outcomes is then analyzed, as well as how dialecticism can be incorporated into conceptualizations and assessments of mental health. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how dialecticism can inform culturally competent clinical interventions. Throughout the chapter, gaps in the literature are identified and future directions given for research on dialecticism and mental health.
... Furthermore, race and gender intersect in ways leading to qualitatively unique appraisals of racial discrimination. Experiences of racial discrimination may be evaluated as distinct threats and challenges to masculinity among African American men, which can further lead to detrimental mental health consequences (Essed, 1991;Hammond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016). ...
... In this study, we focus on African American men, who have been found to be particularly susceptible to racial discrimination. Furthermore, the intersection between race and gender influences how racial identity and how psychological distress is expressed in this group (Essed, 1991;Hammond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016). In light of the qualitatively distinct racialized experiences of African American men, there is a need to address the paucity of research examining relationships between racial discrimination, racial identity, and mental health outcomes specifically in this group. ...
Racial discrimination is conceptualized as a psychosocial stressor that has negative implications for mental health. However, factors related to racial identity may influence whether negative experiences are interpreted as instances of racial discrimination and subsequently reported as such in survey instruments, particularly given the ambiguous nature of contemporary racism. Along these lines, dimensions of racial identity may moderate associations between racial discrimination and mental health outcomes. This study examined relationships between racial discrimination, racial identity, implicit racial bias, and depressive symptoms among African American men between 30 and 50 years of age (n = 95). Higher racial centrality was associated with greater reports of racial discrimination, while greater implicit anti-Black bias was associated with lower reports of racial discrimination. In models predicting elevated depressive symptoms, holding greater implicit anti-Black bias in tandem with reporting lower racial discrimination was associated with the highest risk. Results suggest that unconscious as well as conscious processes related to racial identity are important to consider in measuring racial discrimination, and should be integrated in studies of racial discrimination and mental health.
... Several scholars have proposed theoretical conceptualizations about how racism affects men of color's gender identity and stress. Hammond, Fleming, and Villa-Torres (2016) proposed an integrated biopsychosocial model explaining how everyday racism threatens and challenges the masculine social self for African American men. They specified that when the significance and meaning of everyday racism exceeds the resources to overcome them, racism elicits negative evaluations or internal judgments about the core aspects of African American men's identity. ...
... Second, experiences of social rejection, alienation, and marginalization related to racism threatens men of color's power and sense of self as men (Liu, 2002). Third, racism placed men of color at the margin for resource competition, thus affecting their ability to perform masculine gender roles, such as providing for their families (Hammond et al., 2016). ...
Asian American men’s experience of discrimination, based on the intersection of their gender and race, has gained research attention in past decades. However, the application of an intersectionality perspective in this area of research has been somewhat inconsistent. Therefore, this article presents 3 intersectionality conceptual paradigms that can be applied to the study of Asian American men’s experience of discrimination based on race and gender: (a) the Cumulative Disadvantage Paradigm, (b) the Subordinate Male Target Hypothesis Paradigm, and (c) the Intersectional Fusion Paradigm. In this article, we provide a description of these paradigms, a review of the empirical research supporting these paradigms, and an evaluation of the extent to which these paradigms are applicable to Asian American men’s experience of discrimination. We hope that this article can provide theoretical guidance to researchers and assist them in generating new study questions to address Asian American men’s experience of discrimination.
... However, prior work has been correlational. In addition, whereas prior experimental work has suggested that racism provides a threat to the masculine identities of men of color (e.g., Goff et al., 2012;Hammond et al., 2016;Liang et al., 2011;Wong et al., 2014), to the best of our knowledge no prior work has examined if threats to White men's masculinity leads to racism, anti-immigrant attitudes, or Islamophobia. ...
Culturally idealized forms of masculinity have been suggested to be endorsed and internalized by men, resulting masculine identities that are easily threatened and inspire status-quo-reinforcing outcomes. The present examined whether receiving gender-incongruent feedback, which was predicted to threaten masculinity in men (but not femininity in women), serially led to public discomfort, anger, and status-quo-reinforcing prejudice toward members of marginalized groups. To test predictions, men and women in two studies ( N = 606) took an apparent gender knowledge test and received feedback indicating that their scores were more similar to the average score of women or men. Consistent with predictions, when men received gender-incongruent information they felt more public discomfort and subsequent anger that, in turn, predicted anti-Black attitudes (Study 1), anti-immigrant attitudes (Study 2), and Islamophobia (Study 2); these effects were not significant among women. The present findings replicate prior research showing that, when receiving gender-incongruent information, men experience threats to masculinity that lead to acts of dominance and aggression, which reinforce men-s dominance over women. The present findings also provide novel evidence that threats to men's masculinity—via public discomfort and anger—arouse White men's dominance over marginalized masculinities.
