Traite? d?e?conomie politique, ou, simple exposition de la manie?re dont se forment, se distribuent ou se consomment les richesses.
... Although, Jean-Baptiste Say is traditionally credited to be the originator of the word entrepreneurship (Say, 1803), this is not true. In Cantillon's book, the world economy was separated into two parts comprising of; fixed income wageearners and non-fixed income earners (i.e. the entrepreneurs) who pay for the costs of production but earn indeterminate incomes, due to the speculative nature of pandering to an unknown demand for their products or services (Cantillon, 1755). ...
... Thus, the entrepreneur was recognised as active the disruptive force that caused market equilibrium. Say (1803) pointed out that entrepreneurs have an innate ability to spot inefficient combination of resources, therefore they can easily create more productive goods and services that yield higher returns. Furthermore, it is widely believed that entrepreneurs have the capability to create new markets and fresh opportunities. ...
... For instance, the redistribution of land resources of various nations in postcolonial Africa, made so many Africans to become prosperous, and have created employment opportunities that helped to end the scourge of slavery, as well as poverty (Mthombeni, 2006;Mudhara, 2010;Akoojee, 2013). 2) Say: Based on his background as a French economist and businessman, Say (1803) argued in favour of competition and nonrestrained free trade. He identified the entrepreneur as an organiser of factors of production and a catalyst of economic change. ...
This study’s primary objective is to determine the impact that the JSE’s AltX has on listed firm’s performance and the level of entrepreneurship in South Africa. Its secondary objective was to quantitatively determine whether there exists a link between increased capitalisation of the AltX and the expansionary drive of listed firms, as well as to ascertain the impact that the listing requirements of the AltX has on the broad-based black economic empowerment (B-BBEE) score performance of listed firms. In order to achieve the methodological objectives of this study, mixed methods was used to measure this phenomenon which led to the development of an integrated model for the JSE’s AltX listed firms, as well as for intending small and medium enterprises (SMEs) that might want to list. Accordingly, the researcher employed pragmatic research paradigm and conducted two types of analysis. Firstly, quantitative analysis which is based on primary and secondary data was conducted followed by a qualitative analysis based on a qualitative semi-structured case study. It was found that the JSE's AltX positively impacts on the performance of listed firms and the level of entrepreneurship in South Africa. Most especially as increased capitalisation levels was positively linked with the expansionary drive of these registered firms. And that the listing requirements of the AltX had a net positive effect on the B-BBEE score performance of these companies. Practically, by virtue of being listed many SMEs would generate enough capital and buzz to facilitate their expansion. This study also contributes to new knowledge by recommending that the JSE's AltX develop a custom-made business-friendly targeted listing procedure. Just as policy makers are encouraged to create a one-stop-shop investment portal which would streamline the activities of government agencies for the benefit of Small, Medium and Micro-Enterprises (SMMEs) in South Africa. The researcher proposes that future research would extend beyond South Africa, across the SADC, Africa or even across continents.
Besides, a 3-level multi-level modelling (MLM) equation testing procedure was conducted to test the efficacy of firm listing, using IBM SPSS Statistics version 27 statistical software package. Quantitative analysis, comprising: quantitative analysis of primary data from survey questionnaire (investigated whether location or sector impacts on firm performance), and quantitative analysis of secondary data (determined if the number of both SMMEs and the JSE's AltX listed companies impacts on firm performance and the level of entrepreneurship in South Africa). Using participants' sample from sixty JSE's AltX listed firms who were either CEOs/directors/top management team members, and ten interviewees (i.e. for the qualitative analysis, comprising: qualitative analysis of primary data from semi-structured case study), this study's triangulated findings and conclusions became more valid and reliable.
Evidence provided by the ensuing econometric analysis suggests that: Firstly, firms that are listed on the JSE’s AltX were more likely to perform better than their unlisted peers (i.e. both formal and informal SMMEs). Thus, this helped listed firms to improve their company’s performance, corporate profile, loan amount and profits, as well as assisted in securing a major investor for the firm. Besides, it was observed that the variation in the dataset occurred within sectors between the JSE's AltX variable parameters at Level 1. This positively impacted on the AltX market capitalisation, total number of employed personnel, foreign assets, as well as the total equity and liabilities of the JSE's AltX listed firms. Secondly, listing on the JSE’s AltX was found to be positively associated with the level of entrepreneurship in South Africa. There was evidence that listing boosted the level of creativity and innovation in South Africa, as well as encouraged entrepreneurial risk taking, and also increased business confidence levels. Furthermore, it was observed that the variation in the dataset occurred within sectors between the JSE's AltX variable parameters at Level 1. Likewise, the turnover, AltX market capitalisation, the total investments and loans, as well as the earnings yield of the JSE's AltX listed firms were positively linked with the level of entrepreneurship in South Africa.
Thirdly, the rising share capitalisation of listed firms on the AltX was linked to an increased likelihood for company expansion. In addition, listing led to international firm exposure and industry position consolidation. However, the corporate bonds and equities sold by these listed firms on the AltX did not guaranty the long-term sustainability of their business. Also, it was observed that the variation in the dataset occurred within sectors between the JSE's AltX variable parameters at Level 1. Correspondingly, the qualitative case analysis indicated that listing on the AltX led to a high yield but with lower multiples, higher return on equity, joint ventures and acquisitions, share ownership dilution, debt reduction, more capital disbursement and risk diversification, and it also led to firm growth and economic development, which was good. Fourthly, higher compliance requirements for listing on the AltX, increased the likelihood that there would be improvements in quoted B-BBEE performance score. Equally, the implementation of good governance systems like the B-BBEE by listed firms made them more attractive to stakeholders. On the other hand, when the B-BBEE score of these listed firms becomes the regressand, listing had an undesirable effect on their value added, patents and trademarks in relation to company performance. This study therefore opens-up a new vista for examining the performance of listed firms in South Africa, which is a significant contribution to new knowledge.
... Muchos estudios continuaron, e incorporaron el recuerdo publicitario, la comparación entre medios de comunicación "impresos" versus los "hablados", la aplicación de métodos para la recuperación de información, los diseños de medios de Humanidades e Ciências Sociais: Perspectivas Teóricas, Metodológicas e de Investigação II Capítulo 12 151 medición de audiencia, y la aplicación del psicoanálisis en los hábitos de compra de los consumidores. Todos estos esfuerzos, impulsaron un cambio en el énfasis y primacía de la demanda sobre la oferta, desterrando la afirmación, según la cual "toda oferta crea su propia demanda" (Say, 1803), por "toda demanda crea su propia oferta" (Garcés, 2015). ...
