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Citation: Esposito, M.; Sessa, F.;
Cocimano, G.; Zuccarello, P.;
Roccuzzo, S.; Salerno, M. Advances
in Technologies in Crime Scene
Investigation. Diagnostics 2023,13,
3169. https://doi.org/10.3390/
diagnostics13203169
Academic Editor: Hiroshi Ikegaya
Received: 15 September 2023
Revised: 8 October 2023
Accepted: 9 October 2023
Published: 10 October 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
diagnostics
Article
Advances in Technologies in Crime Scene Investigation
Massimiliano Esposito 1, * , Francesco Sessa 2, Giuseppe Cocimano 3, Pietro Zuccarello 4, Salvatore Roccuzzo 2
and Monica Salerno 2
1Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, “Kore” University of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy
2Department of Medical, Surgical and Advanced Technologies “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania,
95121 Catania, Italy; francesco.sessa@unict.it (F.S.); salvatore.roccuzzo.medicolegale@gmail.com (S.R.);
monica.salerno@unict.it (M.S.)
3Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania “Vanvitelli”,
80121 Napoli, Italy; peppecocimano1@gmail.com
4Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Department “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, 95124 Catania, Italy;
pietrozuccarello85@gmail.com
*Correspondence: massimiliano.esposito@unikore.it; Tel.: +39-095-3782153
Abstract:
Crime scene investigation (CSI) is the complex act of reconstructing the dynamics that led
to a crime and the circumstances of its perpetration. Crystallizing the CSI is a difficult task for the
forensic pathologist; however, it is often requested by the public prosecutor and many judicial cases
remain unsolved precisely for this reason. Recent years have seen an improvement in the ability of 3D
scanning technology to obtain dense surface scans of large-scale spaces, for surveying, engineering,
archaeology, and medical purposes such as forensics. The applications of this new technology are
growing every day: forensic measurement of wounds in clinical reports, for example, reconstruction
of traffic accidents, bullet trajectory studies in gunshot wounds, and 3D bloodstain pattern analysis. A
retrospective analysis was conducted across all crime scene investigations performed by the forensic
staff of the Department of Forensic Pathology of the University of Catania from January 2019 to June
2022. Inclusion criteria were the use of a laser scanner (LS), the use of a camera, a full investigative
scene, and collection of circumstantial data thanks to the help of the judicial police. Cases in which
the LS was not used were excluded. Out of 200 CSIs, 5 were included in the present study. In case
number 1, the use of the LS made it possible to create a complete scale plan of the crime scene in a
few hours, allowing a ship to be quickly returned to the judicial police officer. In case 2 (fall from
a height), the LS clarified the suicidal intent of the deceased. In case number 3 it was possible to
reconstruct a crime scene after many years. In case 4, the LS provided a great contribution in making
a differential diagnosis between suicide and homicide. In case 5, the LS was fundamental for the
COVID team in planning the study of COVID-19 pathways and areas within a hospital with the aim
of reduction of nosocomial transmission. In conclusion, the use of the LS allowed the forensic staff to
crystallize the investigative scene, making it a useful tool.
Keywords:
laser scanner; crime scene investigation; three-dimensional (3D) imaging; technological
advances; forensic imaging
1. Introduction
CSI is a complex act that reconstructs the dynamics that determined a crime and the
circumstances of its realization, with either a forensic pathologist or medical examiner
as well as the official primarily responsible for the investigation [
1
,
2
]. To understand the
nature of the possible crime and search for any traces of victims or the offender, the task of
the coroner consists in research, identification, collection, and conservation of the death
scene [
3
]. The main objectives of forensic medicine are not only to establish the cause and
manner of death but also to record samples, to analyze the crime scene, and to identify the
cadaver through an autopsy [
4
]. Traditional methods of documentation of a death scene
Diagnostics 2023,13, 3169. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13203169 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/diagnostics
Diagnostics 2023,13, 3169 2 of 9
include photography, sketches, and notes, electrostatic lifting, or casting, as well as field
forms and video footage. An alternative, supplemental method of documenting transient
evidence may be the three-dimensional (3D) LS [5].
The term “three-dimensional (3D) imaging” refers to techniques that can process accu-
rate internal 3D data by obtaining volumetric pixels (or voxels) of the measured target [
6
].
