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Effects of a frontal brake light on (automated) vehicles on children’s willingness to cross the road
Abstract
In this study, the effect of a frontal brake light (FBL) on children’s willingness to cross the road was investigated. While recent studies have investigated effects of an FBL their samples consisted exclusively of adults. The results and conclusions of these studies may not be applicable to children due to their partially less developed cognitive capabilities. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an FBL on children’s willingness to cross a vehicle’s path. In a mixed design simulation study, participants were assigned to an experimental condition (EC), in which vehicles were equipped with an FBL, or to a control condition (CC), in which vehicles were not equipped with an FBL. Children aged six to twelve watched videos from the perspective of a pedestrian standing at the curb. A vehicle with an initial speed of 30 km/h approached either by maintaining the speed or by decelerating. In the latter case, the braking onset was varied (55 m or 32 m from the pedestrian’s position). Participants’ task was to indicate their willingness to cross
the road in front of the vehicle at five different distances. Results show that FBL affected the willingness to cross the road, especially at an early braking onset (i.e., 55 m). If the vehicle decelerated (i.e., the FBL was activated in the EC), the willingness was significantly higher in the EC than in the CC. In case the vehicle maintained its speed (i.e., the FBL was not activated in the EC), the opposite effect appeared. However, children did not exclusively rely on information gained by the FBL, but still paid attention to distance to the vehicle and braking onset. In conclusion, the effects of an FBL on children are similar to the effects on adults identified in prior studies. Nevertheless, more research in complex scenarios is needed to draw general conclusions about the impact of FBL on road safety in differently aged children and adults.
... While empirical findings on the effects of eHMIs have been mixed, a consensus has emerged that they can indeed influence pedestrians' perceptions and behaviors, including trust, willingness to cross, and crossing timing [7,[11][12][13][14][15]. Notably, recent studies have shown that eHMIs can influence vehicle-pedestrian interactions not only when activated (e.g., increase willingness to cross by activating) but also when inactivated (e.g., decrease willingness to cross when inactivated) [7,[15][16][17]. In these studies, participants changed their crossing behavior in front of vehicles with inactive eHMIs (and vehicles without eHMIs) if they had previously been exposed to vehicles with active eHMIs. ...
In recent years, there has been a debate on whether automated vehicles (AVs) should be equipped with novel external human–machine interfaces (eHMIs). Many studies have demonstrated how eHMIs influence pedestrians’ attitudes (e.g., trust in AVs) and behavior when they activate (e.g., encourage crossing by lighting up). However, very little attention has been paid to their effects when they do not activate (e.g., discourage crossing by not lighting up). We conducted a video-based laboratory study with a mixed design to explore the potential of two different eHMI messages to facilitate pedestrian-AV interactions by means of activating or not activating. Our participants watched videos of an approaching AV equipped with either a state eHMI (“I am braking”) or intent eHMI (“I intend to yield to you”) from the perspective of a pedestrian about to cross the road. They indicated when they would initiate crossing and repeatedly rated their trust in the AV. Our results show that the activation of both the state and intent eHMI was effective in communicating the AV’s intent to yield and both eHMIs drew attention to a failure to yield when they did not activate. However, the two eHMIs differed in their potential to mislead pedestrians, as decelerations accompanied by the activation of the state eHMI were repeatedly misinterpreted as an intention to yield. Despite this, user experience ratings did not differ between the eHMIs. Following a failure to yield, trust declined sharply. In subsequent trials, crossing behavior recovered quickly, while trust took longer to recover.
... As an exemplary additional eHMI, each AV was further equipped with a light that activated when an AV began to decelerate, and remained activated as long as the AV decelerated (i.e., a frontal brake light, FBL). An FBL has been shown to be salient and influence pedestrian-vehicle interaction [7,14,23,62]. As the vehicles were either equipped with these two eHMIs or none, the presence of an AV-marker light made it immediately recognizable whether a vehicle had an FBL or not. ...