... Este tipo de investigaciones analítico-empíricas (de razonamientos deductivos, analíticos, abductivos, etc.) nacen en las Escuelas de Jurisprudencia, cuando se pretende una sistematización de temáticas en forma de tratados descriptivo-comprensivos (Cannata, 1989;Sánchez-Bayón, 2010y 2021a. Así se recibió con los protomanuales de Economía (Smith, 1776;Say, 1803), manteniéndose luego por los marginalistas y, sobre todo, entre los cultivadores de la Escuela Austriaca de Economía (Menger, 1871;Mises, 1949 -incluso aquellos que colaboraron cierto tiempo, como Robbins, 1932) y los Institucionalistas y Neoinstitucionalistas (vid. cap. ...
This PhD dissertation offers a study on Political Economy and History of Economics & Institutions, to review the foundations and experiences of American capitalism from the religious and ideological factor, in the way to understand the development of cooperativism according to this, as it has been working in the discipline of Religion & Economics. Attention is focused on the model of the so-called popular capitalism (or Folksnomics) and its cooperative utopias experienced in the 19c., during the colonization of the American West, and its subsequent projection with the solidarity network as sanctuary movement. There is a review of the mainstream, the whig approach (of consensus, on the imposition of the industrial-North model on the agrarian-South model, without attention to the commercial-West model) and the woke view (of conflict, delegitimizing all American capitalism as slave-owning and hetero-patriarchal system). In this way, the traditional conflict-consensus dichotomous interpretation is improved with a heterodox reading of competition and cooperation (occurring simultaneously in the West, by free, entrepreneur and prosperous people). This reading allows to explain the development of the colonizing process in the West, with innovative private self-management companies (reconfiguring the class system, the economic agents, the production factors and the firms types and culture), in the form of community farms and workshops, and their surplus and its trade of food and tools (staple approach) favored the integration of the interior of the country; also, it prepared the conditions for the Second Industrial Revolution. Likewise, the sanctuary movement has been a private initiative, with confessional origin, for the inclusion of new migrants (as an improvement of labor factor and human & social capital), in opposition to the switch in public policies, moving from a model of freedom and open doors to another of persecution and deportations. In all these issues, the religious and ideological factors have been the key, when beliefs are imposed on institutions (confirming that there is no way for coercive centralized planning), and respectively producing the
paradox of colonization and sanctuary. The colonizing paradox consists in the fact that, while the first
companies to be established where the religious ones, with a low initial investment, being more productive and sustainable; on the other hand, the ideological companies, despite their subsequent constitution and with greater
social capital, they were the first to cease activity. The sanctuary paradox refers to the fact that the more the public powers deviate from the constitutional tradition (pro-freedom, property and migration), the greater the
reaction of civil society (for their restoration), giving rise to a new cycle of awakenings and revivals, for the
transformation of the socio-economic model; this is the case when it is religiously inspired, but if it is ideological, then polarization increases. This study offers a systematization of cases, by saturation of the typology of companies that competed in the colonization of the West, as well as support networks in the sanctuary movement,
to compare them and evaluate their efficiency and institutional quality according to theoretical and methodological heterodox frameworks of Austrian Economics and New-Institutionalist, according to the theorems and thesis of Mises, Hayek, Coase, Buchanan-Tullock, et al. In this way, it is possible to clarify the aforesaid paradoxes.
... As for the value of goods, there are two opposing theories: on the one hand, the value-utility theory accepted by Say (1803) and Mill (1808), who consider that the value of a good lies in the utility it provides. And on the other hand, the labor-value theory accepted by Smith (1776) and Ricardo (1817), which considers that the value of a good depends on the amount of labor required to produce it. ...
Markets are important to public decision-makers in Côte d'Ivoire, who are constructing communal markets. The commune of Daloa serves as an example: apart from its central market, each district hosts a secondary market. However, despite this infrastructure, the Tazibouho-Université district features individual markets dispersed throughout densely populated areas. This scattered distribution, with limited spheres of influence, contradicts the evolutionary principle of markets. Market fragmentation diminishes the exchange of goods and services, despite its prevalence in Tazibouho-Université. This article analyzes the underlying reasons for this situation, which opposes the natural dynamics of markets. To achieve this, a literature review on markets was conducted, followed by a field survey involving merchants, customers, and suppliers. Additionally, a geographic information system was utilized to establish causal relationships and connections among stakeholders and services. This allowed us to demonstrate that this market arose from the intersection of the district's social structure and spatial organization, leading merchants to cater to local residents as customers and receive supplies from other markets and distant farmers. Furthermore, its expansion is attributed to the socio-professional status of local civil servants, whose purchasing behavior is influenced by the proximity strategies employed by merchants.
... J.-B. Say addressed the problem of entrepreneurship in his work "Treatise on Political Economy" (Say 1803). The main function of an entrepreneur, according to Say, is the organization of production and coordination of production factors: labor, land, and capital. ...
This study aimed to investigate the prerequisites, factors, and mechanisms for stimulating economic growth in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), using the manufacturing industry of the Republic of Kazakhstan as a case study. Econometric tools, including statistical methods, regression analysis, time series analysis, scenario development methods, and the decision tree method, were employed to analyze the data. This research employed a range of scientific and applied methods, resulting in practical outcomes that can be utilized by SMEs to model various development scenarios. The key factors influencing SME development, such as the costs of technological innovations, average monthly wages, level of innovative activity, and investments in fixed capital, were identified. Based on these factors and the diagnosis of the state, a mechanism for state stimulation of entrepreneurship, encompassing financial incentives, tax breaks, infrastructure support, and targeted training programs, was developed. This mechanism includes a system of incentives, goal-setting, and tool formation. This study also developed a model to evaluate the potential impact of measures at the regional level on production volume growth in the manufacturing industry, presenting three scenarios—pessimistic, realistic, and optimistic—for consideration, which are significant for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders in the field. Stakeholders, including investors and industry practitioners, can apply the recommended strategies to foster innovation and drive economic growth. This study provided actionable recommendations and a robust framework for stimulating SME growth, offering valuable insights for enhancing the economic resilience and industrial development of Kazakhstan.
