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Digitalization potentials and limitations of cash-based assistance
Abstract
Cash-based assistance (CBA) has emerged as a promising transfer modality over in-kind assistance in humanitarian aid. However, it is still associated with several disadvantages, such as higher risk of theft, misuse of financial resources, and/or corruption. Novel information and communication technologies are potential solutions for coping with these CBA-related disadvantages. However, the transition from in-kind or traditional CBA to digital CBA depends on many factors, such as the state of digitalization of the responding humanitarian organization, the financial market in the countries of deployment, or the accessibility to digital CBAs by the beneficiaries. The respective scientific and practitioner communities provide several experiences from past deployments. However, existing experiences provide only organization- or operation-dependent and thus anecdotal evidence. This paper follows a systematic literature review to construct a structured overview of the identified potentials and limitations of digital CBA projects. To evaluate the literature review results, we conducted two case-based evaluations to examine the validity and transferability of the identified potentials and limitations. The resulting structured overview promises to assist humanitarian organizations in pre-assessing appropriate CBA modalities for their programs. Furthermore, our findings suggest a high degree of context dependency on digital CBA and the lack of universally applicable potentials and limitations. As a theoretical contribution, the structured overview of the identified potentials and limitations can be used for the design of a research agenda towards the development of suitability assessment frameworks.
... Conducting this type of review is challenging due to the wide-ranging nature of humanitarian assistance, lack of well-defined nomenclature for data processing technologies and activities, and because relevant research may be published in the intersecting fields of ethics research, design, engineering, health, medicine, geography, development, social science, and technology research, among others. Previous scoping reviews focusing on humanitarian assistance only addressed more limited contexts or topics, such as disasters [47], displaced populations [48][49][50][51], cash transfers [52,53], the use of drones [54,55], or the phasing down and closing of humanitarian projects [56]. Other relevant studies have included scoping reviews of digital health tools and interventions in conflict settings and public health emergencies [57][58][59], a literature review focused on social media and privacy issues (based on literature published between 2013 and 2014 [60]), and systematic reviews covering digital innovation in humanitarian assistance, including deep learning and data-driven decision-making [61,62]. ...
Background
Humanitarian organizations are rapidly expanding their use of data in the pursuit of operational gains in effectiveness and efficiency. Ethical risks, particularly from artificial intelligence (AI) data processing, are increasingly recognized yet inadequately addressed by current humanitarian data protection guidelines. This study reports on a scoping review that maps the range of ethical issues that have been raised in the academic literature regarding data processing of people affected by humanitarian crises.
Methods
We systematically searched databases to identify peer-reviewed studies published since 2010. Data and findings were standardized, grouping ethical issues into the value categories of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. The study protocol followed Arksey and O’Malley’s approach and PRISMA reporting guidelines.
Results
We identified 16,200 unique records and retained 218 relevant studies. Nearly one in three (n = 66) discussed technologies related to AI. Seventeen studies included an author from a lower-middle income country while four included an author from a low-income country. We identified 22 ethical issues which were then grouped along the four ethical value categories of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. Slightly over half of included studies (n = 113) identified ethical issues based on real-world examples. The most-cited ethical issue (n = 134) was a concern for privacy in cases where personal or sensitive data might be inadvertently shared with third parties. Aside from AI, the technologies most frequently discussed in these studies included social media, crowdsourcing, and mapping tools.
Conclusions
Studies highlight significant concerns that data processing in humanitarian contexts can cause additional harm, may not provide direct benefits, may limit affected populations’ autonomy, and can lead to the unfair distribution of scarce resources. The increase in AI tool deployment for humanitarian assistance amplifies these concerns. Urgent development of specific, comprehensive guidelines, training, and auditing methods is required to address these ethical challenges. Moreover, empirical research from low and middle-income countries, disproportionally affected by humanitarian crises, is vital to ensure inclusive and diverse perspectives. This research should focus on the ethical implications of both emerging AI systems, as well as established humanitarian data management practices.
Trial registration
Not applicable.
... Recent studies have emphasised CVA's role in enhancing financial inclusion by utilising digital technologies, with successful implementations in Niger and Tanzania (Abiona and Koppensteiner, 2022;Aker et al., 2011). Furthermore, some studies have also focused on the risks, benefits and challenges of technologies used to implement CVA programmes (Abdelgawad et al., 2023;Juntunen et al., 2023;Maghsoudi et al., 2023b), as well as fair and transparent distributions of relief items (Khan et al., 2019), that could be extended and applicable to cash assistance as marginalization for CVA distribution is always an issue (Vogel et al., 2022) CVA can be structured as either conditional or unconditional approaches, covering a wide range of needs including food and non-food items, water, hygiene, medical supplies and shelter. The unconditional approach of CVA offers greater flexibility for beneficiaries and local economies, while conditional programmes ensure more precise spending and minimise misuse. ...
Cash and voucher assistance (CVA) has grown substantially as an important alternative to in-kind aid in global humanitarian efforts, yet a notable gap remains in addressing CVA efficiency and establishing a framework for evaluating the maturity of CVA programmes. This paper proposes a CVA maturity framework as a structured approach to supporting humanitarian organisations (HOs) in assessing their maturity for implementing CVA programmes. Serving as a guide and measurement tool, this paper employs a mixed-methods approach, incorporates triangulation and inductive methods to establish key dimensions and measures. To ensure its practical applicability, the framework was validated with a survey of international HO professionals. The proposed framework delineates maturity stages (initial, structured and optimised) that represent varying levels of CVA delivery capability and enabling context. This manuscript's unique contribution lies in its tailored maturity framework for CVA programmes in humanitarian supply chains.
... Despite its huge potential and the presence of various forms of digital payment modalities, mobile phone payment remains a normal practice most especially in a few countries (Khairun & Yasmin, 2010). Further, the effectiveness of digital cash-based transfers depends on the level of digitization in humanitarian organizations and financial markets, and the availability of digital cash-based assistance modalities by beneficiaries (Juntunen, Kalla, Widera, & Hellingrath, 2023). ...
Purpose
The study examined the influence of humanitarian organizations’ culture and financial service providers’ technology readiness on the usage of digital cash-based assistance by humanitarian organizations, the influence of Humanitarian Organization Culture on Financial providers’ technology readiness and the mediating role of financial service providers’ technology readiness on the relationship between the culture in humanitarian organizations and their usage of digital cash-based assistance.
Design/methodology/approach
A quantitative cross-sectional survey design was used. The target population consisted of humanitarian organizations that were members of the Uganda Cash Consortium (UCC). The research hypotheses were tested using SMART PLS version 4.
Findings
The culture in humanitarian organizations and financial service providers’ technology readiness positively influences the usage of digital cash-based assistance by humanitarian organizations during humanitarian crises, and humanitarian organizations’ culture positively influences financial service providers’ technology readiness. Financial service providers’ technology readiness fully mediates the relationship between the culture of humanitarian organizations and the usage of digital cash-based assistance by humanitarian organizations during humanitarian crises.
