Barriers to Community Participation in Governance Standards Setting for Sustainable Mangrove Management in Lamu County

Full text

Open Journal of Forestry, 2023, 13, 353-367
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojf
ISSN Online: 2163-0437
ISSN Print: 2163-0429
DOI:
10.4236/ojf.2023.134021 Oct. 10, 2023 353
Open Journal of Forestry
Barriers to Community Participation in
Governance Standards Setting for Sustainable
Mangrove Management in Lamu County
Jamila Ahmed1*, Bessy Kathambi1, Robert Kibugi2
1Department of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
2Faculty of Law, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
Abstract
Mangrove management requires an all-
inclusive community engagement for
sustainability in protection and conservation of mangroves. Previously,
community participation was not considered pivotal but the rapid degrada-
tion of mangroves has necessitated their participation. Despite much legisla-
tion
enacted, there are still challenges hindering community participation in
Lamu County and this paper seeks to highlight barriers perceived by the var-
ious stakeholders in mangrove management. The study used a mixed me-
thods approach to answer both qualitative and quantitative research ques-
tions and a correlational research design to explore all variables. The study
shows that only 60% of the respondents agreed that there is lack of enforce-
ment in mangrove conservation through community participation. However,
less than 50% agreed on the challenges of lack of good management in man-
groves (46%), lack of implementation mechanisms on mangrove conservation
(47%) and lack of consultation in decision-
making processes for mangrove
conservation (36%). This demonstrates that lack of enforcement is the great-
est challenge to the implementation of standards for mangrove conservation.
Keywords
Governance, Community Challenges, Sustainability, Stakeholder
Engagement, Mangrove Conservation
1. Introduction
Mangrove plays a vital role in forest ecosystem as species habitat and supporting
humanity (Kumar et al., 2021). The benefits of mangroves are widespread in na-
How to cite this paper:
Ahmed, J., Ka-
thambi,
B., & Kibugi, R. (2023). Bar
riers to
Community Participation in G
o
vernance
Standards Setting for Sustai
n
able Mangrove
Management
in Lamu County.
Open Journal
of Forestry
, 13,
353-367.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojf.2023.134021
Received:
July 20, 2023
Accepted:
October 7, 2023
Published:
October 10, 2023
Copyright © 20
23 by author(s) and
Scientific
Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY
4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

J. Ahmed et al.
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10.4236/ojf.2023.134021 354
Open Journal of Forestry
ture, and more recently, they have provided a viable answer to the problem of
lowering carbon emissions by acting as natural carbon stores (Brears, 2021). On
the other hand, mangroves have been subjected to more than their fair share of
degeneration as a result of the competing interests of rapid urbanization, an ev-
er-increasing population, and the continually worsening effects of climate
change (Marchant, 2021). Because of this, the local populations that rely on
mangrove forests as their primary source of income have had to pay a high price
for the repercussions that have resulted from the imbalance of interests. In the
end, these repercussions provide an unjustifiable rationale for excessive exploita-
tion and abuse (Kiprono, 2021).
Economic prospects and valuations for mangrove forests, for purposes of ex-
ploitation, are on the increase, creating an urgent need to have governance stan-
dards implemented more specifically on transparency, accountability, equity and
inclusivity. Through these governance standards, local communities depending
on mangroves are able to engage in ensuring sustainable use of this valuable re-
source and protecting the future. Community participation becomes a catalyst to
fostering better stakeholder engagement and addressing prospects of biasness,
gender inequality and opportunist mentalities in mangrove management (Bau-
manova, 2022; Conservancy, 2021).
Lamu is a county on the Kenyan Coast that has a massive mangrove coverage
accounting to approximately 62% of the total mangrove coverage in Kenya, with
various local communities solely depending on it for their livelihoods (Okello et
al., 2019). It is endowed with a rich cultural heritage, including Lamu old town, a
UNESCO world heritage site of universal outstanding value built in coral stone
and mangrove timber (UNESCO, 2023). Mangrove forests provide various
sources of livelihoods ranging from fishing, weaving, construction and conserva-
tion among others overall contributing to the county’s development agenda
(Uku et al., 2021).
Incessantly, community participation on this key natural resource becomes
paramount when competing interests and dynamics from climate change impacts
affect their very source of livelihoods and wellbeing. Community participation
provides a worthy platform for engaging in the setting of governance standards
specifically underscoring transparency, accountability, equity and inclusivity and
subsidiarity. This aligns with Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration which stipulates
that environmental issues are best handled with participation of all concerned cit-
izens at the relevant level, including giving opportunity to communities to partici-
pate in decision-making processes. In the process of involving community in set-
ting these governance standards, the focus is on policy formulation, implementa-
tion and decision making processes for sustainable mangrove management
(Walker et al., 2022; Wiegant, van Oel, & Dewulf, 2022; Yusof et al., 2022).
The lack of involvement of communities in matters pertaining to mangrove
access, utilization, and benefit sharing is one of the challenges posed by policy.
This is illustrated by a lack of openness and responsibility about matters that are
prescribed by legislation (Holly et al., 2022). It is interesting to note that gover-