... Es difícil estimar, por tanto, cuál es la necesidad óptima de juzgados de lo mercantil, pero desde luego y tal como la ley de Say (1966) o ley de los mercados pone de manifiesto, la demanda puede venir determinada por la producción. ...
The regulatory framework for the resolution of corporate insolvency is constantly changing in search of its efficiency; the relevant problem is that there are no statistical data on the efficiency of insolvency resolution processes either in Spain or in the countries in its closest environment, seeking efficiency requires conceptualization, analyze it statistically and be able to investigate its explanatory variables to improve the process. This thesis explores the concept of efficiency, provides estimated data on the efficiency of insolvency resolution processes in Spain and their explanatory variables, providing an efficiency model around three explanatory variables: the size of the insolvent company, its degree of financial deterioration and the experience of the insolvency practitioner responsible for the process.
... Muchos estudios continuaron, e incorporaron el recuerdo publicitario, la comparación entre medios de comunicación "impresos" versus los "hablados", la aplicación de métodos para la recuperación de información, los diseños de medios de Humanidades e Ciências Sociais: Perspectivas Teóricas, Metodológicas e de Investigação II Capítulo 12 151 medición de audiencia, y la aplicación del psicoanálisis en los hábitos de compra de los consumidores. Todos estos esfuerzos, impulsaron un cambio en el énfasis y primacía de la demanda sobre la oferta, desterrando la afirmación, según la cual "toda oferta crea su propia demanda" (Say, 1803), por "toda demanda crea su propia oferta" (Garcés, 2015). ...
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... It is difficult to define what a value is. In fact, several theories of value coexist in the social sciences in general, and particularly in economics: the labour theory of value (Marx, 1867;Ricardo, 1817), the scarcity value (Walras, 1874); utility value (Pareto, 1895;Say, 1803), etc. In sociology, Nathalie Heinich (2012) shows the difficulty it is to define value. ...
... Muchos estudios continuaron, e incorporaron el recuerdo publicitario, la comparación entre medios de comunicación "impresos" versus los "hablados", la aplicación de métodos para la recuperación de información, los diseños de medios de Humanidades e Ciências Sociais: Perspectivas Teóricas, Metodológicas e de Investigação II Capítulo 12 151 medición de audiencia, y la aplicación del psicoanálisis en los hábitos de compra de los consumidores. Todos estos esfuerzos, impulsaron un cambio en el énfasis y primacía de la demanda sobre la oferta, desterrando la afirmación, según la cual "toda oferta crea su propia demanda" (Say, 1803), por "toda demanda crea su propia oferta" (Garcés, 2015). ...
... Muchos estudios continuaron, e incorporaron el recuerdo publicitario, la comparación entre medios de comunicación "impresos" versus los "hablados", la aplicación de métodos para la recuperación de información, los diseños de medios de Humanidades e Ciências Sociais: Perspectivas Teóricas, Metodológicas e de Investigação II Capítulo 12 151 medición de audiencia, y la aplicación del psicoanálisis en los hábitos de compra de los consumidores. Todos estos esfuerzos, impulsaron un cambio en el énfasis y primacía de la demanda sobre la oferta, desterrando la afirmación, según la cual "toda oferta crea su propia demanda" (Say, 1803), por "toda demanda crea su propia oferta" (Garcés, 2015). ...
... Muchos estudios continuaron, e incorporaron el recuerdo publicitario, la comparación entre medios de comunicación "impresos" versus los "hablados", la aplicación de métodos para la recuperación de información, los diseños de medios de Humanidades e Ciências Sociais: Perspectivas Teóricas, Metodológicas e de Investigação II Capítulo 12 151 medición de audiencia, y la aplicación del psicoanálisis en los hábitos de compra de los consumidores. Todos estos esfuerzos, impulsaron un cambio en el énfasis y primacía de la demanda sobre la oferta, desterrando la afirmación, según la cual "toda oferta crea su propia demanda" (Say, 1803), por "toda demanda crea su propia oferta" (Garcés, 2015). ...
... Muchos estudios continuaron, e incorporaron el recuerdo publicitario, la comparación entre medios de comunicación "impresos" versus los "hablados", la aplicación de métodos para la recuperación de información, los diseños de medios de Humanidades e Ciências Sociais: Perspectivas Teóricas, Metodológicas e de Investigação II Capítulo 12 151 medición de audiencia, y la aplicación del psicoanálisis en los hábitos de compra de los consumidores. Todos estos esfuerzos, impulsaron un cambio en el énfasis y primacía de la demanda sobre la oferta, desterrando la afirmación, según la cual "toda oferta crea su propia demanda" (Say, 1803), por "toda demanda crea su propia oferta" (Garcés, 2015). ...
... Autor concepto (Pinchot, 1817) Persona que alcanza sus ideales a través de sus acciones (Say, 1826) Persona que moviliza medios de producción para mejorar la productividad (Cantillon, 1997) Individuo que asume riesgos para crear una empresa (Díaz, 2016) Emprendedor es una persona creativa, con grandes ideas y la capacidad de hacer realidad una visión (Janssen et al,. 2016) Persona que identifica en el entorno una oportunidad y adicional a ello es capaz de suministrar valor a su idea (Garzón, 2005) Individuo que por sus particularidades conductas y actitudes cumplen un papel fundamental en el cambio de las organizaciones, hacia ambientes creativos. ...
... Autor concepto (Pinchot, 1817) Persona que alcanza sus ideales a través de sus acciones (Say, 1826) Persona que moviliza medios de producción para mejorar la productividad (Cantillon, 1997) Individuo que asume riesgos para crear una empresa (Díaz, 2016) Emprendedor es una persona creativa, con grandes ideas y la capacidad de hacer realidad una visión (Janssen et al,. 2016) Persona que identifica en el entorno una oportunidad y adicional a ello es capaz de suministrar valor a su idea (Garzón, 2005) Individuo que por sus particularidades conductas y actitudes cumplen un papel fundamental en el cambio de las organizaciones, hacia ambientes creativos. ...
... Say, J.B. (1803). Traité d'économie politique, ou simple exposition de la manière dont se forment, se distribuent, et se composent les richesses. ...