The proportion of highly automated vehicles in traffic (i.e., the prevalence of AVs) is likely to increase over time. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the prevalence of AVs may influence how pedestrians interact with AVs and with conventional, human-driven vehicles (CVs). A video-based laboratory study was conducted using a two-group mixed design. Participants took the perspective of pedestrians about to cross the road in a situation where AVs (with eHMIs) and CVs were approaching their position. The prevalence of AVs was manipulated between groups (low/high). The participants indicated the moment they decided to cross in front of the vehicles. Our results show that AV prevalence did indeed significantly influence when participants decided to cross. Overall, participants decided to cross earlier in front of the more prevalent vehicle type. Therefore, taking into account the given prevalence of AVs could significantly benefit AVs in predicting pedestrian behavior.
... Besides this, external communication in the form of eHMIs is already a prominent topic among researchers (for an overview, see Dey et al., 2020). The proposal for a front brake light has also been explored (Petzoldt et al., 2018), making it a promising means of communication between (automated) vehicles and VRUs from a scientific perspective (Bluhm et al., 2023;Eisele & Petzoldt, 2024). It was also noted that blind road users would require auditory identifiers. ...
Safe vehicles are an important pillar in reducing the number of accidents or mitigating the consequences of a collision. Although the number of autonomous safety systems in vehicles is increasing, retrofitted systems could also help reduce road accidents. A new retrofit assistance system called Front Brake Light (FBL) helps the driver to assess the intentions of other road users. This system is mounted at the front of the vehicle and works similarly to the rear brake lights. The objective of this study is to evaluate the safety performance of an FBL in real accidents at junctions. Depending on the type of accident, between 7.5% and 17.0% of the accidents analysed can be prevented. A further 9.0% to 25.5% could be positively influenced by the FBL; i.e., the collision speed could be reduced. If the FBLs were visible to the driver of the priority vehicle, the number of potentially avoidable accidents would increase to a magnitude of 11.5% to 26.2%. The range of accidents in which the consequences can be reduced increases to between 13.8% and 39.2%.
Over the last years, there has been a lively discussion whether (automated) vehicles should be equipped with novel external human-machine-interfaces (eHMIs) in order to facilitate communication with nearby vulnerable road users. This exploratory study investigated whether the introduction of eHMI-equipped vehicles to public traffic potentially influences how pedestrians interact with vehicles without eHMIs. To that goal, our participants specified their willingness to cross in front of vehicles that were either equipped with a frontal brake light eHMI or not in a video-based experiment. Between groups, the quota of eHMI-equipped vehicles in simulated traffic was varied. Our findings show that the quota of vehicles with an eHMI did indeed influence street crossing willingness in front of yielding as well as non-yielding vehicles without an eHMI. Notably, the magnitude and direction of the effect was dependent on the distance between vehicle and pedestrian. Future research on eHMIs should take potential unintended side effects of eHMIs into account.
Effects of a frontal brake light (FBL, a potential external human–machine interface for automated vehicles) on participants’ self-reported willingness to cross a vehicle’s path were investigated. In a mixed design online study (vehicles in the experimental group were equipped with FBLs, there were no FBLs in the control group), participants observed videos of a vehicle approaching at different speeds from the perspective of a pedestrian standing at the curb. The vehicles exhibited either yielding behavior (braking onset 55 m or 32 m before standstill in front of the pedestrian ’s position) or non-yielding behavior (approach speed was maintained). Participants specified their willingness to cross the vehicle’s path at different distances. When the vehicle yielded (i.e., FBL was activated), willingness to cross was significantly higher in the experimental group than the control group. Notably, we further observed a significantly lower willingness to cross in the experimental group than the control group when the vehicle did not yield (i.e., FBL was deactivated). Novel external human–machine interfaces might therefore influence the interaction with vehicles not only when they are activated but also when they are deactivated.