... If his wages place him at or below the poverty line, he is more likely to be reliant on public transportation, which would further increase his time away from family. He may distrust the medical system due to a history of discrimination (Hammond et al., 2016), and he may face substantial challenges accessing health care due to the number of hours he works and transportation challenges. In this scenario, we might ask how much importance he gives to the masculine criteria of breadwinning (and other criteria), the extent to which he believes he is achieving these criteria, and the extent to which he enacts a "provider" type of masculinity. ...
Masculinity is a central construct within the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinities and has been a component of a substantial amount of research. At the same time, masculinity has been examined from a variety of theoretical perspectives that exist at a range of levels of analysis (e.g., individual differences, immediate environment, societal/environmental influence). The range of theories and the variety of levels of analysis point to the complex nature of masculinity, create barriers to the integration of research findings, and hinder the field’s ability to communicate and apply this research to men’s lives. In this article, I present the multifaceted masculinity framework (MFMF) as a method of organizing different theoretical approaches and findings while also facilitating application and communication. The MFMF posits that focusing on four established research constructs—criteria, achievement, types, and negotiations—would achieve these goals. The MFMF is presented in full, including examples of integration within each construct, primarily in the realm of providing/breadwinning. Applications and implications of the framework for both researcher and interventionists are provided to help guide future work. Connections with intersectional approaches are addressed throughout the article. Limitations, particularly regarding the boundaries of masculinity, are addressed in some detail.
... Although this model can be applied to the experiences of BIPOC men living in the U.S., it does not account for their unique experiences of dealing with historical, generational and current racial stressors (e.g. police brutality, academic expectations, athleticism) (Hammond et al., 2016). Given the increasing visibility of racially and ethnically diverse male figures in the media (Myers and Levy 2018), coupled with persistent health disparities linked to systemic racism among socioculturally marginalized populations (Jackson, Williams, and VanderWeele 2016;Yip et al. 2019), it is crucial to gain a deeper understanding of the risk factors specific to body image concerns in BIPOC men. ...
Objective:
There is a noticeable underrepresentation of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) men in the existing empirical literature examining the sociocultural influences on body image concerns. To fill the gap, this study aimed to gain a better understanding of how sociocultural factors correlated with body dissatisfaction among BIPOC men living within the U.S.
Design:
Structural equation modeling was used to address this gap by examining how multiple sociocultural factors - interpersonal appearance pressure, media appearance pressure, ethnic-racial identity attitudes (including ethnic-racial salience, stereotype endorsement, and nationalistic assimilation) and ethnic self-hatred towards one's ethnic group - were linked to dissatisfaction with muscularity, body fat and height in a sample of 181 BIPOC men participants.
Results:
The proposed cross-sectional path model achieved satisfactory model fit and explained 31.9% in muscularity dissatisfaction, 36.2% in body fat dissatisfaction, and 26.4% in height dissatisfaction. Among direct relationships, interpersonal appearance pressure emerged most prominently associated with height dissatisfaction, whereas media appearance pressure and ethnic self-hatred were more related to muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction. Regarding the mediation effects, media appearance pressure was found to partially mediate the relationship between interpersonal appearance pressure and body dissatisfaction, as well as the relationship between ethnic self-hatred and body dissatisfaction. Furthermore, ethnic self-hatred was found to be predicted by ethnic-racial identity attitudes.
Conclusion:
This research profoundly expands our understanding of the ethnic and racial complexities surrounding body dissatisfaction among BIPOC men and encourages health practitioners to acknowledge the unique sociocultural and systemic dynamics (ethnic-racial identities and associated stressors) when working with BIPOC men who present with body image concerns.
... Some evidence suggests that the answer may be yes. Previous work has shown that consistent exposure to anti-Black stereotypes and sentiments can lead to an internalization of racist beliefs, can negatively affect Black individuals' mental health and selfconcept, and can even cause a decrease in their implicit in-group positivity (Livingston, 2001;Chae et al., 2017;Banks, Kohn-Wood & Spencer, 2006;Chae, Lincoln, & Jackson, 2011;Borrell, Kiefe, Williams, Diex-Roux & Gordon-Larsen, 2006;Hammond, 2012;Pieterse & Carter, 2007;Utsey, Payne, Jackson & Jones, 2002;Watkins, Hudson, Caldwell, Siefert, & Jackson, 2011;Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone, & Zimmerman, 2003;Hammond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016). If this is the case, it seems plausible that certain internalized anti-Black stereotypes and prejudices may implicitly infiltrate even the minds of Black individuals, leading them to show biases against members of their own racegroup. ...