Este libro está basado en hechos históricos, más que en opiniones de los autores. Es un
resumen de las enseñanzas de la historia, de lo que se considera que ha funcionado y lo que no en lo económico; es la lectura de la historia. El título implica un resultado concluyente, definitivo, después de dos siglos en los que la humanidad ha pensado sobre la sociedad ideal, y sobre el diseño y establecimiento de los sistemas económicos y políticos opuestos, derivándose de ellos
millones de muertos producto del choque entre los dos preponderantes. Después de observar cuáles han tenido éxito y cuáles han fracasado, es posible obtener resultados y conclusiones.
La narrativa se escribe en momentos (2019) en que la corrupción en América Latina
parece imposible de controlar o acabar. Presidentes, Gobernadores, Alcaldes y Congresistas de varios países son juzgados y privados de su libertad por corrupción, recepción de sobornos, narcotráfico, contubernio y otros que al amparo de las leyes y de los compadrazgos han logrado evitar ser enjuiciados, pero que gracias a las redes sociales ha quedado evidenciada su escasa honorabilidad. La corrupción viene acompañada con la violencia: la BBC publica que 421de las cincuenta ciudades más violentas del mundo son Latinoamericanas, fenómeno con raíces
económicas, políticas y sociales que se abordarán en diferentes contextos.
Escribir este libro ha sido muy difícil y un trabajo muy largo pues se ha basado en todo lo
aprendido en la vida académica y el ejercicio aplicado de la profesión de economistas. La
confrontación entre la teoría y la praxis empresarial y financiera; el comparar la realidad
inmediata del país donde se nace y se vive con la de otros países que juzgamos como mejores o peores con base en las estadísticas socioeconómicas ha sido determinante para el análisis por capítulo
... Jean-Baptiste Say, the nineteenth century French economist credited with de ning the term entrepreneurship, described the entrepreneur as one who moves economic resources from areas of low yield to ones of greater yield (Say, 1846). 1 In his 1848 work Principles of Political Economy with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy, John Stuart Mill posited that entrepreneurs constitute a fourth factor of production, in addition to labor, land, and capital. Entrepreneurs reorient divisions of labor, promote specialization, and enhance ef ciency. ...
Social entrepreneurship is a form of entrepreneurship that utilizes entrepreneurial process to create long-lasting societal change. In this chapter, we briefly outline the status quo of the social entrepreneurship literature while specifically focusing on our current understanding of social entrepreneurship in the context of crises and grand challenges. We then look at the extant literature examining the role of social entrepreneurship in crises and how this enhances our insight into the role of social entrepreneurship for addressing societal grand challenges.Keywords
Crisis
Social entrepreneurshipGrand challengesSocial imaginary
innovation
... Add to this the notions of scarcity and distribution and you are left with the modern definition of economics, "the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable goods and services and distribute them among different individuals" (Samuelson & Nordhaus, 2010, p. 4). By the 19th century however the definition of exploitation had changed to one that is more familiar to us today, coming to mean the action of extracting an illicit or excessive gain from something or someone (Say, 1841). That the two centuries it took to realise that extracting value of something could be illicit or excessive happen to be the same two centuries in which economic growth took off may be more than mere coincidence. ...
“Sustainable Masculinities and Degrowth: Pathways to Feminist Post-Growth Societies” views the climate crisis through a degrowth lens, but centers the role (hegemonic) masculinity has played in creating and sustaining the growth paradigm. Though much has already been said about the origins of economic growth, and much written about the oppressive nature of patriarchal systems with respect to women and the environment, efforts to integrate the two with the study of masculinities and the effects these processes have had on men are few and far between. This paper breaks new ground and extends an invitation to degrowth to challenge (its own) hegemonic masculinity.
Goma, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is an entrepreneurial city. Everyone whether they are financially educated or not, want to do entrepreneurship by engaging in various activities. But it is not every entrepreneur who succeed to grow their small enterprises to successful business. The objective of this paper is to find out whether financial literacy and entrepreneurship are solutions to poverty in Goma City DRC by interviewing a sample of eighty-six entrepreneurs who are registered and operate in Goma City. The purposive and stratified samples were randomly picked from a population of one hundred and ten entrepreneurs where questions in financial literacy, entrepreneurship and poverty alleviation were asked. The methodology used was quantitative and was aimed at depicting the manner in which financial literacy and entrepreneurship affect poverty alleviation. Aspects of qualitative research were also used through observation. The study made use of financial literacy and entrepreneurship scores against the level of poverty solutions per questionnaire. The research used both primary and secondary data but mainly primary data using a self-structured questionnaire. Data analysis was performed with the aid of SPSS version 16.0, Google Form, Excel and STATA version 15.0 using both descriptive and inferential statistics, econometrics and structural equations modeling. The data collected was then analyzed to establish relationship between financial literacy, entrepreneurship and poverty solutions. From the research findings, all entrepreneurs interviewed were found to have some level of financial literacy and acceptable socioeconomic status and high living standard. In contrast, less successful entrepreneurs exhibited stagnant growth, low level of financial literacy, low socioeconomic status and low living standard and majority of them were found to be in Finance and insurance sector. This study concludes that entrepreneurship is a direct solution to poverty while financial literacy is an indirect solution to poverty in Goma city through entrepreneurship. It further recommends that Government through the Ministry of Entrepreneurship of DR Congo must ensure that entrepreneurs are highly financial literate in order to increase their business rationality and profitability. Furthermore, it suggests that the Government must create the best business climate in order to encourage the entrepreneurship in Goma City.
The objective of this article is to identify and explain the factors that can impact positively the entrepreneurial intention of students in the Agadir region. The quantitative method was best suited to our hypothetic-deductive approach, through which we used the questionnaire as a survey tool, which we used either as an online form or as a traditional support to collect data on six research axes. The survey was carried out among 160 students from various universities in the Agadir region. For the data analysis, we opted for the partial least squares regression method, using the SMART PLS 3 software. Based on the results of our empirical survey, we found that students enjoy a high degree of entrepreneurial intention. The influence of all variables was confirmed except that of resource beliefs on entrepreneurial intention. In this study, we will focus on students at the end of their studies, as they are just a few months away from starting their professional life, and they express a variety of choices and intentions. For this, the problem that will be the subject of our research, and which we will try to answer is "What are the factors that influence the entrepreneurial intention of students in the Agadir region? .
This paper suggests that the theory of entrepreneurship needs to be amended. This paper first shows how the phenomenon of entrepreneurial teams has become established in practice and in the literature. Then the axioms of entrepreneurship theory are discussed. This paper (with a literature review and GEM data) argues that there is an inconsistency within entrepreneurship theory: in order not to have to change the axioms of entrepreneurship theory, entrepreneurial teams were assumed to consist of individual entrepreneurs. This paper explains how that impedes advances in theory development and suggests a new taxonomy of entrepreneurs: the individual entrepreneur, the individual entrepreneur in a team, and a socially minded true team entrepreneur.
