Utilization of a Blockchain-based Reputation Management System for Energy Trading in Smart Grid 2.0

Abstract

The futuristic energy grids comprise of predominantly renewable generation, to align with the sustainable development goals. This would require integration of renewable energy sources at different levels of the power system out of which, consumers turning into power producers, often referred to as prosumers is an important aspect. Prosumers who generate excess power beyond self-consumption are keen on selling it to the neighbourhood in a peer-to-peer manner, expecting a profit. On the other hand, consumers expect concessions for using more of the green energy. Further, with the high intermittency of these generation, Distribution System Operators (DSO) face the challenge of securing a reliable power supply. In the envisaged grid context, deciding the price for energy trading between prosumers and consumers as well as estimating the reliability of each DSO is considered to be crucial. Hence, this study proposes utilizing an end-to-end reputation management system to maintain the past record related to the performance of each stakeholder, which can be integrated in the price determination and selection decisions. To further ensure decentralized and secure operations of such reputation management systems, a blockchain-based service architecture and smart contracts have been incorporated. The impact of this to the performance of the proposed energy trading system is analysed through cost and latency indices.

Full text

Utilization of a Blockchain-based Reputation
Management System for Energy Trading in Smart
Grid 2.0
Charithri Yapa∗, Chamitha de Alwis†, Uditha Wijewardhana‡Madhusanka Liyanage§
∗‡ Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila, Sri Lanka
†School of Computer Science, University of Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
§School of Computer Science, University College Dublin, Ireland
Email: ∗charithriyapa@sjp.ac.lk, †Chamitha.DeAlwis@beds.ac.uk, ‡uditha@sjp.ac.lk §madhusanka@ucd.ie
Abstract—The futuristic energy grids comprise of predom-
inantly renewable generation, to align with the sustainable
development goals. This would require integration of renewable
energy sources at different levels of the power system out of
which, consumers turning into power producers, often referred
to as prosumers is an important aspect. Prosumers who generate
excess power beyond self-consumption are keen on selling it to the
neighbourhood in a peer-to-peer manner, expecting a profit. On
the other hand, consumers expect concessions for using more
of the green energy. Further, with the high intermittency of
these generation, Distribution System Operators (DSO) face the
challenge of securing a reliable power supply. In the envisaged
grid context, deciding the price for energy trading between
prosumers and consumers as well as estimating the reliability
of each DSO is considered to be crucial. Hence, this study
proposes utilizing an end-to-end reputation management system
to maintain the past record related to the performance of each
stakeholder, which can be integrated in the price determination
and selection decisions. To further ensure decentralized and
secure operations of such reputation management systems, a
blockchain-based service architecture and smart contracts have
been incorporated. The impact of this to the performance of the
proposed energy trading system is analysed through cost and
latency indices.
Index Terms—Blockchain, Peer-to-Peer Trading, Reputation
Management, Smart Contracts, Smart Grid 2.0, Supply-Demand
Balancing
I. INTRODUCTION
Internet-based services are identified as a prospective so-
lution to overcome the challenges observed in the traditional
electricity grids and the first generation of smart grids. These
integrated services facilitate meeting the demand for electricity
within the locality with minimal involvement of a central
authority. The envisaged era of electricity grids, “Smart Grid
2.0 (SG 2.0)” is the next generation of electricity generation
and distribution. SG 2.0 caters to stakeholders related to
electricity generation, transmission, distribution, and consump-
tion by enabling connectivity among one another through the
internet [1], hence also known as Internet of Energy (IoE). This
has come to exist [2] to achieve an automated grid architecture
that has a minimum influence of a centralized authority.
Two prominent SG 2.0 applications have been identified
for this study, and their blockchain-integrated operations are
elaborated. The first application is Peer-to-Peer (P2P) energy
trading, which enables electricity producers (prosumers) to
interact directly with buyers (consumers) without the involve-
ment of an intermediary [3]. Prosumers are capable of trading
their excess renewable energy generation with the neighboring
consumers who are willing to buy electricity from clean energy
sources [4]. Consumers expect to receive a reliable electricity
supply harvested from renewable energy sources, delivered
at an acceptable power quality. Meanwhile, prosumers are
concerned about the excessive consumption of electricity by
the consumers. Second application involves the interactions
between the Transmission System Operator (TSO) and the
Distribution System Operators (DSOs) to select prospective
generation options and maintain supply-demand balance for
stable grid frequency. This decision is made based on the
energy storage capacity of each DSO [5], where DSOs with
excess capacity will contribute towards better frequency reg-
ulation by facilitating a reliable supply-demand balance.