Research limitations/implications
The study mainly focuses on culture in humanitarian organizations and financial service providers’ technology readiness when examining the usage of digital cash-based assistance during humanitarian crises. Further, financial service providers’ technology readiness is examined using a humanitarian organization, financial service provider and beneficiary/persons of concern’s point of view rather than the government’s point of view.
Originality/value
Research examining determinants for digital cash-based assistance usage in humanitarian crises is scarce. Further, empirical research examining the influence of the humanitarian organizations’ culture and financial service providers’ technology readiness in promoting the usage of digital cash-based assistance in humanitarian crises, the impact of humanitarian organizations’ culture on financial service providers’ technology readiness and the mediating role of financial service providers’ technology readiness on the relationship between the culture of humanitarian organizations and usage of digital cash-based assistance in humanitarian crises are non-existent. The majority of research and grey literature focuses on how digital cash-based transfers can be used to enhance financial inclusion in refugee contexts.
... However, the context-related factors cannot be comprehended at one point in time since these factors vary based on each case. Such contextual factors are associated with the implementation context's general conditions, such as infrastructures, host country' s regulations, technology level, and availability at the program place (Abdelgawad et al., 2023;Juntunen et al., 2023;Maghsoudi, Harpring, Piotrowicz, & Heaslip, 2023;Maghsoudi, Harpring, Piotrowicz, & Kedziora, 2023). The other association is with program -specific related conditions such, as the specific operational requirements (banking or financial systems and regulations, specific vendors, digital financial service providers, agents networks), besides related societa l factors such as financial literacy, digital literacy, and gender inclusion (Burton, 2020;Heaslip et al., 2018;Tappis & Doocy, 2018). ...
Cash-based assistance (CBA) programs have become an increasingly common approach as one modality for the provision of humanitarian aid. The use of disruptive and digital technologies (such as mobile money, electronic vouchers) has provided benefits to implementation of such programs in terms of for instance, cost effectiveness, timeliness, coverage, safety, and financial inclusion. Despite the benefits, the digitalization of such programs is very context-dependent, including the needs and characteristics of affected populations as end recipients of the assistance. This research is aimed to investigate the contextual characteristics toward digital transformation addressing the end user's experience. The series of interviews is conducted from humanitarian practitioners based in Uganda. The findings are yet to be analyzed, but some initial findings are discussed, and future research is addressed in the conclusion.
Direct Cash Assistance is a social program distributed to residents meeting specific requirements. The village government determines the recipients using a conventional system through village meetings. This approach is greatly influenced by the decision-holders’ subjectivity with non-transparent thinking. This research aims to solve the problem of classifying Direct Cash Assistance recipients by applying probability-based classification. The research method used is smoothed Nave Bayes, which improves Nave Bayes by adding a constant to avoid zero classification. The datasets use variables such as age, type of work, and criteria for receiving assistance. The last variable includes five nominal data, which debilitates Nave Bayes by not obtaining a posterior probability as a prediction class result. We used Direct Cash Assistance data from the Sedati sub-district, Sidoarjo district, East Java. The results of research with original Nave Bayes and smoothed Nave Bayes classification show that smoothed Nave Bayes has good prediction performance with an accuracy of 95.9% with a data split of 60:40. Smoothed- Nave Bayes also solves the problem of 8 data without predictive classes. The prediction results show that Smoothed Nave Bayes performs better than standard Nave Bayes. This research contributes to refining Nave Bayes to complement probability-based classification by adding refinement constants to avoid zero classification.
In light of growing cloud computing usage, this study is designed and implemented on an efficient security routing protocol for cloud-based networks using Cisco Packet Tracer. Cloud computing's shared resources and dynamic scalability make cloud-based networks vulnerable to unwanted access, data breaches, and insider assaults, prompting the research. The research objectives are to identify and categorize security threats, evaluate existing security solutions, propose an enhanced security measures, and validate these solutions through simulations in Cisco Packet Tracer. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, integrating quantitative and qualitative research designs. Primary data were collected through surveys using Google form and network analysis tools within Cisco Packet Tracer, while secondary data is derived from a comprehensive literature review. The study employed a random sampling technique to select participants with relevant expertise in cloud security. Data analysis involved thematic analysis to identify patterns in the literature and content analysis to extract insights from survey responses. Statistical tests were used to analyze quantitative data, and network analysis was conducted on data obtained from Cisco Packet Tracer simulations. Key findings revealed that data breaches, unauthorized access, insider threats, malware, ransomware attacks, and Denial of Service (DoS) attacks were significant security concerns. The survey results indicated a consensus on the importance of specific features in efficient security routing protocols but also highlighted skepticism regarding the effectiveness of existing protocols. The proposed security measures, including the Three-Level Enabled Secret protocol, Encryption protocol, Secure Shell protocol (SSH), and various routing protocols such as EIGRP, RIP, BGP, and OSPF, Trunk protocol, switch-port security protocol were validated through simulations and showed effectiveness in mitigating security threats. The study has both theoretical and practical implications, contributing to the body of knowledge in cloud computing security and providing practical recommendations for organisations to strengthen their cloud security posture. Limitations include the simulation-based approach and the focus on specific security protocols, suggesting areas for further research in real-world implementation and integration with emerging technologies.
Design science in the entrepreneurship field holds the promise of developing relevant knowledge with scientific rigor. Yet despite the promise of this approach, the entrepreneurship field still lacks guidance on how to plan, conduct, and assess design science work. In order to develop theoretically grounded principles, we first make our perspective on design science explicit. We characterize design science in entrepreneurship as a specific scientific approach that shares the values of practice (i.e., usefulness) and uses the methods of science (i.e., scientific method plus more specific, scrutable methods). We conceptualize design knowledge as a body of scientific knowledge that comprises both design object knowledge (e.g., situated artifact, and design principles), and design evaluation knowledge (e.g., usefulness, and social worth). Drawing on these foundations, we provide guidance on (1) how to make design knowledge contributions explicit, (2) how to position design science work, (3) how to effectively utilize prior knowledge, and (4) how to use fitting methods in design science work. The article contributes by further developing the conceptual foundations of design science in entrepreneurship and providing guidance on how to conduct and assess design science work in the entrepreneurship field.
The humanitarian sector has gone through a major shift toward injection of cash into vulnerable communities as its core modality. On this trajectory toward direct currency injection, something new has happened: namely the empowerment of communities to create their own local currencies, a tool known as Complementary Currency systems. This study mobilizes the concepts of endogenous regional development, import substitution and local market linkages as elaborated by Albert Hirschman and Jane Jacobs, to analyze the impact of a group of Complementary Currencies instituted by Grassroots Economics Foundation and the Red Cross in Kenya. The paper discusses humanitarian Cash and Voucher Assistance programs and compares them to a Complementary Currency system using Grassroots Economics as a case study. Transaction histories recorded on a blockchain and network visualizations show the ability of these Complementary Currencies to create diverse production capacity, dense local supply chains, and data for measuring the impact of humanitarian currency transfers. Since Complementary Currency systems prioritize both cooperation and localization, the paper argues that Complementary Currencies should become one of the tools in the Cash and Voucher Assistance toolbox.