This article contains an extensive analysis of some aspects of the three classics of political economy, Adam Smith, Jean Baptiste Say, and David Ricardo as a means to contribute, after the efforts of Lukácz, Ilting and Priddat, to the understanding of the depth and width of Hegel’s economical studies and the scope of his assimilation, synthesis and critical incorporation of such objects in his mature work, especially in his lectures on Philosophy of Right.
Abstract
The economy is at the height of educational thought and action. But, in truth, educational action always integrates socio-economic issues. The plural nature of educational sciences has meant that we distinguish within it the social sciences which are fundamental to it, then those which are auxiliary to it. Often philosophy, sociology, psychology and history are perceived as social sciences fundamental to educational sciences. This does not seem to be the case with the economy. The article recalls the fact that the socio-economic dimension is always present in
educational action and projects in all periods of history and in all societies. It describes the extent of the influences of socio-economic factors on educational goals. He concludes that economics is also a fundamental science to educational sciences. Finally, there is also a distinction between two often confused concepts: education and training.
Keywords: educational paradigm, economy, education, training, primordial good.
Рост малого и среднего предпринимательства считается наиболее эффективным инструментом развития экономики, однако так было не всегда: ранние экономисты не выделяли предпринимателей в качестве движителей экономики, сама же теория предпринимательства начала появляться в XVII веке, хотя некоторые её зачатки встречаются и раньше. В настоящее время теория предпринимательства находится в неудовлетворительном состоянии: позиции ведущих учёных разного времени не просто расхожи, но иногда и противоположны; авторами по-разному трактуются сущность, функции и природа предпринимательской деятельности. Данное исследование предпринимает попытку восполнить этот пробел и структурировать воедино различные предпринимательские теории. Объектом исследования является предпринимательская деятельность, цель статьи состоит в углублении понимания сущности предпринимательства, задачами являются: сравнительный анализ предпринимательских теорий различных авторов, выделение и обзор основных предпринимательских школ, а также уточнение термина «предпринимательство». Научная новизна данной статьи состоит в чётком определении функций, качеств и институциональных характеристик предпринимателей, выделении предпринимательских школ, а также в опровержении мнения о смешении ранними авторами предпринимательской и капиталистической функций. В статье рассмотрена эволюция предпринимательской теории, описан вклад различных авторов, показано изменение состава предпринимательских качеств и функций во времени, определено время приближения предпринимательской теории к современному виду.
The small and medium-sized businesses’ growth is considered the most effective tool for economic development, but it was not always so: early economists did not single out entrepreneurs as the economy drivers, the theory of entrepreneurship itself appeared in the 17th century, although some of its elements are found earlier. The entrepreneurial theory received a thorough development in the XVIII century, further deepening and absorbing new elements. At the present time, the theory of entrepreneurship is in an unsatisfactory state: the leading scientists’ positions are sometimes opposite; the authors interpret the essence, functions and nature of entrepreneurial activity in different ways. This study attempts to fill this gap and structure various entrepreneurial theories together. The object of the research is entrepreneurial activity, the purpose of the article is to deepen the understanding of the entrepreneurship essence, the tasks are: comparative analysis of various entrepreneurial theories, the main entrepreneurial schools’ identification and review, as well as the term "entrepreneurship" clarification. The scientific novelty of this article consists in a clear definition of the entrepreneurs’ functions, qualities and institutional characteristics, the entrepreneurial schools’ allocation, as well as in refuting the opinion that the early authors mixed entrepreneurial and capitalist functions. The article examines the entrepreneurial theory evolution, describes the various authors’ contribution, shows the change in the composition of entrepreneurial qualities and functions over time, determines the time of approaching the entrepreneurial theory to the modern form.
Notwithstanding its ruthless dynamics, the capitalist economy has the flaw of deficient employment-generating spending. This leads to unemployment of non-owners, individual suffering, social unrest and it undermines military strength. To deal with these issues, states use prosthetic policies, artificial transfers to the productive economy and to non-owners. But the funding of such prosthetic policies - through violent wealth appropriation abroad, protectionism, war, domestic expropriation and taxation, debt and money creation - is caught in dilemmas, while politicians are caught between non-solutions. According to Gerhard H. Wächter, the history of capitalist society is largely the history of this dilemmatic brotherhood.
Esta obra describe el propósito de los negocios con valor social, los autores proponer temáticas como la innovación social, emprendimiento social o consumo responsable. Además, plantean nuevas formas de producir, transformar, comercializar y consumir con mínimo deterioro.
Ce papier analyse l'effet des facteurs de l'environnement entrepreneurial sur la création des entreprises en Afrique subsaharienne sur la période de 2005 à 2020. En utilisant une variante des modèles d'équation structurelle, le modèle à multiples indicateurs et à causes multiples (MIMIC), il ressort des résultats que, pour les pays anglophones, la création d'entreprises est positivement et significativement affecté par la stabilité politique, l'état des infrastructures de transport, l'investissement public, les dépenses de santé, mais négativement affectée par le chômage. En outre, le modèle des pays francophones laisse apparaître que le taux de création d'entreprises est positivement et significativement affecté par la stabilité politique, la réglementation, l'accès à l'électricité, l'état des infrastructures de transport, mais négativement affecté par l'effet combiné des variables éducation et chômages.
ABSTRACT : This paper analyzes the effect of business environment on firm formation in sub-Saharan Africa over the period 2005-2020. Using a variant of structural equation models, the Multiples Indicators and Multiples Causes Model (MIMIC), the results show that for english-speaking countries, business creation is positively and significantly affected by political stability, the state of transport infrastructure, public investment, and health spending, but negatively affected by unemployment. In addition, the model for French-speaking countries shows that the rate of business creation is positively and significantly affected by political stability, regulation, access to electricity, and the state of transport infrastructure, but negatively affected by the combined effect of the education and unemployment variables.
En la actualidad, las universidades se desarrollan en un entorno globalizado, dinámico y cambiante (Otero et al., 2019:2022); a partir de ello, adoptan tendencias y se suman a las agendas de desarrollo internacional. En este sentido, la educación sobre emprendimiento social ha tomado un papel significativo en las investigaciones que realizan las universidades y se reconoce que los emprendimientos contribuyen al crecimiento económico y social de las personas.