Electricity price plays a key role in increasing both pro-
sumer and consumer participation in P2P trading and at the
same time restrains the excessive consumption of electricity.
Proper coordination of trading patterns is required to maintain
the power quality within desirable limits. Moreover, criteria
to select prospective prosumers, consumers and DSOs to
participate in energy trading transactions should be based
on a fair process that evaluates the contribution of each
individual to the desirable operations of the smart grid, in
the context of reliability and power quality. Estimating the
reputation score of each stakeholder, which reflects their past
performance has been identified as a suitable approach in
literature to improve the operations of smart grids. However,
these solutions have restricted their scope to optimizing the
reputation of an individual stakeholder, while the effect of
others have not been considered.
To address the identified research gap, this study proposes
a cohesive reputation management system for SG 2.0 archi-
tecture and evaluates its utilization in P2P energy trading and
TSO-DSO transactions. The reputation management scheme
incorporates historical data into the decision-making process
to improve its performance. A decentralized, transparent, and
secure mechanism, which has the capabilities of automated
execution of the P2P energy trading and facilitating DSO-
TSO interactions, is seen as a timely requirement. Blockchain,
a Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) [6], creates a con-
ducive environment for the realization of the applications of
SG 2.0 [5], [7], [8] along with smart contracts, which are

automated scripts of the process deployed onto the blockchain.
Hence, the proposed reputation management system is inte-
grated with the blockchain architecture and automated using
smart contracts.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section II
provides a concise survey of existing works. Section III intro-
duces the proposed architecture, whereas prototypical imple-
mentation is discussed in Section IV. Section V elaborates on
the experimental results. Section VII presents the concluding
remarks and summarizes the future work followed by this
study.
II. RE LATE D WOR KS
Previous studies have evaluated the feasibility of using rep-
utation scores for generation dispatching and seller selection
operations [9]. Matchmaking of seller and buyer offers in P2P
trading based on the respective reputation scores is elaborated
in [10]. The reputation scores of this blockchain-based solution
indicate prosumer commitment towards P2P trading. However,
the effect of consumption patterns has not been considered in
this analysis.
Studies presented in [11] and [12] have analyzed the impact
of integrating the sellers’ reputation factors in the selection
process, reflecting the prosumer’s past performance in deliver-
ing the committed energy. However, the calculated reputation
score is not integrated in the determination of the electricity
price, which would further offer a competitive advantage for
both consumers and consumers with high reputation scores.
Previous studies have further emphasized the importance
of considering supply-demand balance along with P2P energy
sharing to increase the monetary benefits [13], [14]. However,
co-existance of stakeholders including DSOs is often neglected
and further, the impact of P2P trading patterns on the power
quality of the network is not considered. Thus, implementing
a comprehensive solution to guarantee a reliable and quality
power supply was identified as a timely requirement. There-
fore, this study aims to address the identified research gap
and proposes a marketplace service to select a seller-buyer
pair for P2P trading with the highest reputation and determine
the electricity price based on their historical records. Further,
an automated selection service is proposed for the TSOs to
effectively utilize the available excess generation and storage
capacity of the DSOs, thereby, achieving the balance between
electricity supply and demand. Together these eliminate the
risk of,
•Single-point failure arising due to the dependence on a
central authority
•Privacy violation of data with a large number of grid
integration
•Less reliable electricity supply with low power quality
•High electricity prices are being paid by consumers for
renewable energy generation despite poor power quality.
Further, previous studies have not evaluated the impact
of incorporating blockchain architecture with smart contracts
to automatically execute reputation management and other
relevant processes of energy trading within the smart grid.
Thus, the blockchain-based service architecture proposed in
this study provides an end-to-end solution to the envisaged
SG 2.0.