Cash and voucher assistance (CVA) have become a widespread humanitarian tool to support people affected by conflicts, displacement and disasters. It promises improved ways to meet the diverse needs of aid beneficiaries. To date, current policy and academic debates mainly centre on technocratic questions around economy, effectiveness, economy and equity, and, to a lesser extent, the impact on individual recipients and households. This article challenges the assumption of CVA as a linear process and argues that the shift to CVA is more than changing the delivery platform of aid. It argues that scholarship and practice so far overlook the social meaning of money, and therefore its broader implications for humanitarian aid and local markets. The article presents evidence that CVA impacts on social relations and risks creating new, or exacerbating existing, conflicts in already fragile contexts. It highlights less explored areas of CVA and outlines a multidimensional research agenda that emphasises its potential social and socio‐economic impacts.
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This Campbell systematic review examines the effectiveness, efficiency and implementation of cash transfers in humanitarian settings. The review summarises evidence from five studies of effects, 10 studies of efficiency and 108 studies of barriers and facilitators to implementation of cash‐based humanitarian assistance.
Studies assessing effectiveness of cash‐based approaches were experimental and quasiexperimental studies. Studies analyzing efficiency were experimental, quasi‐experimental or observational studies with a cost analysis or economic evaluation component. Studies examining barriers and facilitators included these study types as well as other qualitative and mixed methods studies.
Unconditional cash transfers and vouchers may improve household food security among conflict‐affected populations and maintain household food security among food insecure and drought‐affected populations. Unconditional cash transfers led to greater improvements in dietary diversity and quality than food transfers, but food transfers are more successful in increasing per capita caloric intake than unconditional cash transfers and vouchers. Unconditional cash transfers may be more effective than vouchers in increasing household savings, and equally effective in increasing household asset ownership. Mobile transfers may be a more successful asset protection mechanism than physical cash transfers. Cash transfers can be an efficient strategy for providing humanitarian assistance. Unconditional cash transfer programmes have a lower cost per beneficiary than vouchers which, in turn, have a lower cost per beneficiary than in‐kind food distribution. Cash transfer programs can also benefit the local economy. Voucher programmes generated up to 1 equivalent provided to beneficiaries and unconditional cash transfer programmes generated more than 1 provided to beneficiaries. Intervention design and implementation play a greater role in determining effectiveness and efficiency of cash‐based approaches than the emergency context or humanitarian sector. Factors which influence implementation include resources available and technical capacity of implementing agencies, resilience of crisis‐affected populations, beneficiary selection methods, use of new technologies, and setting‐specific security issues, none of which are necessarily unique to cash‐based interventions.
Plain language summary
Cash‐based humanitarian assistance approaches can increase food security and are more cost effective than in‐kind food transfers
Both cash‐based approaches and in‐kind food assistance can be effective means of increasing household food security for people who live in areas of conflict.
The review in brief
Cash‐based approaches have become an increasingly common strategy for the provision of humanitarian assistance. Both cash‐based approaches and in‐kind food assistance can be effective means of increasing household food security among conflict‐affected populations and maintaining household food security among food insecure and drought‐affected populations. Cash transfers are more cost effective than vouchers which are more cost effective than in‐kind food assistance.
What is this review about?
This review assesses the effects of cash‐based approaches on individual and household outcomes in humanitarian emergencies. It also assesses the efficiency of different cash‐based approaches and identifies factors that hinder and facilitate programme implementation.
What is the aim of this review?
This Campbell systematic review examines the effectiveness, efficiency and implementation of cash transfers in humanitarian settings. The review summarises evidence from five studies of effects, 10 studies of efficiency and 108 studies of barriers and facilitators to implementation of cash‐based humanitarian assistance.
What are the main findings of this review?
What studies are included?
Studies assessing effectiveness of cash‐based approaches were experimental and quasi‐experimental studies. Studies analyzing efficiency were experimental, quasi‐experimental or observational studies with a cost analysis or economic evaluation component. Studies examining barriers and facilitators included these study types as well as other qualitative and mixed methods studies.
Unconditional cash transfers and vouchers may improve household food security among conflict‐affected populations and maintain household food security among food insecure and drought‐affected populations. Unconditional cash transfers led to greater improvements in dietary diversity and quality than food transfers, but food transfers are more successful in increasing per capita caloric intake than unconditional cash transfers and vouchers. Unconditional cash transfers may be more effective than vouchers in increasing household savings, and equally effective in increasing household asset ownership. Mobile transfers may be a more successful asset protection mechanism than physical cash transfers.
Cash transfers can be an efficient strategy for providing humanitarian assistance. Unconditional cash transfer programmes have a lower cost per beneficiary than vouchers which, in turn, have a lower cost per beneficiary than in‐kind food distribution. Cash transfer programs can also benefit the local economy. Voucher programmes generated up to 1 equivalent provided to beneficiaries and unconditional cash transfer programmes generated more than 1 provided to beneficiaries.
Intervention design and implementation play a greater role in determining effectiveness and efficiency of cash‐based approaches than the emergency context or humanitarian sector. Factors which influence implementation include resources available and technical capacity of implementing agencies, resilience of crisis‐affected populations, beneficiary selection methods, use of new technologies, and setting‐specific security issues, none of which are necessarily unique to cash‐based interventions.
What do the findings of this review mean?
Unconditional cash transfers and vouchers can be effective and efficient ways to provide humanitarian assistance.
Each assistance modality has different advantages and disadvantages that should be considered in the design of future interventions. However, no definitive conclusions on the effectiveness of cash transfer or voucher programmes could be drawn that are universally applicable for humanitarian policy.
Further development of the evidence base, with more rigorous evaluations comparing the effectiveness of different cash‐based approaches and transfer modalities, as well as approaches to comparing costs and benefits of cash‐transfer and voucher programmes, is needed to further strengthen the evidence base.
How up‐to‐date is this review?
The review authors searched for studies published up to November 2014. This Campbell systematic review was published in December 2017.
Executive summary
BACKGROUND
Humanitarian actors have a responsibility to ensure that assistance is provided in a way that minimizes risks and maximizes benefits to people affected by crisis. However, there are many challenges in evaluating ‘what works’ in addressing the needs of crisis‐affected populations, and translating research evidence into practice in complex environments with limited resources.
Humanitarian assistance has traditionally been provided in the form of in‐kind goods and services: temporary shelters, food and non‐food items, water and medical care. However, as the nature of humanitarian crises has shifted over the last few decades, cash‐based approaches have become an increasingly common strategy for the provision of humanitarian assistance and are widely considered an appropriate, and sometimes preferable, substitute for in‐kind assistance when conditions permit.