Los planes de estudio correspondientes al área académica económico- administrativa han adoptado los modelos de emprendimiento para contribuir a la formación de profesionales capaces de enfrentar el mundo mediante la realización de propuestas de negocios con enfoque de emprendimiento social. En el ámbito de la educación universitaria estas se encargan de transmitir el conocimiento sobre las bases del emprendimiento, su alcance y reconocimiento de su entorno, y cómo pueden los empresarios generar competencias que le permitan atender las necesidades del ambiente.
Diversos estudios sobre emprendimiento (Guzmán y Trujillo, 2008; Moreira Urriolagoitia, 2008) demuestran el alcance del emprendimiento en el desarrollo de los negocios, se sugiere centrarse en desarrollar capacidades que permitan al estudiante potenciar su visión del mundo y de esta manera conocer los mecanismos para gestionar eficientemente los emprendimientos (Vásquez y Dávila, 2008). La educación en emprendimiento social dentro de las universidades es necesaria para conducir estudios que busquen diagnosticar el ambiente local y nacional, la necesidad imperante de cambiar el paradigma de las personas sobre cómo observan a las empresas pequeñas; con ello, se documentan las experiencias y se puede contribuir al conocimiento desde una perspectiva multidisciplinaria. En este sentido, el objetivo de investigación es analizar el efecto de las sub-competencias de emprendimiento social en estudiantes de nivel licenciatura adscritos a la Facultad de Contaduría y Administración de la Universidad Veracruzana campus Coatzacoalcos. La hipótesis de investigación es que las competencias que los estudiantes posean no son significativas para gestionar adecuadamente el emprendimiento social.
Since the Marginal Revolution, mainstream economics has developed around the framework of general equilibrium theory and the fundamental theorems of welfare economics. However, we have to remember the prehistory of the marginal utility theory, in which ample pioneering works had been accumulated, which we call as a whole the theory of utility and scarcity. Tracing the development of the marginal utility theory since its prehistory, we can find out that there are three theoretical streams relating to the competitive equilibrium allocation. The theory of voluntary exchange was developed by Jevons and Edgeworth into the theory of core. The development of the theory of competitive markets has a theoretical jump from Walras’ general equilibrium theory. Modern theory does not refer to the theory of social value developed by the Austrian school, but its pioneering contributions to the history of welfare economics should be appreciated.
This article aims to explore how the productivity controversy of the classical period, in which Adam Smith’s concept of productive and unproductive labor was debated, has influenced the general view of services. It provides important insights into the specific characteristics of services that have emerged in this debate and that can be used for further developing a theory of services. It shows that certain innovative concepts previously proposed by authors like Heinrich von Storch, William Nassau Senior, and Friedrich List deserve to be rediscovered for a modern analysis of services.
Despite the lack of consensus, entrepreneurship has been studied and its many components have been researched by economists, sociologists, historians, psychologists, and experts in social and business sciences. The theoretical essay on the opportunities of new markets for strategic entrepreneurs in this article discusses topics that show how the importance of strategic planning for the expansion of the company was founded, as well as a great opportunity to contribute to the development of society. On the other hand, these businesses are highly unstable due to the lack of specific skills and knowledge about management procedures and tools where the vast majority do not survive for long in the market, as it is necessary for companies to reorganize or develop new business models, as new digital technologies are opening up scenarios for them that were previously impractical.
Building on the historical foundations of the geopolitics of energy, this essay argues that under capitalism, the “energy model” performs more functions than only supplying energy to the system. In the fossil fuel model, the territorial control of energy sources (coal, oil, gas, and uranium) preserves hegemony, and since the 1970s, oil revenue has been used to sustain global imbalances. Considering that the properties of renewable sources are radically different from those of fossil fuels (there is no possibility of territorial control or commodification), I discuss the concepts of soft and hard paths as established by Lovins and using the example of “new hydrogen geopolitics,” in an attempt to create a hard path renewable model similar to the fossil fuel one, may foster new tensions that could catalyze a new generation of energy-related conflicts.
This chapter concludes the volume devoted to the Enlightenment period. It first stresses the importance and meaning, in the second half of the eighteenth century, of translations into French of works published in other languages. During the 1750s, J.C.M. Vincent de Gournay and a significant group of disciples published many translations of British and Spanish works mainly dealing with the “science of trade”. Of particular importance were also, during the same years, translations of works of David Hume, as well as, later, of writings of Pietro Verri, Adam Smith and, at the end of the period, James Steuart. The chapter then deals with the way in which political economy was progressively accepted in political discussions during the 1789 Revolution, as well as in the teaching programmes of the new system of public instruction and in the newly created Institut national des sciences et des arts. Finally, some last theoretical developments are examined, regarding utility, productive or unproductive labour, the instability of an economy based on manufactures and the negative aspects of the division of labour.
In Spain, public development, and economic promotion agencies, as well as confidential business training centers, spend substantial amounts of money on entrepreneurship promotion programs.
This thesis starts with an extensive review of the literature and the state of the art to identify which criteria are key to successful entrepreneurial projects. On the other hand, it analyzes the contents of the programs of the main development agencies and private centers, and on the other hand, it interviews the actors involved in order to test which factors they consider key for entrepreneurial success, namely, entrepreneurs in nascent stage, entrepreneurs in new stage, entrepreneurs in consolidated stage, people in charge of public and private training centers, trainers of these centers.
Based on these analyses, the aim is to verify whether entrepreneurship programs focus on developing those key factors that once allowed consolidated entrepreneurs to consolidate successful entrepreneurial projects.
The results indicate that the factors most valued by successful entrepreneurs are those related to personal and professional self-knowledge, such as self-awareness of one's own motivations and objectives, the promotion of self-efficacy and self-determination when it comes to entrepreneurship, once again highlighting the power of attitudes and beliefs in line with the theoretical review. These results show the scarce presence of these factors in training programs in favor of other types of contents of a more technical nature and the promotion of generic competencies.
The research provides new information about the entrepreneurial process, proposing a new previous phase aimed at self-knowledge, and highlights how the way of interacting playfully with the environment could help in the development of viable business ideas, establishing a set of recommendations and a roadmap to increase the overall effectiveness of these programs, in order to achieve viable business projects and maximize the resources invested.