It is still unclear whether size constancy is an innate ability or whether it develops with age. As many developmental studies are limited to the child's comprehension of the task instructions, here, an implicit measure of perceived size, namely, simple manual reaction time (RT), was opted for based on the assumption that perceptually bigger objects generate faster detection times. We examined size constancy in children (from 5 to 14 years of age) and adults using a simple RT approach. Participants were presented with pictures of tennis balls on a screen that was physically moved to two viewing distances. Visual stimuli were adjusted in physical size in order to subtend the same visual angle across distances, determining two conditions: a small-near tennis ball vs. a big-far tennis ball. Thanks to size constancy, the two tennis balls were perceived as different even though they were of equal size on the retina. Stimuli were also matched in terms of luminance. Participants were asked to react as fast as possible to the onset of the stimuli. The results show that the RTs reflected the perceived rather than the retinal size of the stimuli across the different age groups, such that participants responded faster to stimuli that were perceived as bigger than those perceived as smaller. Hence, these findings are consistent with the idea that size constancy is already present in early childhood, at least from the age of five, and does not require extensive visual learning.
Recent research shows that braking of vehicles equipped with a front brake light is identified significantly earlier than braking of vehicles without front brake lights. Moreover, the absence of front brake lights leads to more conservative road crossing decisions. These results suggest that front brake lights are able to facilitate the pedestrians' anticipation of dangerous traffic situations, thereby increasing road safety. The present research investigated the effects of front brake lights in the real traffic of the Berlin Tegel Airport airside. A total of 102 vehicles were equipped with front brake lights and circulated in airport traffic for a period of three and a half months. Before and after this test period, 197 staff members were asked about their experiences with and their attitude towards front brake lights. The results show that front brake lights rarely led to misunderstandings, whereas they were significantly more often perceived to facilitate communication avoiding dangerous situations. The attitude towards front brake lights was already positive at the first interview and improved significantly during the measurement period. Overall, a great majority of participants stated that front brake lights improve communication between road users and thus increase road safety.
Automated driving research over the past decades has mostly focused on highway environments. Recent technological developments have drawn researchers and manufacturers to look ahead at introducing automated driving in cities. The current position paper examines this challenge from the viewpoint of scientific experts. Sixteen Human Factors researchers were interviewed about their personal perspectives on automated vehicles (AVs) and the interaction with VRUs in the future urban environment. Aspects such as smart infrastructure, external human-machine interfaces (eHMIs), and the potential of augmented reality (AR) were addressed during the interviews. The interviews showed that the researchers believed that fully autonomous vehicles will not be introduced in the coming decades and that intermediate levels of automation, specific AV services, or shared control will be used instead. The researchers foresaw a large role of smart infrastructure and expressed a need for AV-VRU segregation, but were concerned about corresponding costs and maintenance requirements. The majority indicated that eHMIs will enhance future AV-VRU interaction, but they noted that implicit communication will remain dominant and advised against text-based and instructive eHMIs. AR was commended for its potential in assisting VRUs, but given the technological challenges, its use, for the time being, was believed to be limited to scientific experiments. The present expert perspectives may be instrumental to various stakeholders and researchers concerned with the relationship between VRUs and AVs in future urban traffic.
There is a growing body of research in the field of interaction between automated vehicles and other road users in their vicinity. To facilitate such interactions, researchers and designers have explored designs, and this line of work has yielded several concepts of external Human-Machine Interfaces (eHMI) for vehicles. Literature and media review reveals that the description of interfaces is often lacking in fidelity or details of their functionalities in specific situations, which makes it challenging to understand the originating concepts. There is also a lack of a universal understanding of the various dimensions of a communication interface, which has impeded a consistent and coherent addressal of the different aspects of the functionalities of such interface concepts. In this paper, we present a unified taxonomy that allows a systematic comparison of the eHMI across 18 dimensions, covering their physical characteristics and communication aspects from the perspective of human factors and human-machine interaction. We analyzed and coded 70 eHMI concepts according to this taxonomy to portray the state of the art and highlight the relative maturity of different contributions. The results point to a number of unexplored research areas that could inspire future work. Additionally, we believe that our proposed taxonomy can serve as a checklist for user interface designers and researchers when developing their interfaces.