... Although anti-Black gendered racism is systemic and negatively impacts Black men as a whole, researchers also theorize that everyday forms of racism (e.g., microaggressions, overt racism) may threaten masculine power, engender vulnerability, and subordinate Black men to a lower position in the male social hierarchy (Hammond et al., 2016). Indeed, in a study of 72 college-aged men, Black men (n = 32) who experienced racial discrimination were more vigilant to masculinity threat cues and engaged in increased physical performance in response to masculinity threat, an indicator of increased masculine gender role stress (Goff et al., 2012). ...
Gendered racism describes the gender-specific ways racism is enacted against Black men. Previous studies have associated the experience of gendered racism stress with psychological distress above and beyond the experience of gender role stress alone, but has not explored mitigators of this relationship. The present study examined the associations between gendered racism stress and psychological distress, then tested whether social support and gendered racial identity centrality moderated the impact of gendered racism stress on psychological distress. Data from 123 Black men living in the United States (Mage = 30.28, SD = 6.43 years) were collected via an online survey that included measures of gendered racism stress, social support quality and quantity, gendered racial identity centrality, and psychological distress. We replicated previous scholarship demonstrating that gendered racism stress was associated with psychological distress above and beyond gender role stress alone in Black men and expanded upon these findings by showing that the association between gendered racism stress and psychological stress remained after controlling for gender role stress, demographic characteristics, financial stress, and health stress. For social support, quality, but not quantity, buffered the association between gendered racism and psychological distress. A greater proportion of same-race peers in the workplace strengthened the correlation between gendered racism and psychological distress, however, this relationship did not remain after controlling for financial stress. Gendered racial identity centrality did not moderate the association between gendered racism stress and psychological distress. Our results indicate the deleterious effects of gendered racism stress on Black men, while also providing potential areas for intervention.
... A number of existing studies have identified racial discrimination, economic hardship, physical illness, and disengaged psychosocial coping behaviors as risk factors for depression among Black men (Barry, Jackson, Watkins, Goodwill, & Hunte, 2016;Britt-Spells, Slebodnik, Sands, & Rollock, 2018;Hammond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016;Matthews, Hammond, Nuru-Jeter, Cole-Lewis, & Melvin, 2013;Powell, Banks, & Mattis, 2017;Watkins, 2012;Watkins, Hudson, Caldwell, Siefert, & Jackson, 2011;Wheaton, Thomas, Roman, & Abdou, 2018). However, investigations that interrogate the role of masculine norms within the context of Black men's mental health are scant (see Hammond, 2012;Matthews et al., 2013, for exceptions). ...
Recent reports have highlighted disparities in representation of Black men within research, calling for more work to be done with this group. The authors take up this call by exploring whether adherence to masculine norms influences mental health outcomes among young Black men. The sample included survey responses from 18- to 30-year-old Black men (N = 273) enrolled at five colleges and universities in the midwestern United States. Two theoretically relevant subscales from the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (that is, self-reliance and emotional control) were used to measure adherence to masculine norms, and depressive symptoms were measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analysis results indicate that the model fit the data well. Furthermore, self-reliance was associated with higher rates of depressive symptoms (β = .358, p < .001), but emotional control was not (β = .137, p = .099). Study findings suggest that depression treatment interventions should be tailored to incorporate aspects of masculinity that are most salient to young Black men. In addition, social work researchers, clinicians, and service providers are uniquely positioned to contribute to the promotion of mental wellness among this underserved population and should be prepared to attend to young Black men's mental health needs.
... 1,2 Clearly, shortened life-expectancy among African-American men is a consequence of interconnected biological, economic, and socio-structural factors. [2][3][4][5][6] Such factors include high morbidity and mortality from diseases amenable to early treatment and intervention (e.g., cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes), diminished access to opportunities for upward social mobility, and well-documented experiences of structural racism (e.g., increased likelihood of police killings and death). 1,2,[7][8][9][10][11] Coincident with these factors are data affirming African-American men's more limited receipt of timely preventive health screenings and medical treatment. ...
The contribution of medical mistrust to healthcare utilization delays has gained increased public health attention. However, few studies examine these associations among African-American men, who delay preventive healthcare more often and report higher levels of medical mistrust than non-Hispanic White men. Additionally, studies rarely account for other factors reportedly working in tandem with medical mistrust to increase African-American men’s preventive health screening delays (i.e., everyday racism and perceived racism in healthcare). We examined associations between medical mistrust, perceived racism in healthcare, everyday racism, and preventive health screening delays. Analyses were conducted using cross-sectional data from 610 African-American men aged 20 years and older recruited primarily from barbershops in four US regions (2003–2009). Independent variables were medical mistrust (MM), everyday racism (ER), and perceived racism in healthcare (PRH). Dependent variables were self-reported routine checkup, blood pressure screening, and cholesterol screening delays. Using multiple logistic regression and tests for mediation, we calculated odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals to assess associations between the independent and dependent variables. After final adjustment, African-American men with higher MM were significantly more likely to delay blood pressure screenings. Men with more frequent ER exposure were significantly more likely to delay routine checkups and blood pressure screenings. Higher levels of PRH were associated with a significant increased likelihood of delaying cholesterol screening. MM did not mediate associations between ER and screening delays. Increasing preventive health screening among African-American men requires addressing medical mistrust and racism in and outside healthcare institutions.