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nance principles such as accountability and transparency, if not well practiced
can indicate a significant amount of corruption among the various parties in-
volved in mangrove management. In regard to community involvement in deci-
sion making processes, decisions are based on top down approach and are
trickled down with minimal engagement from the community casting doubts on
governance standards of equity and inclusivity (Ali et al., 2022; Walker et al.,
2022). In addition, it is difficult to put choices and policies into action, which
results in the formation of barriers to the sustainable use of mangrove forests
since it prevents communities from taking ownership of the processes involved
in mangrove management.
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the challenges in governance standard
setting through community participation for sustainable mangrove management
evidenced in Lamu County and, more specifically, their perspective in line with
this study’s objective. It further elucidates the critical role community involve-
ment plays in scaling up transparency, accountability, equity, and inclusivity in
natural resources and enhancing sustainability.
2. Materials and Methods
The study was carried out utilizing a correlational research design and a mixed
methods technique, which included both quantitative and qualitative data
(Creswell & Garrett, 2008). Respondents for the key informant interviews were
purposefully chosen and included members of the community, officers from the
Kenya Forestry Research Institute and officers from the Kenya Forestry Service,
the Chief of each locality, and officials from non-governmental organizations
that were active in the region. The sample size for the study, which was 296 out
of a population of more than 10,000, was calculated using the Yamane sampling
procedure (Olonite, 2021). The population included more than 10,000 people.
In-depth interviews with key informants, talks with focus groups, and surveys
were the methods of data collecting that were utilized. The triangulation of the
quantitative data that was collected was helped along by conducting interviews
with key informants and focus groups. The survey was carried out with the help
of mobile software called KOBO collect, which offers GPS coordinates. This was
done so that the authenticity and dependability of the population that was sam-
pled could be guaranteed. The data was analyzed with R-Statistics, and the re-
sults were displayed in the form of graphs, tables, and frequency distributions.
For the purpose of demonstrating the relevance of the variables, correlation tests
were carried out. The content analysis of the qualitative data was guided by con-
cepts that centered on the decision-making process in terms of promoting
community participation for sustainable mangrove management.
Reason for the Study Area
Lamu County is located in Kenya’s Coast Region with a land area of 6273 km2.
Lamu County possesses such a high level of ecological as well as cultural diversi-

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ty. Dodori Creek, for example, is home to the most diverse collection of man-
grove species found anywhere in Kenya. The Kiunga Marine Reserve is com-
prised of multiple islands, each of which is home to a diverse array of plant and
animal life, such as rare and important coral reefs and large mangrove forests
(Kimani et al., 2017). Figure 1 shows surveyed areas in Lamu county.
Figure 1. Study surveyed area in Lamu County Source (Author, 2023).
3. Results
Challenges
in
Implementation
of
Governance
Standards
Setting
For
Mangrove
Management
in
Lamu
County
Figure 2. Challenges in implementation of governance standards setting for mangrove
management in Lamu County.
Perceived challenges in implementation of governance standards setting for
mangrove management varied between the community members. 37% of the
respondents strongly agreed, that there was lack of enforcement in mangrove
11%
11%
12%
37%
35%
36%
24%
23%
29%
25%
42%
36%
26%
29%
22%
4%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Lack of good management in mangroves
Lack of implementation mechanisms on
mangrove conservation
No consultation in decision making processes
for mangrove conservation
Lack of enforcement in mangrove conservation
through community participation
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