The interaction among pedestrians and human drivers is a complicated process, in which road users have to communicate their intentions, as well as understand and anticipate the actions of users in their vicinity. However, road users still ought to have a proper interpretation of each others’ behaviors, when approaching and crossing the road. Pedestrians, as one of the interactive agents, demonstrate different behaviors at road crossings, which do not follow a consistent pattern and may vary from one situation to another. The presented inconsistency and unpredictability of pedestrian road crossing behaviors may thus become a challenge for the design of emerging technologies in the near future, such as automated driving system (ADS). As a result, the current paper aims at understanding the effectual communication techniques, as well as the factors influencing pedestrian negotiation and decision-making process. After reviewing the state-of-the-art and identifying research gaps with regards to vehicle–pedestrian crossing encounters, a holistic approach for road crossing interaction modeling is presented and discussed. It is envisioned that the presented holistic approach will result in enhanced safety, sustainability, and effectiveness of pedestrian road crossings.
Development of psycho- physiological compentencies and the mobility of children (in German)
The number of pedestrian casualties in crashes with motorised vehicles is still alarming. Misunderstandings about the other road users’ intentions are certainly one contributory factor. Especially given recent developments in vehicle automation, informing about “vehicle behaviour” and “vehicle intentions” in the absence of any direct interaction between the driver and the outside world is becoming increasingly relevant. A frontal brake light which communicates
that a vehicle is decelerating could be a simple approach to support pedestrians and other road users in the interaction with (potentially automated) motorised vehicles. To assess the effect of a frontal brake light on the identification of vehicle deceleration, we conducted a video based lab experiment. The brake light facilitated the identification of
decelerations considerably. At the same time, the fact that only half of the decelerations were accompanied by the brake light resulted in increased identification times for decelerations in which the frontal brake light was absent compared to a control condition in which none of the decelerations was indicated by such a light. This finding points towards an increasingly conservative approach in the participants’ assessment of deceleration, which could be interpreted as an
indicator for a potential safety effect of the frontal brake light.
This investigation examined developmental change in how children perceive and act on dynamic affordances when crossing roads on foot. Six- to 14-year-olds and adults crossed roads with continuous cross-traffic in a large-screen, immersive pedestrian simulator. We observed change both in children’s gap choices and in their ability to precisely synchronize their movement with the opening of a gap. Younger children were less discriminating than older children and adults, choosing fewer large gaps and more small gaps. Interestingly, 12-year-olds’ gap choices were significantly more conservative than those of 6-, 8-, 10-, and 14-year-olds, and adults. Timing of entry behind the lead vehicle in the gap (a key measure of movement coordination) improved steadily with development, reaching adultlike levels by age 14. Coupled with their poorer timing of entry, 6-, 8-, and 10-year-olds’ gap choices resulted in significantly less time to spare and more collisions than 14-year-olds and adults. Time to spare did not differ between 12-year-olds, 14-year-olds, and adults, indicating that 12-year-olds’ more conservative gap choices compensated for their poorer timing of entry. The findings show that children’s ability to perceive and act on dynamic affordances undergoes a prolonged period of development, and that older children appear to compensate for their poorer movement timing skills by adjusting their gap decisions to match their crossing actions. Implications for the development of perception–action tuning and road-crossing skills are discussed.
This study tested the perceptual learning theory of size constancy development, which proposes that children younger than 9 years are relatively insensitive to monocular cues for distance and size, and that developmental changes in far-distance size estimation result from increasing sensitivity to these cues. This theory predicts that before 10 years, children will make less accurate size judgments at far distances under monocular than under binocular viewing conditions. Five age groups were tested: 5-6, 7-8, 9-10, 19-28, and 50+ years. Participants judged the size of a standard disc, from viewing distances of 6.1 and 61 m, by pointing at 1 of 9 nearby comparison discs. Testing was conducted under both monocular and binocular viewing conditions. Five- to 6-year-olds underestimated object size at the far distance, 7- to 8-, 9- to 10-year-olds, and older adults made size estimates that were close to accurate, and the young adults significantly overestimated size. At the near distance, all age groups underestimated size and no age differences were found. Contrary to predictions from the perceptual learning theory, viewing condition had no significant effect on size estimates.