Increasing use of cash‐based approaches has been accompanied by efforts to evaluate cash‐based interventions and develop recommendations for implementation in a range of settings. Systematic reviews of evidence in humanitarian settings are,however,relatively rare, and, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review of the effects of cash‐based approaches in emergencies to date.
OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of this review wasto assess and synthesize existing evidence on the effects of cash‐based approaches on individual and household outcomes in humanitarian emergencies. The secondary objective was to assess the efficiency of different cash‐based approaches and identify factors that hinder and facilitate programme implementation.
REVIEW METHODS
We followed standard methodological procedures for review of experimental and quasi‐experimental studies to assess the effects of unconditional cash transfer, conditional cash transfer and voucher programmes for crisis‐affected populations. We also adapted these procedures to review economic studies assessing the efficiency of cash‐based approaches and observational, qualitative and mixed method studies assessing the factors that facilitate or hinder the implementation of cash‐based approaches in different settings.
We conducted comprehensive searches of published and unpublished literature in November 2014. Two independent research assistants screened all identified studies to determine eligibility for inclusion in the review. We then extracted data from all included studies using a standardized coding tool and critically appraised the studies using existing tools appropriate for the different study designs.
Due to the heterogeneity of the comparisons and outcomes reported in the included studies, we were not able to synthesize the studies using meta‐analysis. Instead, we have presentedthe results in tables and synthesised the findings narratively. We used narrative and thematic synthesis to address the secondary objective. We conducted these analyses in parallel, and have reported on each separately in subsequent chapters of this review.
REVIEW FINDINGS
Out of 4,094 studies identified in the initial search, a total of 113 publications (108 unique studies) were included in this systematic review. Only nine studies were found in peer‐reviewed publications. Overall, we have considered the body of evidence reviewed to have been of low quality due to methodological limitations. While the evidence reviewed offers some insights, the paucity of rigorous research on cash‐based approaches limits the strength of the conclusions. This is not uncommon amongtopics related to humanitarian assistance. The following table summarizes the types of studies reviewed in each section of this report:
Review Topic Studies Reviewed Study Characteristics
Effects of cash‐based approaches on:
• • Individual and household‐level economic outcomes
• • Sector‐specific humanitarian outcomes
• • Cross‐cutting humanitarian outcomes
5
Settings: DR Congo, Ecuador, Niger, Lebanon, YemenInterventions: Unconditional cash transfers, vouchersStudy designs: Randomized control trials (factorial and stratified cluster designs), regression discontinuity
Efficiency of cash‐based approaches in achieving humanitarian objectives
10
Settings: DR Congo, Ecuador, Niger, Lebanon, YemenInterventions: Unconditional cash transfers, vouchersStudy designs: Cost, cost‐efficiency, cost‐effectiveness, cost‐benefit, market impact
Factors facilitating and hindering realization of cash programme activities and the achievement of humanitarian objectives in different contexts
108
Settings: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Belize, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burundi, Chile, DR Congo, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Japan, Jordan, Lebanon, Lesotho, Niger, Malawi, Mozambique, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Pakistan, the Philippines, Somalia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, Turkey, Uganda, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia, ZimbabweInterventions: Unconditional cash transfers, vouchers, conditional cash transfers (cash for work)Study designs: descriptive (quantitative), qualitative (narrative or thematic analysis), mixed methods
Main findings:
Effectiveness of cash‐based approaches (chapter 5)
Five studies assessed the effects of cash‐based approaches, four of which assessed effects on household level food security outcomes. Unconditional cash transfers and vouchers may improve household food security among conflict‐affected populations and maintain household food security within the context of food insecurity crises and drought. Studies found that unconditional cash transfers led to greater improvements in dietary diversity and quality than food transfers. Food transfers were found to be more successful in increasing per capita caloric intake than unconditional cash transfers and vouchers.
Few studies measure changes in household economic indicators, other sectoral outcomes and cross‐cutting outcomes. Unconditional cash transfers may be more effective than vouchers in increasing household savings, and equally effective in increasing household assets. Mobile transfers may be a more successful asset protection mechanism than physical cash transfers.
Efficiency of cash‐based approaches (chapter 6)
Ten studies assessed the efficiency of cash based approaches. Cash transfers and vouchers may be more cost‐efficient than in‐kind food distribution. Studies found that unconditional cash transfer programmes have a lower cost per beneficiary than comparison interventions (either vouchers, in‐kind food distribution or both); and vouchers have a lower cost per beneficiary than in‐kind food distribution. In‐kind food distribution has substantially higher administrative costs per dollar value provided to a beneficiary than unconditional cash transfers.
Cash‐based approaches may have positive economic multiplier effects. Voucher programmes generated up to 1 equivalent provided to beneficiaries and unconditional cash transfer programmes generated more than 1 provided to beneficiaries.
Factors facilitating and hindering implementation of cash‐based approaches (chapter 7)
Evidence suggests that intervention design and implementation play a greater role in determining effectiveness and efficiency of cash‐based approaches than the emergency context or humanitarian sector.
Specific factors shown to influence implementation include resources available and technical capacity of implementing agencies, resilience of crisis‐affected populations, beneficiary selection methods, use of new technologies, and setting‐specific security issues, none of which are necessarily unique to cash‐based interventions.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Despite the widespread use and increasing number of evaluations of cash‐based humanitarian assistance, there is a paucity of rigorous evidence about how best to address the needs of crisis‐affected populations. This is not surprising, as studies meeting the methodological criteria for inclusion in most systematic reviews are relatively rare in emergency settings.
Findings suggests that both cash‐based approaches and in‐kind food assistance can be effective means of increasing household food security among conflict‐affected populations and maintaining household food security among food insecure and drought‐affected populations; each assistance modality has different advantages and disadvantages that should be considered in the design of future interventions. However, no definitive conclusions on the effectiveness of cash transfer or voucher programmes could be drawn that are universally applicable for humanitarian policy. Further development of the evidence base, with more rigorous evaluations comparing the effectiveness of different cash‐based approaches (or combinations of approaches) and transfer modalities, as well as standardized approaches to documenting and comparing both costs and benefits of cash‐transfer and voucher programmes, is needed to further strengthen the evidence base in this area.
Over half of Syrian refugee households in Lebanon are food insecure with some reliant on an electronic voucher (e-voucher) system for food aid. The interplay between the digitisation of food aid, within the socio-technical context of refugees, and community collaborative practices is yet to be investigated. Through design engagements and interviews with refugees and shop owners we explore the experiences of a Syrian refugee community in Lebanon using the e-voucher system. We provide insights into the socio-technical environment in which the e-voucher system is dispensing aid, the information and power asymmetries experienced, refugee collaborative coping practices and how they interplay with the e-voucher system. We highlight the need for: (1) expanding refugee digital capabilities to encompass understandings of aid technologies and identifying trusted intermediaries and (2) for technologies to support in upholding humanitarian principles and mitigating power and information asymmetries. Lastly, we call for CSCW researchers and humanitarian innovators to consider how humanitarian technologies can enable refugee collaborative practices and adopt everyday security as a lens for designing aid technologies. The paper contributes to CSCW knowledge regarding the interplay between aid technologies and refugees? socio-technical contexts and practices that provides a basis for future technological designs for collaborative technologies for refugee food security.