III. BLOCKCHAIN-BAS ED SE RVI CE ARCHITECTURE FOR
SMA RT GRID 2.0
This study presents a novel architecture to facilitate P2P
energy trading and TSO-DSO interactions in SG 2.0. The main
stakeholders are electricity users (prosumers and consumers),
DSOs, and TSOs. Blockchain is proposed to offer services
to P2P energy trading and supply-demand balancing, and
the basic functions of the proposed platform are elaborated
with the rationale. The high-level overview of the proposed
platform is depicted in Fig. 1.
A. Registration and privacy-preserving identification of stake-
holders of the system
This section elaborates on how a user is registered to the
proposed platform and managing user information for future
reference and identification.
An account is created whenever a new user (pro-
sumer/consumer/DSO/TSO) accesses the platform. This is
performed after verifying whether the user account already
exists, to prevent duplication of records. During registration,
the user enters details, including name, address, location,
and generation/storage capacity information, which are subse-
quently stored in an off-chain database such as InterPlanetary
File System (IPFS). The hash corresponding to stored data
is included in the blockchain for future reference, with a
unique ID as the key. Operators can retrieve user details for
authentication purposes. Smart contracts guarantee that only
one account is created per user.
At the instance of registration, the system sets the reputation
score of each user to a pre-determined system average value, to
maintain equality among the users. This will be later updated
upon the successful completion of each transaction, using the
relevant data.
Upon successful registration, a universal wallet is created
in the blockchain for each stakeholder. Usage charges are
deducted from the available balance while electricity sales
revenue is credited directly to this wallet, through the de-
ployment of smart contracts. Each wallet represents a user
registered with the system through a unique pseudo-identity,
which allows the user to participate in a decentralized network
without revealing the true identity. This preserves the security
and privacy of the user, which is not an available feature in the
current system, where each electricity user is required to reveal
details, including electricity account number, name, address,
and connected DSO details, in a public domain, which raises
security and privacy concerns including identity spoofing.
B. Reputation Management
A reputation score is calculated for each stakeholder to
capture the historical performance in the current transactions,
thereby discouraging any negative impacts on the electricity
grid. The criteria selected to calculate the reputation value

Distribution System Operator
Blockchain
Internet
Registration Service
Performs user registration and
authentication functions
Marketplace Service
Facilitates marketplace operations of P2P
trading and supply-demand balancing
Selection Service
Performs selection functionalities
related to P2P trading and
supply-demand balancing
Reputation Management Service
Facilitates maintaining records of the past performance
Stakeholders
Services
Prosumers
Transmission System Operator
Fig. 1: High-level view of the proposed architecture
should reflect the impact of the selected stakeholder’s behavior,
on the smart grid’s normal operations. Thus, it is justifiable
to give incentives to those who adhere to the prescribed
standards, while penalizing the deviations, which create neg-
ative consequences on the grid. The reputation management
function of the proposed system is responsible for maintaining
the reputation score for prosumers, consumers, and DSOs,
based on the pre-defined criteria.
1) Prosumer reputation: Integrating large volumes of solar
Photo Voltaic (PV) installations in an uncoordinated manner
negatively impacts the voltage profile and the power quality
of the electricity grid. Even though several initiatives focus on
trading excess power generation from the consumer, within
the neighborhood, the majority of them do not consider the
consequences of random trading patterns in this transactive
energy market. Undesirable voltage fluctuations and harmonic
components have been observed as factors that degrade the
power quality. Hence, this study incorporates the contribution
of each prosumer towards maintaining the voltage profile
within the desirable limits, with many solar PV installations.
Prosumer reputation score RPreflects the contribution of their
generation to the voltage rise identified in the electricity grid.
The percentage contribution of each PV installation to the
cumulative voltage rise is proposed as the prosumer reputation
score in this study, as given in Eq. 1.
RP=
V oltage rise based on the indiv idual generation
V oltage rise observed in the f eeder (1)
2) Consumer reputation: The consumer reputation score
RCis determined by their energy consumption patterns, as in
Eq. 2. Individuals exhibiting an electricity consumption close
to the average value determined for the consumer category
are allocated a higher score. Such an initiative will encourage
consumers to reduce excessive consumption while gaining
more visibility during the bidding process.