Three gender-balanced groups of 16 school children (5-6 years, 8-9 years, 11-12 years) participated in individual pretests of vision, hearing, and time to walk across a 12-m wide urban street and back. Each child then completed 10 roadside trials requiring judgement of the threshold point at which they would no longer cross in front of traffic approaching from their right. The judgements were made from a site immediately in front of a parked car at a point 2 m from the kerb and 4 m from the centre of the road. Traffic speeds and distances were measured using a laser speed and distance detector. The results indicated that, overall, distance gap thresholds remained constant regardless of vehicle approach speeds. Analysis of the thresholds for distance gap judgements for the 4-m half-street crossing showed that some of the older children could be expected to make safe decisions, but this was not so for the 5-6- and 8-9-year-olds at vehicle approach speeds above 60 kph. Almost two-thirds of the children reported using distance to judge gaps, which proved the least adequate strategy in terms of proportion of resultant safe decisions. The findings are discussed in relation to developing effective child pedestrian safety strategies.
Switching attention and concentration, 2 skills expected to be used by skillful pedestrians, were studied. A sample of 160 children (aged 4 years 3 months-10 years) played a computer game involving attention switching. To examine concentration, a subset of the children was distracted with a cartoon video while they attempted a difficult task that required matching familiar figures. The same subset was also observed crossing roads. Older children switched faster and were less distracted. Children who were better at switching were more likely to show awareness of traffic when about to cross a road. Children who maintained concentration when challenged by a distracting event crossed the road in a less reckless manner. Parents and educators designing safety programs should take into account the development of these skills.
External human–machine-interfaces (eHMIs) might support the interaction between automated vehicles and pedestrians. The messages conveyed by eHMIs need to be understood quickly and correctly by their addressees. If implemented in the future, pedestrians will repeatedly encounter eHMIs in situations that feature different traffic context. So far, little is known about the influence of contextual cues like regulatory elements or (presumed) model behavior of fellow road users on the comprehension of eHMIs. In order to investigate possible effects of such contextual cues on comprehension, we conducted a picture-based online study among German residents (N = 175). Participants repeatedly interpreted three eHMI icons (“you can cross”, “do not cross”, and “pedestrian detected”) either without any context (control group) or within varying degrees of relevant context (experimental group). Context facilitated comprehensibility in terms of accuracy and subjective certainty. Relevant context was especially beneficial at first encounter. As soon as an icon’s meaning was internalized, the necessity of relevant context decreased. The effect of context should therefore be considered in future eHMI research as real-world comprehension might be underestimated otherwise.
The impact of automated vehicles (AV) on pedestrians’ crossing behavior has been the topic of some recent studies, but findings are still scarce and inconclusive. The aim of this study is to determine whether the drivers’ presence and apparent attentiveness in a vehicle influences pedestrians’ crossing behavior, perceived behavioral control, and perceived risk, in a controlled environment, using a Head-mounted Display in an immersive Virtual Reality study.
Twenty participants took part in a road-crossing experiment. The VR environment consisted of a single lane one-way road with car traffic approaching from the right-hand side of the participant which travelled at 30 kmph. Participants were asked to cross the road if they felt safe to do so. The effect of three driver conditions on pedestrians’ crossing behavior were studied: Attentive driver, distracted driver, and no driver present. Two vehicles were employed with a fixed time gap (3.5 s and 5.5 s) between them to study the effects of time gaps on pedestrians’ crossing behavior. The manipulated vehicle yielded to the pedestrians in half of the trials, stopping completely before reaching the pedestrian’s position. The crossing decision, time to initiate the crossing, crossing duration, and safety margin were measured.