The 3D imaging can generate high-resolution 3D digital images; LSs are available as both
handheld and stationary units [
7
]. The last ten years have seen an improvement in the
ability of 3D scanning technology to obtain dense surface scans of large-scale spaces for
surveying, engineering, archaeology, and medical purposes such as forensic medicine [
8
,
9
].
The applications of this new technology are growing every day: forensic wound mea-
surement in clinical reports, for example, traffic accident reconstruction, bullet trajectory
studies in gunshot wounds, and 3D bloodstain pattern analysis [
10
–
12
]. The benefits of
laser scanning over conventional photography are the reproducibility of the measurements
from the 3D image and the possibility of manipulating the 3D images using software
programs. The ambient lighting does not influence the performance of the scanner, and
it can recognize missing elements from partial evidence [
13
]. The advantages of LSs over
other 3D imaging technologies (such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI)) include the relative cost of the equipment and maintenance, quick image
generation, portability, and simple use with minimal training [14,15].
The present study reports a case series from different CSIs in which 3D imaging
technologies using an LS were employed. Using 3D technology with the LS helped the
forensic pathologist’s staff solve difficult court cases through thorough CSIs. The aim of
this study is to demonstrate the importance and utility of 3D reconstruction in CSIs in
assessing the manner and cause of death and all the data required in a judicial trial.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Case Selection
A retrospective analysis was conducted across all CSIs performed by the forensic staff
of the Department of Forensic Pathology of the University of Catania from January 2019 to
June 2022. Inclusion criteria were the use of an LS, the use of a camera, a full investigative
scene, and collection of circumstantial data with the help of the judicial police. Cases in
which the LS was not used were excluded.
2.2. LS Analysis
For the 3D documentation of the crime scene, the LEICA BLK360 LS (Wetzlar, Ger-
many) was used. Close-range digital photogrammetry is a system used to precisely measure
the 3D coordinates of points on an object. In this way, each object is detected by multiple
points that are superimposed. The overlapping of the points serves to match the images
taken from different angles so as to create a single clear and defined image, which is much
more precise than those taken individually. The LEICA BLK360 first completes a rotation
to measure the ambient light. Then, it makes a second rotation with several stops. At
each stop, it catches a piece of a spherical image. Each piece is automatically stitched
together to create a full-dome image. Next, the BLK360 executes the third rotation, scan-
ning 360,000 laser points/sec, each with a unique 3D position. The scanner uses a simple
algorithm, measuring the distances and angles of the rays that start from the laser and
reflect on objects. In this way the 3D coordinates of all objects are calculated, composing a
single three-dimensional cloud made up of millions of points. These point clouds allow
the forensic pathologist to reconstruct a CSI accurately, with extreme precision, and in
minute detail. The maximum range of the flight time used by the LS is 300 m [
16
]. The
laser points are combined to replicate the objects, buildings, and land that surrounds them
in the form of a point cloud. After scanning, all stitches are processed by the 3D design
software (Autodesk software, Vers. 1 2018) [17].
In the case of closed spaces, the LS recognizes the whole point cloud, and the recon-
struction is very simple. Attention must be paid to mirrors that must be shielded (with a
Diagnostics 2023,13, 3169 3 of 9
sheet, for example); otherwise, the LS confuses the point cloud. Even in open places (for
example, a forest), it is possible to create the point cloud; however, the staff must use targets
placed on fixed points (for example, trees in a forest) in order to distinguish the various
scans. This software can join all the points manually or automatically, superimposing them
in order to create a unique image. At the end of the process, the CSI is available and usable;
furthermore, photos can be extracted.
3. Results
Out of 200 CSIs, 5 were included in the present study.
3.1. Case 1
A 35-year-old man was found dead inside a “car carrier” depot on a cargo ship during
an inspection on a flooded deck during a storm. The CSI was conducted through the
LS that fixed the scene through a series of scans with an accuracy of 6 mm at 10 m. An
inspection was performed of the truck that was damaged at the front and sides. An external
examination of the cadaver was also performed. The presence of fractures at various
body sites, excoriations, hematomas, and contusions was found. There was a perfect
correspondence between the injuries found on the body and the impact against a solid and
rigid surface of the truck. Thanks to the use of the LS, it was possible to have a complete
reconstruction of the CSI (Figure 1).