This article presents a comprehensive review of the literature on the effects of emotional intelligence, locus of control, and self-efficacy on entrepreneurial intention, spanning the period from 2017 to 2022. Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to an individual's ability to recognize, understand, and manage their own emotions and those of others. Locus of control (LOC) is the degree to which individuals believe they have control over events and outcomes in their lives. Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their ability to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. The review synthesizes findings from empirical research conducted in various contexts and regions, exploring the relationships between these psychological constructs and entrepreneurial intention. The analysis reveals that higher levels of emotional intelligence, an internal locus of control, and self-efficacy are positively associated with entrepreneurial intention, contributing to the development of entrepreneurial mindset and behavior. By offering a deeper understanding of the psychological drivers behind entrepreneurial intention, this review seeks to inform both researchers and practitioners in the fields of entrepreneurship, organizational psychology, and career development.
La e-santé participe à la démocratisation de la connaissance de l’accès aux soins des populations. Dans une volonté de démocratie sanitaire, un site internet interactif gratuit permet à chaque usager d’interroger les différents indicateurs liés à la démographie médicale de son propre « territoire vécu »1.Ce site propose d’interroger le recours aux soins de première ligne (accès aux services des urgences) pour identifier les inadéquations de l’offre de soins aux « besoins » réels des populations. En 2015, la France métropolitaine comptait 557 services officiels d’accueil des urgences qui accueillaient plus de 17 millions primo-passages pour des soins d’urgences. Afin d’apporter un éclairage objectif à destination des usagers (citoyens, pouvoirs publics), il est nécessaire de disposer d’un territoire pertinent reflétant le plus fidèlement de la pratique spatiale des usagers, c’est-à-dire, un « territoire vécu ». Une projection à l’horizon 2025 et 2030, cible les besoins théoriques en termes de démographie médicale des médecins généralistes au niveau de ces territoires opérationnels.
Historians of economic thought have carried out detailed studies of classical and marginalist approaches to value based on production cost and utility, respectively, not to mention about the fusion of both interpretations by the neoclassical school. This is not the case with rareness value, a theory commonly attributed to Léon Walras, although Aristotle surely had rareness in mind when he first attempted to explain chrematistics. This article focuses on how our understanding of rareness has evolved from the earliest economic formulations to those of Auguste and Léon Walras, contesting Murray Rothbard’s thesis that there is only one way in which the transmission of the utility theory of value can be tracked from scholasticism to the Austrian school. On the contrary, the concept of rareness continued to figure in some theories of value of the French Enlightenment, especially those that emerged within Calvinist circles, and was recovered in times of reaction against the dominant classicism.
Resumo Este artigo estuda a pioneira contribuição de Condillac à Economia, que antecipa em diversos aspectos as teorias neoclássicas do valor e trocas. O trabalho argumenta que a teoria econômica do autor se relaciona com sua filosofia, o sensacionalismo, que provê uma fundamentação possível para uma Economia baseada no conceito de ação humana e escolha. A rejeição por parte dos economistas do século dezenove do modelo de trocas e da teoria do valor desenvolvidos por Condillac é relacionada no artigo com as diferenças nucleares entre as perspectivas plutológica e catalática. A despeito dessa rejeição, mostramos como a filosofia do autor ainda assim influencia as obras de alguns economistas do período, notadamente Destutt de Tracy.
This observation is from an obscure backwater of the Wealth of Nations. It is about companies that were archaic even in 1776: the Russian Company, the Eastland Company, the Hamburgh Company, chartered in Britain in the sixteenth century, and trading mainly in the Baltic. But the comments on regulated companies are a revealing epitome of Adam Smith’s thought. There is the artful language, and one can almost hear Smith’s ironic tone as he dictated these sentences. There is the analytic idiom, so characteristic of the Wealth of Nations , in the juxtaposition of large theories with the details of legal and economic history. There is, above all, the subject, which is also the largest object of inquiry in the Wealth of Nations , or the changing relationship between states and markets.
This article presents the traditional limitations of happiness economics and the uncertainty about the econometric relationship between public spending and happiness. It also argues that the happiness metric is a new form of social engineering, and that as such, happiness economics is biased toward a particular political utopia and scientific ideal. The political utopia is liberticidal, antidemocratic. It transforms democracy into “pollo-cracy”—i.e., the government (kratos) to the pollsters. The scientific ideal is positivist and favors government by numbers. This scientific norm underestimates the limits of statistical work. The social engineering of happiness is a new fatal presumption of policy makers. It is a new way to critique the free market economy and to substitute profit with a social criterion of quality of life and happiness.
How is a new state built? To what ideas, concepts and practices do authorities turn to produce and legitimise its legal and political system? And what if the state emerged through revolution, and sought to obliterate the legacy of the empire which proceeded it? This book addresses these questions by looking at nineteenth-century Greek liberalism and the ways in which it engaged in reforms in the Greek state after independence from the Ottomans (ca. 1830-1880). Liberalism after the Revolution offers an original perspective on this dynamic period in European history, and challenges the assumptions of Western-centric histories of nineteenth-century liberalism, and its relationship with the state. Michalis Sotiropoulos shows that, in this European periphery, liberals did not just transform liberalism into a practical mode of statecraft, they preserved liberalism's radical edge at a time when it was losing its appeal elsewhere in Europe.
As we have seen throughout this work, many if not all social sciences adopt different approaches to human life. None, however, genuinely tries to consider it in its full complexity. Each addresses only some of its aspects. Human life, therefore, appears to loom larger than all the social sciences while constituting one of their key elements. This conclusion therefore takes a closer look at the main approaches used to understand the various aspects of life stories. First, demographic theories will be examined with their solutions and their recorded failures. Then the mechanistic theory will be contrasted with the system theory. For hermeneutics, we will see how Varela tried to link it to systembiology, through the concept of autonomy. Rather than contrast the three approaches, we will attempt to how they are complementary in explaining aspects of a human life and what they contribute to understanding them.
The Marginalist Revolution, which is traditionally associated with the date 1871 and the names of Leon Walras, William Stanley Jevons, Karl Menger, is interpreted as a complex and lengthy process, that ended around the mid-twentieth century. Its origins can be traced to three relatively independent trends that existed long before the 1870s: in the field of value theory — a tendency to view utility as a basis of value, in the field of methodology — a trend towards the adoption of deductive method, in the field of analytical tools — a trend towards the application of mathematics in economics. The achievements of these authors, which in a sense can be regarded as a “point of intersection” (“overlap”) of the above-mentioned tendencies, were not properly appreciated by contemporaries, were not considered as revolutionary and for quite a long time remained on the periphery of economic research, became a bridge to the future economic science.