The main findings show that the vehicle’s motion cues (i.e. the gap between the vehicles, and the yielding behavior of the vehicle) were the most important factors affecting pedestrians’ crossing behavior. Therefore, future research should focus more on investigating how AVs should behave while interacting with pedestrians. Distracted driver condition leads to shorter crossing initiation time but the effect was small. No driver condition leads to smaller safety margin. Findings also showed that perceived behavioral control was higher and perceived risk was significantly lower when the driver appeared attentive. Given that drivers will be allowed to do other tasks while AVs are operating in the future, whether explicit communication will be needed in this situation should be further investigated.
Introduction:
Little is known about how characteristics of the environment affect pedestrians' road crossing behavior.
Method:
In this work, the effect of typical urban visual clutter created by objects and elements in the road proximity (e.g., billboards) on adults and children (aged 9-13) road crossing behavior was examined in a controlled laboratory environment, utilizing virtual reality scenarios projected on a large dome screen.
Results:
Divided into three levels of visual load, results showed that high visual load affected children's and adults' road crossing behavior and visual attention. The main effect on participants' crossing decisions was seen in missed crossing opportunities. Children and adults missed more opportunities to cross the road when exposed to more cluttered road environments. An interaction with age was found in the dispersion of the visual attention measure. Children, 9-10 and 11-13 years old, had a wider spread of gazes across the scene when the environment was highly loaded-an effect not seen with adults. However, unexpectedly, no other indication of the deterring effect was found in the current study. Still, according to the results, it is reasonable to assume that busier road environments can be more hazardous to adult and child pedestrians. Practical Applications: In that context, it is important to further investigate the possible distracting effect of causal objects in the road environment on pedestrians, and especially children. This knowledge can help to create better safety guideline for children and assist urban planners in creating safer urban environments.
Objective
Pedestrian injuries are among the most common cause of death and serious injury to children. A range of risk factors, including individual differences and traffic environment factors, has been investigated as predictors of children’s pedestrian behaviours. There is little evidence examining how risk factors might interact with each other to influence children’s risk, however. The present study examined the independent and joint influences of individual differences (sex and sensation seeking) and traffic environment factors (vehicle speeds and inter-vehicle distances) on children’s pedestrian safety.
Methods
A total of 300 children aged 10–13 years were recruited to complete a sensation-seeking scale, and 120 of those were selected for further evaluation based on having high or low sensation-seeking scores in each gender, with 30 children in each group. Children’s pedestrian crossing behaviours were evaluated in a virtual reality traffic environment.
Results
Children low in sensation seeking missed more opportunities to cross and had longer start gaps to enter the roadway compared with those high in sensation seeking, and these effects were more substantial when vehicles were spread further apart but travelling slowly. Interaction effects between inter-vehicle distance and vehicle speed were also detected, with children engaging in riskier crossings when the car was moving more quickly and the vehicles were spread further than when the vehicles were moving quickly but were closer together. No sex differences or interactions emerged.
Conclusion
Both sensation seeking and traffic environment factors impact children’s behaviour in traffic, and there are interactions between traffic speeds and inter-vehicle distances that impact crossing behaviour.
This paper discusses whether the knowledge of the driving mode of an approaching vehicle (manual vs. automated) influences pedestrians’ decisions while crossing a street. Additionally, the paper explores how different appearances and driving behaviours of vehicles interact with driving mode in affecting pedestrians’ road-crossing behaviours. In a video-based experiment with sixty participants, two vehicles with different appearances (a BMW 3 and a Renault Twizy) were presented as either manually-driven or automated vehicles. Both vehicles displayed either yielding or non-yielding behaviour on a straight road devoid of other traffic. Participants were asked to indicate whether they would cross the street in front of the approaching vehicle, at different distances ranging from 45 m to 1.5 m. The results showed that there was no significant influence of the knowledge of the driving mode (manually-driven vs automated) on pedestrians’ willingness to cross the street at any distance. The vehicle’s behaviour (whether it is maintaining speed or yielding) played a dominant role in pedestrians’ decision to cross a road, and this was similar for both modes and both vehicles, at all distances. However, results suggested that in situations and at distances when the intent of the vehicle was not fully clear by the behaviour of the car alone, there were differences between the two vehicles at certain distances, which could be attributed to the differences in their appearance such as size, aggressiveness and novelty. A futuristic-looking vehicle inspired less confidence in road-crossing situations compared to an ordinary-looking vehicle. Additionally, a novel and futuristic-looking vehicle appeared to make it easier for people to believe that it is an automated vehicle. We conclude by discussing design implications for the development of external HMIs automated vehicles.