... Robitschek and Kashubeck (1999) found that PGI mediated the stress-distress association and concluded that PGI positively impacts mental health by preventing the formation of distress and depressive symptoms. Moreover, racism diminishes mastery and self-efficacy; increases hopelessness; and potentially thwarts African American men's ability to assume important or idealized male roles, including the roles of provider and protector (Gee, Spencer, Chen, Yip, & Takeuchi, 2007;Hammond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016;Polanco-Roman & Miranda, 2013). Ryff, Keyes, and Hughes (2003) found that racial discrimination was associated with lower PGI among a national sample of White, African American, and Mexican American adults, although this relation was observed among only women. ...
Objectives: Mounting evidence indicates that racial discrimination is a risk factor for depression among African American men. However, the mechanisms underlying the association between racial discrimination and depressive symptomatology remain unclear. The present study investigated the mediating capacity of personal growth initiative (PGI) in the relation between racial discrimination experiences and depressive symptomatology, as well as whether the proposed mediating relation was moderated by age, education, and income. Method: Participants included 649 African American men recruited from barbershops in the North, South, West, and Midwest regions of the United States and from academic institutions–events. Results: Results revealed significant associations between racial discrimination and a combined latent factor representing depressed affect, interpersonal problems, and somatic complaints but not the latent factor representing positive affect. PGI mediated the association between racial discrimination and depressive symptomatology; however, the mediational pathway was not moderated by age, education, and income. Conclusions: Interventions designed to mitigate the mental health consequences of racial discrimination among African American men might focus on enhancing PGI.
... J. Wong, tsai, liu, Zhu, & Wei, 2014). For another, racism can be conceptualized as an impediment to men of color's ability to actualize goals relevant to traditional masculine roles, such as demonstrating power and control (hammond, Fleming, & Villa-torres, 2016). to illustrate, a latino man who experiences career barriers as a result of racism at his workplace might feel that he cannot live up to the masculine gender role of being a breadwinner. ...
Men’s mainstream media exposure is often associated with traditional gender role endorsement, which in turn predicts negative mental health consequences. However, prior research often tested these associations among predominantly White, adult samples. The present study explored associations between consumption of three media genres that frequently feature men, endorsement of traditional gender roles, and mental health for a sample of Black, Asian American, and White male adolescents. Multigroup modeling indicated significant associations between media consumption and endorsement of traditional gender roles for all three groups and a significant association between traditional gender roles and mental distress among Asian American and White male adolescents. Results suggest that media may be a powerful force in young men’s gender beliefs and mental health regardless of racial background. Continued research is needed to elucidate how familial characteristics, such as mother’s education level, and features of boys’ cultural backgrounds, particularly for Black male adolescents, influence the extent to which traditional gender role endorsement predicts mental distress.
Background
The current discussion examines the mental health needs and challenges of African American males within a social context undergirded by racism. There is a dearth of empirical research on African American males in this regard.
Objective
To effectively address the needs of this population, this article reviews the extant literature on cultural, social, and contextual factors that may be salient factors in the mental health status and outcomes for African American males.
Methods
This includes an examination of the roles of race, religious participation, social support, gender role expectation in mental health and well-being outcomes.
Findings/Conclusion
The current discussion is intended to serve as a prospective guide for future research, prevention, and intervention initiatives designed to improve such outcomes for a vulnerable and at-risk population group.
Family influences on the health of African American men and boys must be considered in tandem with those produced by broader social ecologic exposures. The purpose of this chapter is to make the case for exploring the impact of neighborhoods on health risk-taking (e.g., substance abuse) among African American males during emerging adulthood, when substance use escalates. The central hypothesis, grounded in the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST), and psychobiological models of stress, coping, and risk-taking, is that neighborhoods with high violence, alcohol, and drug activity instigate substance use through increased daily stress experiences, leading in turn to higher negative affect, emotion suppression, and dysregulated cortisol and testosterone. We place our arguments in the context of recent high profile deaths of African American males (e.g., Eric Garner) and discuss ways to advance future neighborhoods-level research with African American males as they transition to adulthood.
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