RC=Excess consumption over the average (2)
3) DSO reputation: A reliable energy supply is key to a
satisfied consumer, which is catered through balancing the
supply with the demand. This is mainly affected by the
capability of a DSO to follow the dispatch request sent
by a TSO. This is determined by its availability of excess
generation with sufficient energy storage capacity. This study
selects this criterion as the reputation score for the DSO RDSO
as in Eq. 3, which further emulates a reliable energy supply.
RDSO = ∆ of the actual f rom the contractual generation
(3)
The prosumer and consumer reputation scores are incor-
porated in calculating real-time electricity prices for P2P
electricity trading. In the meantime, the selection process of
viable DSOs for supply-demand balancing incorporates the
DSO reputation score. The reputation scores are updated at
the end of each transaction, with the measurements obtained
from the current phase.
The functionalities proposed in the novel architecture to
facilitate P2P energy trading and supply-demand balancing in
SG 2.0 are illustrated in Fig. 2.
C. Applications in Smart Grid 2.0
1) P2P trading: The proposed functionalities of the sys-
tem facilitate the trading of excess energy among prosumer-
consumer pairs in a P2P manner and Electric Vehicles (EVs)
obtaining services from the charging points.
The process is executed in an intra-day electricity market
in which a consumer requests to purchase energy from a
nearby seller during the next hour. The bidding starts, and the
sellers offer bids corresponding to the electricity selling price.
Consumers place their bids for their energy requirements.
The market clearing price for the transaction is calculated by
incorporating the reputation scores of both the prosumer and
the consumer. Thereafter, the seller will select the highest bid
and the transaction is initialized.
The proposed pricing strategy calculates the profit margin
Mproposed based on the prosumer and consumer reputation

Blockchain
Smart Contract
Consumer registration
2 Select a suitable seller
1 TSO requests to buy energy from DSOs
to balance the supply and demand
2 Select a suitable DSO
3 Purchase energy from the DSO
4 Update reputation scores
DSO TSO
Registration Supply-demand managementP2P marketplace
DSO registration
TSO registration
1 Consumer requests to buy energy
3 Calculate the electricity price
4 Sell energy to the consumer
5 Update reputation scores
1
2
3
5
4
1
2
3
4
Fig. 2: Functions of the proposed architecture for blockchain integrated SG 2.0
scores, which is added to the regular electricity cost com-
prising the cost of generation and transmission overhead.
The proposed pricing mechanism’s objective is to incentivize
prosumers who engage in P2P energy trading by offering
a higher price than the existing market price. As a holistic
approach, the profit margin should be proportional to the
prosumer’s reputation score while being inversely proportional
to the consumer’s, as given in Eq. 4.
Mproposed ∝RP
RC
(4)
2) Supply-Demand Balancing: The proposed DSO selec-
tion service is triggered upon determining the dispatch order
for the next time slot. The reputation score of the DSO is
incorporated as a selection criterion, which reflects the excess
generation and storage capacity of the DSO.
IV. IMPLEMENTATION
This section elaborates on the deployment of smart contracts
to incorporate the proposed reputation management system
in P2P energy trading and supply-demand balancing. The
proposed approach is implemented as a prototype using an
Ethereum-based Decentralized Application (DApp), where its
performance is evaluated using the Ropston test network, to
emulate the Ethereum main net.
Smart contracts are utilized to execute the proposed func-
tions, including user registration and reputation management
in the P2P marketplace service and TSO-DSO coordination
operations. This allows the system to be automated, with
the relevant smart contracts being triggered upon fulfilling
the favorable conditions. Upon reaching consensus, verified
transactions are added to the next proposed block, and the
blockchain miners mine this block to be added to the sequence.
Thus, transactions become immutable and minimize the issues
related to double-spending.
A. Associated Smart Contracts
1) User registration contract: Consumers with a valid elec-
tricity account number can register with the network, allowing
them to engage in P2P trading. The smart contract ensures that
duplicates are eliminated and the user input details are stored
in the blockchain, to be shared among peers.