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conservation through community participation, whereas another 24% agreed
that there was no consultation in decision making processes for mangrove con-
servation. A majority of respondents (36%), agreed that there was lack of im-
plementation mechanisms on mangrove conservation. In addition to this, the
majority of respondents (35%) agreed that there was lack of good management
in mangroves, as shown in Figure 2.
These findings were consistence with a study carried out by (Dawson et al.,
2021) stating that the mangrove conservation efforts are mostly regulated by
who makes what decisions, in this case lack of proper governance integrated de-
cisions making processes causes challenges in implementation of the mangrove
policies. In addition the findings of this study are in agreement with those of
(Hamza et al., 2023) outlining the importance of applying more inclusive and
sustainable community engagement in the management of mangrove forests. It
furthers details that challenges such as lack of engaging community can results
to poor conservations efforts hence hinders the management of mangrove fo-
rests in Kenya. Moreover, the study relates to (Mohamed et al., 2023) findings
stating that, for sustainable mangrove governance to be effective, policies im-
plementation must be exercised, coupled with good decision making processes
and effective community participation.
Respondent
’
s
perspective
on
Challenges
in
Implementation
of
Gover-
nance
Standards
Setting
for
Mangrove
Management
through
Community
Participation
.
Figure 3 examines the correlation between the governance standards and the
perspective respondents had on the challenges in the implementation of gover-
nance standards setting for mangrove management through community partic-
ipation.
Figure 3. Correlation between governance standards and challenges on implementation
of governance standards.

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The results shown in Figure 3 indicate that the respondents strongly agree
(mean of 2.25) that challenges on the implementation of governance standards
do not hamper the setting of governance standards in the management of man-
grove forests. This is in contrast to the respondents who disagreed with the
statement, which had a mean of 3.00. This is further reinforced by qualitative
data gathered through Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant interviews,
in which a substantial number of participants claimed that challenges on the im-
plementation of governance standards have effect on governance standards in
the management of mangrove forests. This is based on the fact that the Forestry
Conservation and Management Act is the major piece of legislation in Kenya
that governs the management of the country’s forests.
In addition, these findings are in line with (Ntibona et al., 2023) mentioned
that the effective implementation of governance standards for mangrove man-
agement through community participation requires addressing these challenges
with adequate resource allocation, coupled with transparent and accountable
governance processes.
Barriers
in
Decision
Making
on
Governance
Standards
Using
Community
Participation
in
Sustainable
Mangrove
Management
in
Lamu
County
Figure 4. Decision making barriers in Governance Standards for Mangrove Management
in Lamu County.
The objective of this study is to identify the challenges that limit the involve-
ment of community members in the setting of governance standards for sus-
tainable mangrove management in Lamu County. It reflects challenges affecting
community participation in decision-making processes that influence sustaina-
ble mangrove management, which can inform strategies to overcome these bar-
riers and increase community engagement and ownership. According to the
findings of this study, the vast majority of respondents (58%) concurred that one
of the obstacles was the low level of approval and commitment in decision mak-
ing of governance standards setting for mangrove management. More than 60
percent of respondents were completely in agreement that a review of deci-
sion-making process was important in governance standards setting for sus-
11%
70%
83%
63%
10%
57%
11%
5%
26%
58%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Decision making processes is by
participation
Decision making process is limited by
Time
Decision making processes are
conformed by rationality
Review of decision-making process
Level of approval and commitment
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