Diagnostics 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 9
In the case of closed spaces, the LS recognizes the whole point cloud, and the
reconstruction is very simple. Aention must be paid to mirrors that must be shielded
(with a sheet, for example); otherwise, the LS confuses the point cloud. Even in open
places (for example, a forest), it is possible to create the point cloud; however, the staff
must use targets placed on fixed points (for example, trees in a forest) in order to
distinguish the various scans. This software can join all the points manually or
automatically, superimposing them in order to create a unique image. At the end of the
process, the CSI is available and usable; furthermore, photos can be extracted.
3. Results
Out of 200 CSIs, 5 were included in the present study.
3.1. Case 1
A 35-year-old man was found dead inside a “car carrier” depot on a cargo ship
during an inspection on a flooded deck during a storm. The CSI was conducted through
the LS that fixed the scene through a series of scans with an accuracy of 6 mm at 10 m. An
inspection was performed of the truck that was damaged at the front and sides. An
external examination of the cadaver was also performed. The presence of fractures at
various body sites, excoriations, hematomas, and contusions was found. There was a
perfect correspondence between the injuries found on the body and the impact against a
solid and rigid surface of the truck. Thanks to the use of the LS, it was possible to have a
complete reconstruction of the CSI (Figure 1).
Figure 1. 3D analyses of the CSI.
3.2. Case 2
A 34-year-old man suffering from anxiety and depression was found on the ground
in the inner courtyard of his building. A tenant saw this man crawling in the courtyard,
so he called the Territorial Emergency Service. The coroner saw that there were no signs
of assault, just fractures of the chest bones. Through the LS, a study of the open spaces,
internal courtyard, and balcony of the subjects apartment was performed, as well as of
the distances between the bloodstains and the corpse. Death was aributed to chest
trauma from multiple fall-from-height trauma; these injuries were due to the violent
impact of the body against the hard and rigid surfaces of the ground in the courtyard
where the subject was found. These injuries are typical in cases of falls from heights; the
circumstantial data, the results of the judicial investigation, and the external examination
pointed to death by suicide from a fall from a height. In this case, the use of the LS was
crucial in the study of the entire CSI, as it allowed the investigators to precisely examine
Figure 1. 3D analyses of the CSI.
3.2. Case 2
A 34-year-old man suffering from anxiety and depression was found on the ground
in the inner courtyard of his building. A tenant saw this man crawling in the courtyard,
so he called the Territorial Emergency Service. The coroner saw that there were no signs
of assault, just fractures of the chest bones. Through the LS, a study of the open spaces,
internal courtyard, and balcony of the subject’s apartment was performed, as well as of the
distances between the bloodstains and the corpse. Death was attributed to chest trauma
from multiple fall-from-height trauma; these injuries were due to the violent impact of the
body against the hard and rigid surfaces of the ground in the courtyard where the subject
was found. These injuries are typical in cases of falls from heights; the circumstantial data,
the results of the judicial investigation, and the external examination pointed to death by
suicide from a fall from a height. In this case, the use of the LS was crucial in the study
of the entire CSI, as it allowed the investigators to precisely examine the height of the
precipice, the distance between the corpse and the bloodstains, the path of the corpse before
dying, and therefore all the phases prior to death (Figure 2).
Diagnostics 2023,13, 3169 4 of 9
Diagnostics 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 9
the height of the precipice, the distance between the corpse and the bloodstains, the path
of the corpse before dying, and therefore all the phases prior to death (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Case 2—3D reconstruction of the bloodstains.
3.3. Case 3
This CSI was carried out to re-evaluate an old murder case associated with a jewelry
store robbery. The murder was carried out by the jeweler with a pistol shot at two thieves.
To reconstruct the dynamics of the crime scene and to detect new data that could be ana-
lyzed in the process, the investigation was conducted using the LS. The total floor size of
the jewelry shop was 450 × 365 cm. On the left wall near the entrance door, at a height of
92 cm from the floor, there was a metal hook painted white, in which a gray metal frag-
ment was found, 2 cm in size. The measurements taken during the investigation of the
crime scene, the back room, and the escape route were visible. The entire CSI recon-
structed through the LS constituted evidence used during the judicial process (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Case 3—3D reconstruction of the shop.