Consumer Registration
Contract
Prosumer Registration
Contract
Resource Registration
Contract
DSO Registration
Contract
Consumer Reputation
Contract
Prosumer Reputation
Contract
DSO Reputation Contract
Prosumer Selection
Contract
Power Purchase Contract
DSO Selection Contract
Consumer data
Prosumer data
RP
RC
RDSO
R'C
R'P
Fig. 3: Interactions between smart contracts
User verification is performed to ensure that a particular
consumer is registered and prevent unauthorized access to the
network to guarantee the security of transactions.
2) Reputation management contract: Updates the reputa-
tion scores of prosumers, consumers, and DSOs. These will be
utilized in price calculations in P2P trading and in determining
the DSO dispatch order.
3) Prosumer selection contract: The contract is initiated
once a consumer sends a request to buy electricity from the
proximity.
4) P2P marketplace contract: The tasks scheduled for this
contract include calculating the electricity charge, authorizing
payments, and settling the consumer and prosumer wallets.
The modified electricity price is calculated based on Eq 4.
5) DSO selection contract: This contract facilitates the
selection process of a DSO for supply-demand balancing.
Fig 3 represents the interaction between these smart con-
tracts.
V. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Tests were conducted to compare the proposed service
architecture with the current electricity market operations. Fur-
ther, the impact on the system’s performance by the blockchain
integration and deployment of smart contracts is analyzed
through the cost of smart contract execution and transaction
latency. The execution costs corresponding to the deployment
of smart contracts are obtained from the Remix IDE, where
the smart contracts were coded in Solidity language. Latency
measurements are observed from the time elapsed between
transaction initiation and transaction completion.

A. Comparison with the conventional electricity grid opera-
tion
A comparison of the electricity price between the current
scheme, which does not incorporate a reputation score, and the
proposed reputation-based approach is illustrated in Fig. 4. It is
considered that the current electricity market offers a constant
profit margin, added to the electricity cost. The proposed
scheme integrates a reputation-based profit margin, and it is
designed to attract more prosumers and consumers to gain
maximum benefits by delivering a reliable power supply with
enhanced quality.
The expected profit margin of the proposed pricing structure
can be determined according to the market requirements.
This further indicates the expected prosumer and consumer
reputation scores for the market operations. Such initiation will
inevitably sustain the power quality, even with a significant
amount of renewable grid integration.
B. Latency
Smart contracts associated with the services were deployed
by using dummy data as inputs, and the time taken from the
initiation of the request to get the transaction recorded in a
block was measured through the Ropston test net. To improve
the accuracy, 100 simulations were performed, and the average
value is recorded with a 95% confidence interval in Table I.
The user registration function was simulated by deploying the
respective contract while providing dummy user data as inputs
to the DApp. The time taken for the registration request to be
approved by the blockchain and added in the next block, after
authentication of the input data and verifying that the user
doesn’t already exist, is considered as the latency in Table I.
Selection functions measure the time taken to determine the
seller/DSO, which fulfills the criteria and validates the transac-
tion by the blockchain miners. P2P marketplace contract han-
dles the electricity price calculation and payment settlement
functions. Hence the corresponding time is recorded from the
Fig. 4: Comparison of profit margin for existing and proposed
systems
test network, upon verifying the transaction by the blockchain.
Finally, the reputation management function updates the scores
after every verified transaction and records the updated values
in an immutable manner, for future purposes.
All the above measure times include an average block
creation time on the Ropston test network, which lies in the
range of 15 −30s.
C. Cost analysis
A transaction cost is incurred to send the smart contract code
to the blockchain along with the relevant data for validation.
This depends on the size of the contract. The complexity of
execution of each transaction on the Ethereum network is
quantified by a scalar value known as gas. Gas price defines the
amount a user pays for the gas used for the computation, which
is a dynamic quantity determined by the market competition.
The miners will be paid the value of gas ×gas price. Hence
they tend to select transactions that offer the highest gas price,
into the next block that is mined. Gas limit is the parameter,
which is the maximum amount of gas the transactor is willing
to spend. Any unspent gas will be refunded to the user.
To avoid unnecessary competition, the priority fee (gas
price) is defined as 2 Gwei in the experiments carried out.
Further, the gas limit of each contract is set to 2000000 Gwei.
The transaction cost of each smart contract associated with the
P2P marketplace and supply-demand balancing operations is
obtained from the Remix IDE, as given in Table II.