The theme of population is recurrent in economics, particularly in France. The literature in history of economic thought related to these issues is extensive, especially, in the case of French liberal economists, from the period starting with the writings of Malthus up to the middle of the 19th century. Few studies, however, focus on the position of economic liberals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The purpose of this paper is therefore to extend the analysis and provide an account of the key debates amongst the French liberal economists of this period concerning what they referred to as “the problem of population”. We shall first see that this “problem” consisted in a stagnation of French population levels due to a drop in the birth rate, leading to negative consequences for the economy and elsewhere. This led economists to name causes and solutions to this decline on which the French liberals were divided. For some authors, the causes arose from a change in lifestyles, for others to increasing intervention by the state. Lastly, we will present the contrasting ideas for solutions to allow the birth rate to increase again. For some, the solution was a moral one: what was needed was a change of mindset. For others, the solution was economic, i.e., the human condition could be improved by free trade. For others, the solution lay in legislation: the state should encourage individuals to have more children.
The relevance of the study is underpinned by continuing sharp scientific and practical discussion on the evolution of economic science aimed at obtaining exhaustive answers to such questions as: “What is orthodoxy in economic science? Why is it that the theoretical and methodological orthodoxy that accompanies the emergence and transformation of alternative directions of world economic thought cannot be overcome not only in the past but also at the present time? What is the historical significance of a retrospective analysis of vectors, stages and problems of the formation of unorthodox foundations in the development of this branch of human knowledge? and others. The findings of prominent Russian and foreign scientists-economists, allowing to reveal and comprehend the diverse methodological and theoretical components of orthodoxy in the past and present set the subject of this review article. The purpose of the study is to consider, systematize and generalize the evidentiary warnings published in the works of prominent modern researchers about the urgent need to overcome the negative consequences of orthodox maxims, which, having been absolutized since the time of the “fathers of political economy”, continue to manifest themselves to this day. The key research methods include systematic approach, evolutionary and cross-industry analysis. The results of the review incorporate conclusions and evidence that make it possible to unbiasedly comprehend the key scientific and practical problems for the fate of this science in the past and present. In particular, the author’s position is argued that the examples of postulating judgments about the presence and coexistence of “Western-non-Western”, “bourgeoisnon- bourgeois” economic science, which are still found in Russian economic literature, are based solely on the classformational research approach and therefore are completely untenable. It has been proved that from its “ancestors” and “fathers” of economics, i. e. adherents mercantilism and classical political economy principles to modern economists (from institutionalists to Keynesians and neoliberals) the existing palette of orthodox theoretical and methodological innovations accompanying the development of economic science explicitly or implicitly along with its commitment to the class analytical approach are due to a certain subtext of the absolutization of “objective economic laws”.
O primeiro terço do século XIX é marcado por importantes câmbios no pensamento econômico, na estrutura de produção e nas relações de mercado, com impactos significativos sobre a atividade inventiva. Usual no Antigo Regime, a prática de concessão de privilégios e outras mercês a inventores então se submete a uma ressignificação, transformando-se as patentes em direitos de propriedade. Nesse contexto, José da Silva Lisboa apresenta-se como um dos primeiros pensadores luso-brasileiros a discutir questões relativas ao sistema de patentes, considerando seus efeitos sobre o desenvolvimento econômico. Tencionamos neste trabalho identificar e discutir as ideias de Cairu acerca da matéria, tomando como base seus principais escritos econômicos e pareceres por ele produzidos na condição de deputado da Real Junta do Comércio.
Produktionstheoretische Überlegungen haben ihren Ursprung in der Volkswirtschaftslehre. Lange Zeit gingen die meisten Ökonomen davon aus, dass sich die Erkenntnisse der volkswirtschaftlichen Produktionstheorie auch auf betriebswirtschaftliche Produktionsverhältnisse übertragen ließen. Erst Ende der 1940er- und Anfang der 1950er-Jahre entwickelte die Betriebswirtschaftslehre eigenständige produktionstheoretische Ansätze mit Schwerpunkt auf industrielle Produktionsverhältnisse. Im Laufe der Jahrzehnte wurde die Produktionstheorie dann in unterschiedliche Richtungen weiterentwickelt. Schwerpunkte dieser Entwicklung bildeten dabei einzelne Dienstleistungsbranchen (z. B. Banken, Versicherungen) sowie eine Verallgemeinerung der Dienstleistungsproduktion, die Informationsverarbeitungsprozesse und die Idee einer entscheidungsorientierten Produktionstheorie.
Résumé : Cette thèse propose un questionnement sur les objets et les méthodes des sciences sociales ainsi que sur les types de connaissance qu’elles peuvent nous permettre d’obtenir. L’idée centrale soutenue par cette thèse est que l’action constitue le cœur de l’explication sociale. Ainsi, ce travail se construit en deux temps. D’abord, on procède à une analyse de l’évolution du concept d’action en sciences sociales à partir de la philosophie de l’action de David Hume jusqu’à ses spécifications théoriques en économie et en sociologie classiques. Cette évolution conceptuelle permet de situer deux courants théoriques complémentaires dans l’étude de l’action représentés par l’économiste Ludwig von Mises et le sociologue Raymond Boudon. Ensuite, cette thèse utilise les paradigmes de l’action de Mises et de Boudon afin de présenter l’esquisse d’un paradigme unifié permettant aux chercheurs de situer méthodologiquement et épistémologiquement leurs investigations sociales.
Summary : This thesis constitutes an inquiry on the objects and methods of the social sciences as well as on the types of knowledge that social scientists can hope to acquire. The central idea permeating this thesis is that action constitutes the heart of social explanation. Thus, this work is constructed around two main aspects. First, it proceeds to analyze the evolution of the concept of action in the social sciences from David Hume’s philosophy of action up to its theoretical specifications in classical economics and classical sociology. This conceptual evolution helps us to situate two complementary theoretical perspectives on the study of action represented by economist Ludwig von Mises and sociologist Raymond Boudon. Then, this thesis uses the respective paradigms of action of Mises and Boudon to present the sketch of a unified paradigm allowing researchers to situate methodologically and epistemologically their social investigations.
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