3.4. Case 4
An 86-year-old man suffering from depression, diabetes, leukemia, heart and respir-
atory disease was found dead in his apartment with a gunshot wound. The important
Figure 2. Case 2—3D reconstruction of the bloodstains.
3.3. Case 3
This CSI was carried out to re-evaluate an old murder case associated with a jewelry
store robbery. The murder was carried out by the jeweler with a pistol shot at two thieves.
To reconstruct the dynamics of the crime scene and to detect new data that could be
analyzed in the process, the investigation was conducted using the LS. The total floor size
of the jewelry shop was 450
×
365 cm. On the left wall near the entrance door, at a height of
92 cm from the floor, there was a metal hook painted white, in which a gray metal fragment
was found, 2 cm in size. The measurements taken during the investigation of the crime
scene, the back room, and the escape route were visible. The entire CSI reconstructed
through the LS constituted evidence used during the judicial process (Figure 3).
Diagnostics 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 9
the height of the precipice, the distance between the corpse and the bloodstains, the path
of the corpse before dying, and therefore all the phases prior to death (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Case 2—3D reconstruction of the bloodstains.
3.3. Case 3
This CSI was carried out to re-evaluate an old murder case associated with a jewelry
store robbery. The murder was carried out by the jeweler with a pistol shot at two thieves.
To reconstruct the dynamics of the crime scene and to detect new data that could be ana-
lyzed in the process, the investigation was conducted using the LS. The total floor size of
the jewelry shop was 450 × 365 cm. On the left wall near the entrance door, at a height of
92 cm from the floor, there was a metal hook painted white, in which a gray metal frag-
ment was found, 2 cm in size. The measurements taken during the investigation of the
crime scene, the back room, and the escape route were visible. The entire CSI recon-
structed through the LS constituted evidence used during the judicial process (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Case 3—3D reconstruction of the shop.
3.4. Case 4
An 86-year-old man suffering from depression, diabetes, leukemia, heart and respir-
atory disease was found dead in his apartment with a gunshot wound. The important
Figure 3. Case 3—3D reconstruction of the shop.
3.4. Case 4
An 86-year-old man suffering from depression, diabetes, leukemia, heart and respi-
ratory disease was found dead in his apartment with a gunshot wound. The important
aspect was to verify whether the death was due to a suicide or a homicide. During the CSI,
the LS was used, which allowed the investigators to precisely analyze the distance between
the ogive and the weapon, between the weapon and the corpse, and all the bloodstains
Diagnostics 2023,13, 3169 5 of 9
present in the room. Thanks to the use of the LS at the crime scene and a thorough external
examination performed by the forensic staff, it was concluded that the death was due to a
suicide (Figure 4).
Diagnostics 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 9
aspect was to verify whether the death was due to a suicide or a homicide. During the CSI,
the LS was used, which allowed the investigators to precisely analyze the distance be-
tween the ogive and the weapon, between the weapon and the corpse, and all the blood-
stains present in the room. Thanks to the use of the LS at the crime scene and a thorough
external examination performed by the forensic staff, it was concluded that the death was
due to a suicide (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Case 4—3D reconstruction/measurements and position of the body.
3.5. Case 5
The forensic staff was involved in the reorganization of a Sicilian hospital during the
COVID-19 pandemic, to plan the pathways of the healthcare personnel within the COVID-
19 and non-COVID-19 areas of the hospital. Prior to the inspection, all personnel wore
personal protective equipment (PPE) as per guidelines [18–20]. The staff proceeded with
the analysis of the internal and external environments through the use of the LS, which
made it possible to study and reorganize all the pathways of the COVID-19 areas, with
the analysis of the PPE dressing areas of the healthcare personnel, the PPE removal areas,
disinfection areas, and exit areas where healthcare personnel were “clean” (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Case 5—3D reconstruction of the central block of the Hospital.
Figure 4. Case 4—3D reconstruction/measurements and position of the body.