In einer Serie von vier empirischen Studien wurde untersucht, ob die Antwortsicherheit in einem Rechtschreibtest als Maß für das Selbstkonzept im Fach Deutsch von Grund¬schulkindern verwendet werden kann. Dazu wurden in Studie 1 bis 3 die Zusammenhänge zwischen der Antwortsicherheit, dem Selbstkonzept und der Leistung quer- und längs¬schnittlich untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich konsistent, dass die Antwortsicherheit und das Selbstkonzept miteinander sowie beide Variablen wiederum mit der Leistung korrelieren. Substanzielle inkrementelle Effekte in Bezug auf externe Leistungskriterien bei Kontrolle der Testleistung – wie sie für das Selbstkonzept bekannt sind – blieben für die Antwort¬sicherheit jedoch unerwarteterweise aus. Bei den längsschnittlichen Auswertungen zeigten sich – bei einer Replikation der bekannten wechselseitigen Effekte zwischen Selbstkonzept und Leistung – Effekte der Leistung auf die Antwortsicherheit, nicht jedoch von der Antwortsicherheit auf die Leistung. Insgesamt sprechen diese Ergebnisse gegen eine starke Überschneidung der Antwortsicherheit mit dem Selbstkonzept in Deutsch. Deshalb erfolgte in der vierten Studie der Vergleich der Antwortsicherheit sowohl mit dem Selbstkonzept in Deutsch als auch mit dem auf das Rechtschreiben bezogenen, aufgabenspezifischen Selbstkonzept. Dabei zeigten sich zwar inkrementelle Effekte in Bezug auf die Leistung für das Selbstkonzept in Deutsch, aber weder für das aufgabenspezifische Selbstkonzept noch für die Antwortsicherheit. Dieses Ergebnis sowie eine stärkere Korrelation der Antwortsicherheit mit dem aufgabenspezifischen Selbstkonzept im Vergleich mit dem Selbstkonzept in Deutsch deuten darauf hin, dass die Antwortsicherheit möglicherweise als Maß für das aufgabenspezifische Selbstkonzept von Grundschulkindern dienen könnte. Sollte sich dies in zukünftigen Studien bestätigen, könnten Lehrkräfte die Antwortsicherheit zur Diagnostik aufgabenspezifischer Selbstkonzepte sowie zur Überprüfung der Angemessenheit der Selbsteinschätzung von Schulkindern einsetzen.
Crossing a two-way street is a complex task that involves visual, cognitive and motor abilities, all of which are known to decline with ageing. In particular, older pedestrians may experience difficulties when crossing two-way streets because of incorrect gap acceptance choices and impossible or unperceived evasive actions. To understand the overrepresentation of older pedestrians in crash statistics, several experimental studies have sought to identify traffic-related factors as well as those related to the abilities of the individuals themselves. However, none of these studies has required participants to actually walk across an experimental two-way street with curbs, which is a particularly challenging situation for older pedestrians. To fill this research gap, a quasi-experiment was conducted in a simulator including a total of 58 healthy aged participants (25 younger-old [age 60-72] and 33 older-old [age 72-92]) and 25 young adults (aged 18-25 years). Participants carried out a street-crossing task in a simulated two-way traffic environment; curbs were present on both sides of the experimental street. Participants also undertook a battery of tests to assess their visual and cognitive abilities. In addition, during the experiment, the participants' gait parameters were recorded. In line with earlier findings, the older-old group of participants made a higher number of decisions that led to collisions with approaching cars compared with the other groups. The two groups of older participants experienced specific difficulties when vehicles were in the far lane or when they approached rapidly. A regression analysis identified visual acuity, speed of processing (assessed using the UFOV(®) test), and step length as significant predictors of collisions. Our results have implications for understanding the difficulties experienced by older pedestrians and allow to draw up several recommendations for improving their safety.