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tainable mangrove management. 83% of respondents believed that decision
making process is confirmed by rationality. Over 70% of respondents felt that
the decision-making process is constrained by time, whereas only 57% of res-
pondents thought that community participation had an impact on the deci-
sion-making process in governance standard setting for sustainable mangrove
management as shown in Figure 4.
These results suggested that effective decision making on governance stan-
dards using community participation in sustainable mangrove management in
Lamu County faces several barriers. One of the main challenges is effective
community involvement as also mentioned in the findings of (Kochoni et al.,
2023) described as the key element in contribution to a sustainable mangrove
ecosystem. The study explains the long term impacts that affect the livelihood of
the coastal people which leaves the community vulnerable to climate change ef-
fects. These results emphasize the importance of streamlining such decision
making processes with effective governance standards. A study by (Romañach et
al., 2018) emphasizes the successful efforts of conservation and restoration of
mangroves must include the local community in decision making processes.
This resonates with this study which states that the decision making processes
are conformed by rationality, which means they are guided by values, ethics and
logic hence minimize risks and maximizing sustainable benefits from mangrove
ecosystems. It also underlines that for such effective decision making processes
to be implemented, governance standards such as equity, inclusiveness, transpa-
rency and accountability must be included in the process.
Correlation between governance standards and challenges on decision
making process
Figure 5 examines the association between the governance standards and
challenges on decision making process in mangrove management.
Figure 5. Correlation between governance standards and challenges on decision making
process.

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The results shown in Figure 5 indicate that half of the respondents strongly
agree (with a mean score of 1.75) that obstacles in the decision-making process
governance norms exist in the management of mangrove forests, whereas the
other fifty percent strongly disagree (with a mean score of 1.75) with this state-
ment. This is further supported by qualitative data collected through Focus
Group Discussions and Key Informant interviews. In both of these types of in-
terviews, a significant number of participants reported that difficulties in the de-
cision-making process have an effect on governance standards in the manage-
ment of mangrove forests. As was mentioned in the following, which was
brought up by one participant in the meetings of the focus group discussion:
“
I
haven
’
t
engaged
in
any
consultation
meeting
with
the
local
government
official
at
the
department
of
forest
because
there
have
been
difficulties
in
the
de-
cision-making
process
about
governance
standards.
Neither
have
any
of
my
rel-
atives
or
friends
contributed
to
any
consultation
meeting
either.
One
of
these
issues
is
the
lack
of
trust
that
exists
between
community
members
and
officials
in
the
local
government.
”
Policy
Challenges
in
setting
and
implementing
governance
standards
on
Sustainable
Mangrove
Management
in
Lamu
County
The purpose of this research was to determine whether or not there are any
gaps in the policy framework or governance requirements for the sustainable
management of mangroves in Lamu County. According to the data, a quarter of
the respondents think that there is insufficient monitoring and evaluation of
how policies are put into effect. Approximately 42% of people believe that there
are inadequate resources allocated to the implementation of policies. About 39%
of respondents concur that there is insufficient enforcement on the policy execu-
tion, and 36% of respondents concur that there is a lack of clarity on the opera-
tional rules in governance standards for sustainable mangrove management as
shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Policy challenges in setting and implementing governance standards for sus-
tainable mangrove management in Lamu County.
12%
12%
12%
11%
36%
39%
42%
27%
26%
18%
14%
31%
26%
31%
32%
31%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%120%
Lack of clarity on operational
guidelines
Poor enforcement on policy
implementation
Lack of resources on policy
implementation
Poor monitoring and evaluation on
policy implementation
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