3.5. Case 5
The forensic staff was involved in the reorganization of a Sicilian hospital during
the COVID-19 pandemic, to plan the pathways of the healthcare personnel within the
COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 areas of the hospital. Prior to the inspection, all personnel
wore personal protective equipment (PPE) as per guidelines [
18
–
20
]. The staff proceeded
with the analysis of the internal and external environments through the use of the LS, which
made it possible to study and reorganize all the pathways of the COVID-19 areas, with
the analysis of the PPE dressing areas of the healthcare personnel, the PPE removal areas,
disinfection areas, and exit areas where healthcare personnel were “clean” (Figure 5).
Diagnostics 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 9
aspect was to verify whether the death was due to a suicide or a homicide. During the CSI,
the LS was used, which allowed the investigators to precisely analyze the distance be-
tween the ogive and the weapon, between the weapon and the corpse, and all the blood-
stains present in the room. Thanks to the use of the LS at the crime scene and a thorough
external examination performed by the forensic staff, it was concluded that the death was
due to a suicide (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Case 4—3D reconstruction/measurements and position of the body.
3.5. Case 5
The forensic staff was involved in the reorganization of a Sicilian hospital during the
COVID-19 pandemic, to plan the pathways of the healthcare personnel within the COVID-
19 and non-COVID-19 areas of the hospital. Prior to the inspection, all personnel wore
personal protective equipment (PPE) as per guidelines [18–20]. The staff proceeded with
the analysis of the internal and external environments through the use of the LS, which
made it possible to study and reorganize all the pathways of the COVID-19 areas, with
the analysis of the PPE dressing areas of the healthcare personnel, the PPE removal areas,
disinfection areas, and exit areas where healthcare personnel were “clean” (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Case 5—3D reconstruction of the central block of the Hospital.
Figure 5. Case 5—3D reconstruction of the central block of the Hospital.
Diagnostics 2023,13, 3169 6 of 9
4. Discussion
CSIs involve crucial and delicate work areas for the forensic pathologist due to the
analysis of the body within the environmental context [
21
]. However, the contamination of a
crime scene is often a sensitive issue carrying the risk of destruction of evidence [
22
–
24
]. The
correct analysis and documentation of the crime scene is crucial in cases of mass disasters,
where the dispersion of remains makes reconstruction of the events more difficult, and in
cases of homicide [
25
]. The techniques of recording crime scene details have improved in
the last few years with the introduction of modern 3D analysis systems such as LSs with
the use of cameras [
26
]. Acquisition of 3D images can conserve the morphological and
metric characteristics of the crime scene and reproduce the same measurements with high
precision. In fact, LS technology has been applied since 2004 for accident and crime scenes.
An LS is simple to use and the resulting 3D point cloud fusion allows an initial analysis
of the 3D data [
27
–
30
]. The acquisition and the electronic storage of the crime scene data
can be seen as virtual conservation of evidence. In fact, all the objects can be examined
at any time in future analyses using a computer [
31
]. Using a laser scanner allows a fast,
geometric reconstruction of complex scenes through dense point clouds. Finally, the images
generated by 3D LSs are easy to manage (such as sharing with colleagues and consultants
via email). Often the 2D projection level is not sufficient for forensic medicine and scientific
analysis [
32
]. However, photogrammetry focuses better on the small details of the objects
in the crime scene, and laser scanning gives a more comprehensive view of the geometry of
the whole crime/accident scene. Both techniques can be used for capturing a scene just
after a crime or a disaster has occurred and before the area is disturbed [33].
Buck et al. [
27
] affirmed that the 3D method is important for bloodstain pattern
analysis in the determination of the trajectory of all blood spatters. The 3D crime scene
documentation is able to recognize even the smallest bloodstains, and bloodstains on
vertical, horizontal, and complex-shaped objects can be analyzed. In order to present the
results in a copiable and measurable manner, the blood spatter directions, the trajectories,
and the areas of origin of the bloodstains are rendered in the virtual true-to-scale 3D
crime scene. The 3D laser scanning also offers a method of documenting and studying
prehistoric human skeletons [
9
,
34
]. It can reproduce the scene in cases of road accidents
and demonstrate the location of vehicles, objects, and involved persons at various points in
time [35,36].