Cash-based interventions (CBIs) as one form of aid have recently received substantial interest from humanitarian organizations in persistent humanitarian crises. This paper proposes a system dynamics (SD) approach to study the CBIs' impact factors on all aspects of the beneficiaries' dignity in longstanding refugee crises such as the case of Syrian refugees in Turkey.
Reviewing the humanitarian management literature, we first develop a set of holistic causal loops to better understand the building-boxes of refugees dignity and their interactions. Then a system dynamic model is proposed and calibrated by field data from humanitarian organizations. The result of CBI amount sensitivity and payment time-periods shows that CBIs are significantly more effective in diminishing child labor rates and to improve in health and accommodation service reception by the refugees in short-terms, but to be as much effective in longer therms, humanitarian organizations must be more directly contribute to service capacity-building activities that are strategies by the hosting governments and supported by the international bodies such as EU and UN. Otherwise, long-term or enhanced CBI supports can only lead to accelerated service capacity saturation and thus put extra pressure on already strained services and cause tensions between hosting and refugee communities.
Cash-based interventions (CBIs) increasingly are being used to deliver humanitarian assistance and there is growing interest in the cost-effectiveness of cash transfers for preventing undernutrition in emergency contexts. The objectives of this study were to assess the costs, cost-efficiency and cost-effectiveness in achieving nutrition outcomes of three CBIs in southern Pakistan: a 'double cash' (DC) transfer, a 'standard cash' (SC) transfer and a 'fresh food voucher' (FFV) transfer. Cash and FFVs were provided to poor households with children aged 6-48 months for 6 months in 2015. The SC and FFV interventions provided 28 monthly. Cost data were collected via institutional accounting records, interviews, programme observation, document review and household survey. Cost-effectiveness was assessed as cost per case of wasting, stunting and disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted. Beneficiary costs were higher for the cash groups than the voucher group. Net total cost transfer ratios (TCTRs) were estimated as 1.82 for DC, 2.82 for SC and 2.73 for FFV. Yet, despite the higher operational costs, the FFV TCTR was lower than the SC TCTR when incorporating the participation cost to households, demonstrating the relevance of including beneficiary costs in cost-efficiency estimations. The DC intervention achieved a reduction in wasting, at 1290 for DC, 883 for FFV. The cost per DALY averted was 434 for SC and $563 for FFV without discounting or age weighting. These interventions are highly cost-effective by international thresholds. While it is debatable whether these resource requirements represent a feasible or sustainable investment given low health expenditures in Pakistan, these findings may provide justification for continuing Pakistan's investment in national social safety nets.
Background
This study assessed the costs and cost-efficiency of a mobile cash transfer implemented in Tapoa Province, Burkina Faso in the MAM’Out randomized controlled trial from June 2013 to December 2014, using mixed methods and taking a societal perspective by including costs to implementing partners and beneficiary households.
Methods
Data were collected via interviews with implementing staff from the humanitarian agency and the private partner delivering the mobile money, focus group discussions with beneficiaries, and review of accounting databases. Costs were analyzed by input category and activity-based cost centers. cost-efficiency was analyzed by cost-transfer ratios (CTR) and cost per beneficiary. Qualitative analysis was conducted to identify themes related to implementing electronic cash transfers, and barriers to efficient implementation.
Results
The CTR was 0.82 from a societal perspective, within the same range as other humanitarian transfer programs; however the intervention did not achieve the same degree of cost-efficiency as other mobile transfer programs specifically. Challenges in coordination between humanitarian and private partners resulted in long wait times for beneficiaries, particularly in the first year of implementation. Sensitivity analyses indicated a potential 6% reduction in CTR through reducing beneficiary wait time by one-half. Actors reported that coordination challenges improved during the project, therefore inefficiencies likely would be resolved, and cost-efficiency improved, as the program passed the pilot phase.
Conclusions
Despite the time required to establish trusting relationships among actors, and to set up a network of cash points in remote areas, this analysis showed that mobile transfers hold promise as a cost-efficient method of delivering cash in this setting. Implementation by local government would likely reduce costs greatly compared to those found in this study context, and improve cost-efficiency especially by subsidizing expansion of mobile money network coverage and increasing cash distribution points in remote areas which are unprofitable for private partners.
This review aimed to assess evidence on effectiveness and value for money of cash-based humanitarian assistance. We followed standard procedures for review of (quasi) experimental studies and adapted procedures for studies reporting costs, cost-effectiveness, cost–benefit or cost–utility of unconditional cash transfer, conditional cash transfer and voucher programmes in humanitarian settings. Of 4094 identified studies, only five met effectiveness review inclusion criteria. These five, plus five others, met cost review inclusion criteria. Although limited conclusions about comparative effectiveness and value for money can be drawn from this review, findings do provide important insights for consideration in design and evaluation of programmes in crisis-affected settings.
This paper suggests how the 'grey literature', the diverse and heterogeneous body of material that is made public outside, and not subject to, traditional academic peer-review processes, can be used to increase the relevance and impact of management and organization studies (MOS). The authors clarify the possibilities by reviewing 140 systematic reviews published in academic and practitioner outlets to answer the following three questions: (i) Why is grey literature excluded from/included in systematic reviews in MOS? (ii) What types of grey material have been included in systematic reviews since guidelines for practice were first established in this discipline? (iii) How is the grey literature treated currently to advance management and organization scholarship and knowledge? This investigation updates previous guidelines for more inclusive systematic reviews that respond to criticisms of current review practices and the needs of evidence-based management. © 2016 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Unfortunately, the world has experienced frequent disasters as well as mega-disasters in the last decade. The challenges faced during the relief efforts to those disasters called for improvements in the area of humanitarian logistics. In this chapter, first we present introductory knowledge on disaster management and humanitarian logistics. The complexities and inefficiencies in the current relief response practice are indicated. To improve the disaster response, we investigate the options of advance purchasing and pre-positioning of the relief items through applied projects performed for different humanitarian organizations.
New technology may offer many opportunities for humanitarian action, but it also presents a number of challenges. Currently, most of the critical analysis of these potential challenges takes place in the blogosphere, on tweets and on listservs. There is a strong need for more scholarly engagement on the subject. This article offers an agenda for critical inquiry into the emergent field of humanitarian technology as applied to a broadly defined context of crises, encompassing both natural disasters and conflict zones, by identifying what technology does to the humanitarian enterprise, and by reflecting on the key challenges that emerge.