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These findings discuss the policy implementation challenges that cut across
sustainable mangrove management in Lamu County. Notably, study by (Tuisuva
& Shibata, 2023) narrates the impact of poor policy implementation has long
term effects not only to the community but also to the entire mangrove ecosys-
tem. Lack of resources on policy implementation is also an alarming challenge
that has caused mangrove degradation over the years. A study by (Fathima Ma-
faziya Nijamdeen et al., 2023) states policy design and implementation needs to
consider the diversity of stakeholders and should be flexible enough to include
all relevant stakeholders. Local community is considered a major stakeholder
which depends on the mangrove’s ecosystem for better livelihood. In this study,
Lamu local community is vulnerable to the effects of poor policy implementa-
tion, lack of adequate resources, poor policy enforcement and lack of clarity on
policy operational guidelines as a result to poor integration of governance stan-
dards in policy implementation. Addressing these challenges is crucial to con-
serve and sustainably manage the mangrove ecosystem.
Correlation between governance standards and challenges on existing
policies.
Figure 7 examines the association between the governance standards and
challenges on existing policies in sustainable mangrove management.
Figure 7. Correlation between governance standards and challenges on existing policies.
The results shown in Figure 7 indicate that the respondents agreed (with a
mean score of 3.0) that challenges on existing policies affect the setting of go-
vernance standards. This finding is further supported by the findings of Focus

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Group Discussions and Key Informant interviews. In these cases, it was estab-
lished that the community-based mangrove forest management was affected by
challenges on existing policies. It appeared that collaboration processes and or-
ganizational structures were readily susceptible to abuse by the more powerful
members of society, which cast doubt on the strategy’s viability over the longer
term. For instance, one of the respondents mentioned that in order to gain per-
mission to extract mangrove resources, one needs to be able to successfully na-
vigate a complex web of laws and regulations. Those who are able to do this are
the people who have the most influence in society because of their abilities.
4. Discussion
The findings of this study highlight the significance role of communities in set-
ting and implementing governance standards, impediments to decision making,
and poor policy implementation affects the role of community in sustainably
managing mangrove forests in Lamu County. According to the findings, putting
more emphasis on the variables that have been described so far could be benefi-
cial to the process of implementing governance standards for the sustainable
management of mangroves. When individuals believe that the governance prin-
ciples would assist to protect the mangrove and make it easier to access, they
were more willing to engage in the project (Golebie et al., 2021). Previous re-
search shows that the challenge faced by community who are conscious of the
significance of maintaining their environment and who depend on it for their
livelihoods. It also draws attention to the fact that those planning conservation
initiatives have a different cultural viewpoint on the environment and conserva-
tion (Prosperi et al., 2021). Structures of shared governance need to find a means
to blend distinct sets of values in a way that can be comprehended by a variety of
stakeholder groups. Diverse community perspectives need to be governed by ef-
fective governance standards that will help them deliver sustainable mangrove
conservation and management efforts.
To meet the aims of shared governance, challenges in community participa-
tion in governance standards setting in sustainable mangrove management
should be addressed (Sattayapanich et al., 2022). Chamberland-Fontaine, et al.
(2022) highlighted that sustainable mangrove management aims to address
mangrove degradation and reverse trends of mangrove loss while empowering
local stakeholders to participate in governance processes. In Lamu, the main
challenge in sustainable mangrove management is the weak governance and in-
stitutional frameworks (Mbatha et al., 2022). Weak governance and institutional
frameworks refer to the inadequacy of laws, policies, institutions, and regulatory
mechanisms that oversee mangrove management and conservation (Momanyi,
2015). The lack of clear legal frameworks and institutional arrangements can
lead to conflicting mandates and responsibilities for overseeing mangrove re-
sources. Additionally, institutional fragmentation and lack of coordination be-
tween different stakeholder can also hinder effective management of mangroves