The present study reports five cases demonstrating the usefulness of an LS. In case
number 1, the fixation of the crime scene was essential due to the impending repairs to
the cargo ship. The use of the LS LEICA BLK360 allowed for the creation of a complete
scale diagram of the crime scene in a few hours, allowing the vessel to be quickly returned
to the judicial police officer. This reconstruction was based on a comparison of the 3D
models using generated real data and mainly dealt with the geometric evaluation of the
impact situation, with a subsequent reconstruction in 3D using specific Autodesk Recap
Pro dedicated software (Vers. 1 2018). In cases number 2 and 4, the clarification of the
suicidal rather than homicidal event was at the center of the investigation. The study of
the crime scene’s open spaces, inner courtyard, and balcony apartment (case 2), as well
as the distances between the bloodstains and the corpse (cases 2 and 4), and the close
position of the gun to the corpse (case 4) made it possible to prove that there were no
assault injuries on the body, in consideration of the circumstantial data and the results of
the judicial investigation. In case number 3, the study of a crime scene that had changed
over the years required special equipment suited to the “exposed” scenario. The LS Leica
BLK360 made it possible to reconstruct the dynamics of the crime and, despite the obvious
limitations of the case, it was possible to demonstrate the correspondence between the
trajectory of the bullet and the escape route. Finally, in case 5, the LS Leica BLK360 was
crucial for the COVID team in planning the study of COVID-19 pathways and areas within
a hospital, thus reducing nosocomial transmission [37].
Using an LS, it is possible to create a database for CSIs that has a dual functionality [
13
].
It produces persistent storage of the data obtained from the crime scene, which is important
Diagnostics 2023,13, 3169 7 of 9
for providing evidence in a court of law [
8
]. The second function is to create a new model
for analysis of the scene data by crime scene investigators, which is important to aid the
investigators by providing the data they require in a quick and easy to understand manner.
It is also possible to retrieve an object from a database and modify it in various ways (for
example, by segmenting it into smaller parts, deleting particular objects from it, etc.) [36].
Reconstructions can be presented in the form of written expertise or as an expert
testimony in court or play-acted at the incident scene and photographed and/or filmed
using accounts of either the defendants or the victims (should they have recovered), or
witnesses [24].
This study can be summarized by the sentence “a picture says more than a thousand
words”. It conveys a message more clearly and leaves less room for alternative explanations
than a verbal report, in which the listener must visualize the narrative event in their mind
and must constantly readjust as the report progresses. Graphic presentations, especially 3D
models, are more usable and easier to explain, especially in the reporting of a CSI in front
of a jury in a court.
5. Conclusions
In a CSI, the forensic pathologist or the medical examiner is the official primarily
responsible for the complex act of reconstructing the dynamics of a crime scene [
38
]. The
main objectives of forensic medicine are the freezing or fixation of the crime scene, findings,
collection of traces, technical assessments, biological samples collection, identification
of the cadaver (through autopsy), and records of the CSI [
39
]. Traditional methods of
documentation of a death scene include photography, sketches, and notes, electrostatic
lifting or casting, as well as field forms and video footage. An alternative, supplemental
method of documenting transient evidence may be the 3D LS. The term “three-dimensional
imaging” refers to techniques that can process accurate internal 3D data by obtaining
volumetric pixels (or voxels) of the measured target. The 3D imaging is capable of generat-
ing high-resolution 3D digital images; LSs are available in both handheld and stationary
units [
40
]. The present study collects for the first time a heterogeneous series of CSIs in
which an LS was used, offering the scientific community many ideas for the use of this
scientific technique not only in judicial cases, but also for public health purposes, such as the
reorganization of hospital environments in the event of a pandemic or nosocomial infection.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, M.E. and M.S.; methodology F.S.; software, G.C.; vali-
dation, F.S., P.Z. and S.R.; formal analysis, M.E.; investigation, G.C.; resources, F.S.; data curation,
G.C.; writing—original draft preparation, M.E.; writing—review and editing, F.S.; visualization, M.S.;
supervision, M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement:
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study
are available within the article.
Acknowledgments:
The authors thank the Scientific Bureau of the University of Catania for lan-
guage support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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