Discussions regarding the merits of cash and food transfers focus on their relative impacts. Much less is known about their relative costs. Activity-based costing methods are applied to interventions situated in Ecuador, Niger, Uganda, and Yemen, finding that the per-transfer cost of providing cash is always less than food. Given the budget for these interventions, an additional 44,769 people could have received assistance at no additional cost had cash been provided instead of food. This suggests a significant opportunity cost in terms of reduced coverage when higher cost transfer modalities are used. Decisions to use cash or food transfers should consider both impacts and costs.
The approach presented in this paper focuses on a model based identification of humanitarian logistics processes and the actors involved in a humanitarian supply chain. Therefore, a promising reference model for humanitarian logistics was applied using a process modeling tool in two different relief organizations in order to support the optimization of humanitarian logistics processes. These results put humanitarian organizations in a position to fall back on clear roles and responsibilities, to identify their core competencies, and to improve the management of logistics processes within their organization and the entire supply chain.
Conditional and unconditional cash transfers have been effective in improving development outcomes in a variety of contexts, yet the costs of these programs to program recipients and implementing agencies are rarely discussed. The introduction of mobile money transfer systems in many developing countries offers new opportunities for a more cost-effective means of implementing cash transfer programs. This paper reports on the first randomized evaluation of a cash transfer program delivered via the mobile phone. In response to a devastating drought in Niger, households in targeted villages received monthly cash transfers as part of a social protection program. One-third of targeted villages received a monthly cash transfer via a mobile money transfer system (called zap), whereas one-third received manual cash transfers and the remaining one-third received manual cash transfers plus a mobile phone. We show that the zap delivery mechanism strongly reduced the variable distribution costs for the implementing agency, as well as program recipients’ costs of obtaining the cash transfer. The zap approach also resulted in additional benefits: households in zap villages used their cash transfer to purchase a more diverse set of goods, had higher diet diversity, depleted fewer assets and grew more types of crops, especially marginal cash crops grown by women. We posit that the potential mechanisms underlying these results are the lower costs and greater privacy of the receiving the cash transfer via the zap mechanism, as well as changes in intra-household decision-making. This suggests that m-transfers could be a cost-effective means of providing cash transfers for remote rural populations, especially those with limited road and financial infrastructure. However, research on the broader welfare effects in the short- and long-term is still needed.
The qualitative interview is one of the most important data gathering tools in qualitative research, yet it has remained an unexamined craft in IS research. This paper discusses the potential difficulties, pitfalls and problems of the qualitative interview in IS research. Building on Goffman’s seminal work on social life, the paper proposes a dramaturgical model as a useful way of conceptualizing the qualitative interview. Based on this model the authors suggest guidelines for the conduct of qualitative interviews.
The article describes an approach of systematic, rule guided qualitative text analysis, which tries to preserve some methodological strengths of quantitative content analysis and widen them to a concept of qualitative procedure. First the development of content analysis is delineated and the basic principles are explained (units of analysis, step models, working with categories, validity and reliability). Then the central procedures of qualitative content analysis, inductive development of categories and deductive application of categories, are worked out. The possibilities of computer programs in supporting those qualitative steps of analysis are shown and the possibilities and limits of the approach are discussed. URN: urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0002204
Two paradigms characterize much of the research in the Information
Systems discipline: behavioral science and design science. The behavioral-science
paradigm seeks to develop and verify theories that explain or predict
human or organizational behavior. The design-science paradigm seeks
to extend the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities
by creating new and innovative artifacts. Both paradigms are foundational
to the IS discipline, positioned as it is at the confluence of people,
organizations, and technology. Our objective is to describe the performance
of design-science research in Information Systems via a concise conceptual
framework and clear guidelines for understanding, executing, and
evaluating the research. In the design-science paradigm, knowledge
and understanding of a problem domain and its solution are achieved
in the building and application of the designed artifact. Three recent
exemplars in the research literature are used to demonstrate the
application of these guidelines. We conclude with an analysis of
the challenges of performing high-quality design-science research
in the context of the broader IS community.
The adoption and utilization of digital technologies which support cash and voucher assistance (CVA) in the humanitarian sector is expanding. This research addresses the risks and benefits of digitalization across three major stages of CVA programmes: identification and registration, transfer of value, and monitoring and tracking. Through an analysis of 18 cases, benefits are evaluated through three dimensions: cost, time, and quality, while risks are assessed with respect to the operational context. Findings reveal that context-specific risks related to data security, infrastructure, financial inclusion, accessibility and availability of services for beneficiaries and humanitarian actors limit the extent to which technologies may be used, impacting cost-efficiency, timeliness, and quality of CVA programmes.
Humanitarian organizations, mandated with responding to emergencies, generally provide food assistance via in-kind and/or cash transfers. Although cash and in-kind transfers have had varying effects across different regions, the superiority of one over the other has been debated. This study considers a mixed strategy that includes both cash and in-kind transfer in the presence of finite budget, given a slow-onset disaster such as famine or drought. Importantly, it proposes an evidence-based framework based on the given data. Specifically, a two-stage stochastic program with recourse is proposed, where uncertainty stems from the slow-onset disaster that has non-uniform impact across a given geographical region. The proposed program is first used to study the slow-onset disaster situation in Kenya, and then to evaluate the performance of the cash versus in-kind transfer programs. We also solved larger size problem instances using the sample average approximation (SAA) algorithm, and the resulting analyses underscore the deductions of the case study that although cash transfer is more efficient than in-kind transfer, however, the latter is inevitable due to local unavailability of certain commodities.
This study reviews research on cash and voucher assistance (CVA) by applying a humanitarian supply chain management perspective. A systematic literature review was conducted to identify, analyse, and synthesize past academic research. The Content-Context-Process framework was used to structure the content analysis. The findings reveal that the outcomes of CVA programmes are dependent upon critical context-specific factors which influence feasibility and operability. Humanitarian actors must consider factors that are external to the supply chain (i.e., the nature of disaster, politics, economy, and infrastructure) as well as internal to the supply network (i.e., local market availability and accessibility, supplier/donor interest, supplier/vendor selection and contracting, and beneficiary preference). The delivery process is influenced by these factors, which has an impact on programme responsiveness and cost-efficiency. The results provide insights for humanitarian practitioners to reconsider their supply chain strategies when deciding on the selection and implementation of CVA programmes. Potential gaps in the literature are identified, and recommendations for further research are listed.
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Over the last decades, there has been a proliferation of cash transfer programmes across the global South. Digital technologies have given this seeming countermovement a boost by promising to instantaneously transfer cash from the coffers of development agencies and national governments to the pockets of the poor, sidestepping the neo‐patrimonial state. With the COVID‐19 crisis, tech billionaires have teamed up with development institutions to fast‐track ‘digital payment ecosystems’ under the guise of financial inclusion and fiscal savings. Much has been written about how such initiatives accelerate the financialization of social welfare and collateralization of the poor by trapping cash transfer recipients in relations of credit and debt. Less has been written about grassroots strategies to claw back power from digital control. Drawing on ethnographic research conducted in Mozambique, this article explores three sites of contention at the interface of digital technologies and cash transfer administration: the development of an information management system, the application of a proxy means test and the outsourcing of cash transfer payments to private providers. While not always successful, the article concludes, counter‐hegemonic repertoires of action are critical to shaping the terms of cash transfer administration amidst a global ‘war of position’ in policy making.