VI. DISCUSSION
The profit margin obtained from the proposed system is
higher than the current scheme, in cases where high prosumer
and reputation scores are observed. This is considered an
incentive for prosumers, who contribute to power generation
while strictly adhering to the power quality regulations. In
the meantime, consumers are guaranteed a clean and reliable
power supply, to compensate for the additional cost they incur
while purchasing electricity from the P2P market, compared
to the utility supply. Moreover, the profit margins obtained for
lower prosumer and consumer reputation scores are justifiable
as this provides a clear warning to each stakeholder to fulfill
their responsibility by delivering power with better quality and
purchasing electricity generated from renewable sources, to
increase their ratings. Maintaining higher reputation scores,
thus, provides an incentive for both sellers and buyers, in terms
of a market-dependent electricity price.
TABLE I: Latency measurements for smart grid operations
Contract Latency (s)
User Registration 25.8400 ±2.2955
Resource Registration 25.7600 ±2.3660
Seller Selection 39.5900 ±4.2579
DSO Selection 39.8000 ±4.2326
P2P marketplace 80.6000 ±6.6675
Reputation Management 23.8600 ±1.6766

TABLE II: Transaction costs for smart contracts
Smart contract Execution Cost
Gwei aUSD
Consumer registration 620635 1.14
Prosumer registration 224317 0.41
Resource registration 354311 0.65
Prosumer selection 745263 1.36
Power purchase 782472 1.43
Reputation management 108291 0.20
DSO registration 174677 0.32
DSO selection 2284270 4.18
DSO Reputation management 90371 0.17
a1 Ether (ETH) = 109Gwei, 1 ETH = USD 1829.23 on 05.08.2023
It is evident from the results that the block creation time
of the utilized consensus algorithm affects significantly the
latency observed between transaction initiation and comple-
tion. This will create limitations on the number of transactions
the system will be capable of processing during the market
time frame of one hour. To overcome such difficulties, it is
suggested to adopt an efficient consensus algorithm, which
will significantly reduce the block creation time.
The total cost incurred in the execution of the smart con-
tracts related to the P2P trading application is approximately
$5.19, which is a relatively economical solution. Furthermore,
the execution of smart contracts related to supply-demand
balancing utilizing the storage capacity available in DSOs
associates a cost of approximately $4.35. Thus, the costs
incurred in smart contract execution are significantly less and
could be conveniently attributed to the overall energy cost.
VII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WOR KS
This paper proposes a novel blockchain-based architecture
to facilitate applications of the envisaged SG 2.0. The pro-
posed platform introduces a universal account to the users,
which enables authorized access to the system. In addition,
smart contracts are deployed for decision-making without the
intervention of a third party, in different functions of SG
2.0, such as P2P energy trading and supply-demand balanc-
ing. Furthermore, a blockchain-based reputation management
system facilitates enhancing the services offered by the pro-
posed architecture. The proposed architecture is evaluated on
the Ethereum blockchain platform and analyzed performance
factors, including transaction cost and latency associated with
the procedure.
The results reflect that the proposed approach is cost-
effective, offering the benefits of a secure, privacy-preserving
yet decentralized and transparent platform to conduct SG 2.0
operations. This standout among existing blockchain-based
solutions, since it delivers several functionalities to address
challenges revealed in previous work related to SG 2.0. The
analysis presented in the paper focuses on evaluating the
impact of blockchain integration on reputation management
systems catering SG 2.0 architecture. However, in a macro
scale, the performance of the proposed system has to be eval-
uated considering different DSO configurations comprising of
the heterogeneous energy mix and the social welfare of the
prosumers/consumers needs to be accounted for. These factors
are expected to be incorporated as an extension to this study
as future prospects.
This study will be further extended to optimize the de-
lay incurred with the services executed through blockchain-
based smart contracts. This will lead to improvements in
the scalability of the system through an increased number
of users the service can deliver at a given instance. An
efficient consensus mechanism will facilitate this objective
by reducing the latency incorporated into solving a complex
cryptographic puzzle. Current consensus mechanisms include
an additional computational burden, which can be eliminated
by the introduction of a smart grid-specific algorithm.
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