In: Sicher Leben (Hg.): Bericht über die 2. Tagung "Kindersicherheit: Was wirkt?" in Essen, 27. und 28. September 1996 in Essen, Wien, 1997, 313 -326.
The main purpose of this study was to clarify the developmental processes of understanding of interrelationships among the three concepts, duration, distance, and speed. In Experiment 1, ” ve developmental phases were found based on data of 222 four- to eleven-year-old children. In the ” rst phase, children displayed an implicit understanding of the direct relationships between duration and distance, and between distance and speed. This phase was most common among 4-year-olds. Second, children occasionally understood the inverse relation between duration and speed. Third, all of the two direct relations and the inverse relation were almost correctly understood, although the third dimension was still rather ignored. Fourth, children made their judgements based on the duration-distance-speed system, but were not fully conscious of it. Finally, children judged consciously based on this system. About half of the 11-year-olds reached this phase. In Experiment 2, 29 children repeatedly participated in the same experiment six or eight times once a year till 6th grade. Generally, their understanding developed along the process that emerged in Experiment 1, although there was facilitation of a transfer from the coordination of two-by-two relations to the duration-distance-speed system. Theoretical and educational implications of these ” ndings were discussed.
To become more skilled as pedestrians, children need to acquire a view of the traffic environment as one in which road users are active agents with different intentions and objectives. This paper describes a simulation study designed to explore children's understanding of drivers' intentions. It also investigated the effect of training children's sensitivity, through peer discussion and adult guidance, to the cues by which drivers signal their intentions. Results confirmed that children's ability to accurately predict drivers' intentions improves with age and that sensitizing children through training to the options for action available to drivers when signalling a manoeuvre improves their accuracy in predicting drivers' intentions. Training was also found to shift children's focus from contextual infrastructural features of the traffic environment (e.g. traffic signals, stop signs) by which to judge drivers' likely intentions to the explicit cues that drivers use to signal their imminent actions (e.g. slowing down, moving into the kerb). Training on the simulation was also shown to transfer to practical decision making at the roadside.
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/903/2/15776.0001.001.pdf
The reported study employed a virtual reality (VR) system, using a head mounted display (HMD), to investigate road crossing behavior in children and young adults. Younger children (aged 5-9 years) made the greatest number of unsafe road crossings and the oldest participants (aged >19 years) the fewest. Overall performance was better (fewer unsafe road crossings) in uniform speed than uniform distance trials, consistent with previous research suggesting that pedestrians base road crossing decisions on inter-vehicle distance rather than vehicle speed. Results are discussed in terms of road crossing behavior and the use of VR simulations in the study of pedestrian behavior.
In recent years, virtual reality has emerged as an innovative tool for health-related education and training. Among the many benefits of virtual reality is the opportunity for novice users to engage unsupervised in a safe environment when the real environment might be dangerous. Virtual environments are only useful for health-related research, however, if behavior in the virtual world validly matches behavior in the real world. This study was designed to test the validity of an immersive, interactive virtual pedestrian environment. A sample of 102 children and 74 adults was recruited to complete simulated road-crossings in both the virtual environment and the identical real environment. In both the child and adult samples, construct validity was demonstrated via significant correlations between behavior in the virtual and real worlds. Results also indicate construct validity through developmental differences in behavior; convergent validity by showing correlations between parent-reported child temperament and behavior in the virtual world; internal reliability of various measures of pedestrian safety in the virtual world; and face validity, as measured by users' self-reported perception of realism in the virtual world. We discuss issues of generalizability to other virtual environments, and the implications for application of virtual reality to understanding and preventing pediatric pedestrian injuries.
Patent No 1,519,980, United States Patent Office
- S F Douglass
Douglass, S. F. (1924) U.S. Patent No 1,519,980, United States Patent Office, Washington, D.C.
Freie Querung einer Straße
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