Cash transfers have changed the way the humanitarian sector delivers assistance, and at the same time, digitalization is changing the way our world works in fundamental ways. The digitalization of cash means that the simple click of a button can put money in the hands of hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of people within minutes. Digital payments have been a game changer, opening the door to faster and more efficient delivery of life-saving assistance. Although physical currency will not disappear with the rise of digital payments, it is essential to balance the benefits of these digital processes with the risks. As humanitarians, we need to articulate what “do no harm” means in the digital age, applying this equally to the way we use digital payments to support people affected by armed conflicts and other situations of violence.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to provide an analytical model to decide between cash-based and in-kind distributions during emergency responses considering the needs of beneficiaries and market conditions. To allow the switch between modalities, a preparedness framework for humanitarian organizations (HOs) is provided.
Design/methodology/approach
A mathematical model is proposed to help humanitarian responders make quantitative decisions on the type of programs to implement in emergency responses. The model was applied to a field response by an international HO during the COVID-19 emergency in Colombia.
Findings
Cash-based and in-kind distributions are not mutually exclusive response modalities during emergencies, and the real needs of beneficiaries and market effects should be included in the modality selection decision to improve program effectiveness.
Research limitations/implications
The research is focused on short-term immediate response to emergencies; the proposed model assumes favorable market conditions and limits the aid options to direct in-kind and multipurpose cash assistance, excluding other types of cash transfers.
Practical implications
The research outlines practical preconditions to operationalize switching between programs during an emergency. The study provides evidence that HOs should consider dynamics decision tools to select aid modalities and evaluate their response depending on market conditions.
Social implications
Considering aid modality as a dynamic decision and including the needs from beneficiaries in the choice can have profound impact in the dignifying of humanitarian response to emergencies.
Originality/value
The quantitative model to decide between aid modalities is a novel approach to include beneficiaries' needs and market dynamics into humanitarian supply chain research. The preparedness framework closes the gap between the emergency preparedness literature and the operational constraints that organizations face for fast program implementation.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate humanitarian supply chains in the context of the Ukrainian crisis as example of complex emergency. The paper focuses on a selection of support modes: in-kind donations, cash-based assistance and local procurement.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper adopts a case-study approach and interpretive paradigm. Findings are based on the analysis of primary sources including interviews with three Polish humanitarian organizations, internal documents, and secondary sources such as published reports.
Findings
Findings indicate that in a middle-income urbanized country such as Ukraine non-standard modes such as cash transfer programs and local procurement can be employed, since the necessary infrastructure and market are operational. However, each mode has limitations, so they should match the local context and the needs of diverse social groups.
Research limitations/implications
The findings and recommendations are specific to the case analyzed, Ukraine, and its socio-economic context. The research contributes to discussions about mode selection, stressing the links between mode, stage of the disaster response and local context.
Practical implications
Applying cash transfers and local procurement can reduce supply chain costs, such as transport and warehousing. Shortened supply chains enable faster responses and increased agility.
Social implications
Cash transfers and procurement involve the local community and beneficiaries, and can better fulfill needs maintaining people’s dignity. However, for vulnerable groups and those in conflict zones, in-kind goods are a better option.
Originality/value
The author argues that the much-discussed dichotomy of cash or goods does not reflect reality; local and regional procurement should be added as important support modes in middle-income countries in crisis.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the financial and material flows in cash-based responses (CBRs) and their implications for humanitarian operations. This research proposes to view cash as a commodity used by humanitarian actors in emergency operations and therefore aims to explore how CBRs impact on humanitarian logistics and ultimately, affect beneficiaries.
Design/methodology/approach
The methodological approach of grounded theory was chosen for this inquiry because it allowed the researchers to generate a general explanation for the process of CBRs in emergency situations based on the views of participants interviewed. Interviews were conducted with senior managers, supply chain managements and logistics officers from international humanitarian organisations (HOs), United Nations agencies and commercial organisations involved in humanitarian operations. Examples of topics covered during the field work included, procedures and policy; knowledge and information management; systems and technology; actors and agents.
Findings
The impact of CBRs on humanitarian operations can though not be understated. They alter supply chain design, the very role of beneficiaries as well as HOs, and change the strategy of aid delivery from push to pull. Perhaps, the most important factor is the elimination of many logistical activities that needed to be performed by HOs. Delivering cash diminishes the needs for lengthy procurement and assessment processes, pre-positioning, transportation and distribution. This bears the potential of significant reductions in costs for delivering humanitarian aid at the same time as it is an important move from aid to trade.
Practical implications
The challenge for humanitarian agencies in the coming years is to overcome their fears surrounding CBRs, and to implement cash programmes where they are judged to be the most appropriate response. This will require not only a change in donor policies, but also a fundamental change in the skill set of humanitarian logisticians, who are used to identifying needs and providing commodities and thus to maintaining control over the provision of assistance.
Originality/value
The contribution of this research is twofold: this is the first examination of cash-based interventions in humanitarian operations through the prism of supply chain management. Second, the research is field based and grounded in empirical observations thus adding to the literature and offering insights to practice.
Background: Limited evidence is available on the impact that unconditional cash transfer (UCT) programs can have on child nutrition, particularly in West Africa, where child undernutrition is still a public health challenge.
Objective: This study examined the impact of a multiannual, seasonal UCT program to reduce the occurrence of wasting (weight-for-height, midupper arm circumference), stunting (height-for-age), and morbidity among children <36 mo old in Tapoa Province, in the eastern region of Burkina Faso.
Methods: The study was designed as a 2-arm cluster-randomized controlled trial, with 32 villages randomly assigned to either the intervention or the control group. The study population comprised households that were classified as poor or very poor according to household economy approach criteria and that had ≥1 child <1 y of age at inclusion. The intervention consisted of seasonal UCTs, provided monthly from July to November, over 2 y (2013 and 2014). A monthly allowance of 10,000 West African Financial Community of Africa francs (∼US$17) was given by mobile phone to mothers in participating households. Anthropometric measurements and morbidity were recorded on a quarterly basis.
Results: We found no evidence that multiannual, seasonal UCTs reduced the cumulative incidence of wasting in young children [incidence rate ratio: 0.92 (95% CI: 0.64, 1.32); P = 0.66]. We observed no significant difference (P > 0.05) in children's anthropometric measurements and stunting between the 2 groups at the end point. However, children in the intervention group had a lower risk [21% (95% CI: 18.6%, 21.3%); P < 0.001] of self-reported respiratory tract infections than did children in the control group.