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(Hällgren & Lindahl, 2017). Institutional frameworks should also embrace the
community participation since it’s a constitutional right. Every citizen is entitled
to a healthy environment (GoK, 2010). These factors undermine the transpa-
rency, accountability, and integrity of decision-making processes, resulting in
ineffective management and conservation of mangroves. In Lamu, community
participation is reinforced by the laws and policies such as participatory forest
management guidelines, and forest management and Act of 2016 stating the
importance of strengthening local people’s participation in forest governance
(GoK, 2016; Kenya Forests Working Group, 2007). The Constitution of Kenya
mandates individuals in leadership and government, and the community, to en-
sure that the use and utilization of these mangrove forests benefits both the cur-
rent generation and the generations that will follow after it by explicitly declar-
ing sustainable development (Prosperi et al., 2021). Despite the effort to include
community participation, there is a significance loss of mangroves over the
years. Mangrove degradation continues to negatively impact the livelihood of
people. In order to restore balance to mangrove biodiversity and ecosystem ser-
vices, community must be involved accountably and transparently in policy de-
sign and implementation, and decision-making processes to attain sustainable
mangrove management.
According to the findings of the study, community participation was not fully
and effectively practiced in setting and implementing governance standards for
proper decision-making processes relevant to the management of mangroves.
Community-based management, on the other hand, refers to the management
techniques in which the responsibility for natural resources is shared between
state authorities and the consumers of those resources. At each stage of the deci-
sion-making, implementation, and enforcement processes, both the community
and the government are given opportunities to participate (Audu, 2022). On the
other hand, in Lamu, the implementation of mangroves is managed via a
top-down approach, meaning that commands for activity are sent from on high
to the community members below. It has been shown that excluding local people
from the decision-making process regarding conservation might result in acts of
resistance (Frosch et al., 2011), which in turn leads to a lack of proper ways in
setting and implementing governance standards through effective community
participation regarding the sustainable management of mangroves.
The study found one of the barriers to good governance of mangrove re-
sources is poor decision-making processes. As a result, issues in making deci-
sions have an impact on how well mangrove forests are governed and managed.
According to the findings, insufficient approval and commitment, review of the
decision-making process, reasoning, and time all play a role in slowing down the
decision-making process. Respondents also mentioned that the distrust between
residents and local government officials is a major barrier to decision making.
According to Damastuti, de Groot, Debrot, & Silvius, (2022) it highlights the
inefficient method of top-down approach in which affects community participa-

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tion and reduce the ability of funded projects to support local community based
programs within the project time. It is evident that local communities depend so
much on mangrove ecosystems, as a result it promotes the importance of
streamlining the governance standards in the decision making processes (Ban-
jade et al., 2017) these impacts the conservation of mangrove forests. Further,
the study established that there are gaps in the policy framework or governance
requirements for the sustainable management of mangroves. According to the
findings, the respondents think that there is insufficient monitoring and evalua-
tion of how policies are put into effect. In addition, there is an inadequate num-
ber of resources allocated to the implementation of policies. And there is insuffi-
cient enforcement on the policy execution, as well as lack of clarity on the opera-
tional rules. According to (Mohamed et al., 2023), poor forest policy and legal
frameworks for the enforcement and governance of the forests may make it im-
possible to solve the challenges associated with the protection and management
of mangrove forests. Overregulation is seen to be a major cause of environmen-
tal degradation since it leads to incompatible policies. As a result, people and the
government may be in a state of perpetual conflict if they do not have secure and
legal tenure over forest land (Ogada et al., 2017). Overall these challenges and
gaps can hinder effective community participation in governance standard set-
ting initiatives, can prevent the development of sustainable and equitable man-
grove management practices. Addressing these challenges requires concerted ef-
forts from government and non-governmental organizations to improve com-
munity awareness, build capacity, and enhance access to resources and deci-
sion-making spaces.
5. Conclusion
Mangrove forests play a crucial role in the prosperity of the Lamu people. Ac-
cording to the study, there are a number of challenges in managing mangroves
in Lamu County due to the decision-making process and policy framework. The
study found that the existing legal and regulatory frameworks had structural is-
sues that make it difficult to properly manage and conserve mangrove forests.
The study suggests streamlining and strengthening forest rules and laws. Finally,
the study came to the conclusion that in order to maintain and manage the
mangrove forests in Lamu, appropriate policy interventions must be made.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study concerning Lamu perspective on challenges in
community participation in governance standards setting in sustainable man-
grove management, it is recommended to:
● Establish a community decision making mechanism to help in decision
making processes and build local capacity to collaboratively manage man-
grove forests;
● Upscaling trainings and develop synergies with other community-led con-
servation institutions, assess their governance structures and compare results.

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Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this
paper.
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