Conclusions: We found that seasonal UCTs in the framework of safety nets did not result in a significant decrease in the incidence of acute malnutrition among children in Tapoa Province. Cash transfers combined with complementary interventions targeted to child nutrition and health should be investigated further. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01866124.
This document forms part of the rigorous review on the impacts of cash transfers carried out by the Overseas Development Institute (Bastagli et al., 2016) with Oxford Policy Management (OPM). The review aims to synthesise the current body (2000-2015) of rigorous evidence on the impacts of cash transfers on a range of outcomes, including
evidence on the links between specific policy programme design and implementation features and such outcomes.
The purpose of the present document is to provide the complete references and additional information (such as the interventions covered, methodology and main
findings) of the full list of studies that reached and passed the searches, retrieval and assessment stages of this rigorous review.
The historical form of humanitarian relief is to provide people in need with goods, however, assistance in the form of physical goods is shifting towards providing cash-based assistance instead of goods (Kovács, Humanitarian logistics: meeting the challenge of preparing for and responding to disasters, pp 275–285, 2014; Heaslip, J Humanit Logist Supply Chain Manag 5(1):2–11, 2015). Cash-based assistance is a new concept, and growing rapidly. While only US47.4 million in 2011 (Global Humanitarian Initiative, http://www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/GHA_Report_2012-Websingle.pdf, 2012). Cash-based responses (also known as cash transfer programmes, CTP) are mechanisms to provide resources to a population in two main ways—by providing them directly with cash or by giving them vouchers. Cash and voucher programmes are considered to be a more cost effective solution than the more common in-kind provision of goods and services to beneficiaries and households. A key advantage is that unlike in-kind aid, cash allows households flexibility in deciding their spending needs. Cash can help generate local market activity and restart livelihoods. It is often a more empowering and dignified form of support. However, there is a reluctance to deliver cash transfers. Cash is said to be susceptible to theft, corruption and misuse. It is prone to targeting errors. It can cause inflation and distort local markets. Nevertheless, practitioners are finding solutions to mitigate these risks and have observed that many of the risks also apply to in-kind aid (Creti and Jaspars, Cash-transfer programming in emergencies, 2006). This chapter aims to develop an understanding of cash transfer programmes that will help reduce their risks to humanitarian operations.
Despite recent calls in support of cash transfers, there is little rigorous evidence of the relative impacts of cash versus
in-kind transfers, especially in humanitarian contexts, where a majority of such programs take place. This paper uses data
from a randomized experiment in the Democratic Republic of Congo to assess the relative impacts and costs of equivalently
valued cash and voucher transfers. The voucher program distorted households' purchases along both the extensive and intensive
margin as compared with unconstrained cash households. Yet there were no differences in food consumption or other measures
of well-being, in part due to the fact that voucher households were able to resell part of what they purchased. As there were
no significant benefits to vouchers, cash transfers were the more cost effective modality for both the implementing agency
and program recipients in this context.
The longstanding “cash versus food” debate has received renewed attention in both research and practice. This paper reviews
key issues shaping the debate and presents new evidence from randomized and quasi-experimental evaluations that deliberately
compare cash and in-kind food transfers in ten developing counties. Findings show that relative effectiveness cannot be generalized:
although some differences emerge in terms of food consumption and dietary diversity, average impacts tend to depend on context,
specific objectives, their measurement, and program design. Costs for cash transfers and vouchers tend to be significantly
lower relative to in-kind food. Yet the consistency and robustness of methods for efficiency analyses varies greatly.
Two paradigms characterize much of the research in the Information Systems discipline: behavioral science and design science. The behavioral-science paradigm seeks to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior. The design-science paradigm seeks to extend the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts. Both paradigms are foundational to the IS discipline, positioned as it is at the confluence of people, organizations, and technology. Our objective is to describe the performance of design-science research in Information Systems via a concise conceptual framework and clear guidelines for understanding, executing, and evaluating the research. In the design-science paradigm, knowledge and understanding of a problem domain and its solution are achieved in the building and application of the designed artifact. Three recent exemplars in the research literature are used to demonstrate the application of these guidelines. We conclude with an analysis of the challenges of performing high-quality design-science research in the context of the broader IS community.
A taxonomy of literature reviews in education and psychology is presented. The taxonomy categorizes reviews according to:
(a) focus; (b) goal; (c) perspective; (d) coverage; (e) organization; and (f) audience. The seven winners of the American
Educational Research Association’s Research Review Award are used to illustrate the taxonomy’s categories. Data on the reliability
of taxonomy codings when applied by readers is presented. Results of a survey of review authors provides baseline data on
how frequently different types of reviews appear in the education and psychology literature. How the taxonomy might help in
judging the quality of literature reviews is discussed, along with more general standards for evaluating reviews.
A review of prior, relevant literature is an essential feature of any academic project. An effective review creates a firm foundation for advancing knowledge. It facilitates theory development, closes areas where a plethora of research exists, and uncovers areas where research is needed.
Cash for protection: cash transfer programs can promote child protection outcomes
- Thompson
Cash transfers through mobile phones: an innovative emergency response in Kenya
- Datta
We Accept Cash: Mapping Study on the Use of Cash Transfers in Humanitarian, Recovery and Transitional Response
- Norad
Norad, We Accept Cash: Mapping Study on the Use of Cash Transfers in Humanitarian, Recovery and Transitional Response, 2011. Oslo.
Cash-based Response: World Humanitarian Summit
- C Fabre
- R Aggiss
C. Fabre, R. Aggiss, Cash-based Response: World Humanitarian Summit, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2017.
The Politics of Cash: a Case Study on Humanitarian Cash Transfers in
- S Bailey
- R Aggiss
S. Bailey, R. Aggiss, The Politics of Cash: a Case Study on Humanitarian Cash Transfers in Ukraine, ODI, London, 2016. Working Paper 502.
Doing Cash Differently: How Cash Transfers Can Transform Humanitarian Aid -Research Reports and Studies
High Level Panel on Humanitarian Cash Transfers, Doing Cash Differently: How Cash Transfers Can Transform Humanitarian Aid -Research Reports and
Studies, Overseas Development Institute, London, 2015.
Case Study: Cash-Based Programming (CBP) in the Food Assistance Sector
- J Bessant
J. Bessant, Case Study: Cash-Based Programming (CBP) in the Food Assistance Sector, 2015.
Evaluation of the 2017 Somalia Humanitarian Cash-Based Response, Inter-Agency Cash Working Group
- C Daniels
- G Anderson
C. Daniels, G. Anderson, Evaluation of the 2017 Somalia Humanitarian Cash-Based Response, Inter-Agency Cash Working Group, Mogadishu, 2018.
Humanitarian Cash Transfers in the Democratic Republic of Congo
- S Bailey
S. Bailey, Humanitarian Cash Transfers in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Overseas Development Institute (ODI), London, 2017.