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Towards the Complete Man: Consciousness, Psyche, Mind, Memory, Soul, and Spirit.

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Abstract

I present a general and personal view of the various aspects in which Man is and should be studied. The main problem lies in the lack of a fully accepted definitions of consciousness and ‘normal’ state of consciousness. The concepts of personality and consciousness are discussed. The most important issues in the study of consciousness are highlighted. The concepts of the field of consciousness and bandwidth are presented and discussed in relation with memory recovery and the processing capacity of the brain. The similarities and differences of consciousness, mind, and psyche are listed. The mind-brain problem is presented, and the many possible relationships are defined and commented. We highlighted some new topics such as the need and importance of being able to access all stored memories to become a more ‘complete’ Homo sapiens. Some possible non-physical components are briefly mentioned. Keywords: Consciousness, psyche, mind, memory, soul, spirit, mind-brain problem, hallucinogens, Nietzsche.
Citation: Juan Sebastián Gómez-Jeria (2023). Towards the Complete Man: Consciousness, Psyche, Mind, Memory, Soul,
and Spirit. J Adv Educ Philos, 7(9): 351-371.
351
Journal of Advances in Education and Philosophy
Abbreviated Key Title: J Adv Educ Philos
ISSN 2523-2665 (Print) | ISSN 2523-2223 (Online)
Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Journal homepage: https://saudijournals.com
Review Article
Towards the Complete Man: Consciousness, Psyche, Mind, Memory,
Soul, and Spirit
Juan Sebastián Gómez-Jeria1, 2*
1Faculty of Sciences, University of Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago 7800003, Chile
2Glowing Neurons Group, CP 8270745, Santiago, Chile
DOI: 10.36348/jaep.2023.v07i09.005 | Received: 12.08.2023 | Accepted: 18.09.2023 | Published: 21.09.2023
*Corresponding author: Juan Sebastián Gómez-Jeria
Faculty of Sciences, University of Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago 7800003, Chile
Abstract
I present a general and personal view of the various aspects in which Man is and should be studied. The main problem
lies in the lack of a fully accepted definitions of consciousness and ‘normal’ state of consciousness. The concepts of
personality and consciousness are discussed. The most important issues in the study of consciousness are highlighted.
The concepts of the field of consciousness and bandwidth are presented and discussed in relation with memory recovery
and the processing capacity of the brain. The similarities and differences of consciousness, mind, and psyche are listed.
The mind-brain problem is presented, and the many possible relationships are defined and commented. We highlighted
some new topics such as the need and importance of being able to access all stored memories to become a more
‘complete’ Homo sapiens. Some possible non-physical components are briefly mentioned.
Keywords: Consciousness, psyche, mind, memory, soul, spirit, mind-brain problem, hallucinogens, Nietzsche.
Copyright © 2023 The Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (CC BY-NC 4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original
author and source are credited.
INTRODUCTION
Friedrich Nietzsche wrote this in relation to
consciousness. 'It is essential not to be mistaken about
the role of 'consciousness': what has developed it is our
relationship with the 'outside world'. On the contrary,
direction, that is, vigilance and foresight in regard to
the overall play of bodily functions, does not reach our
consciousness; nor does spiritual storage reach us: it is
not permissible to doubt that there is a higher instance
for this: a kind of steering committee where the
different main appetites assert their voice and their
power. ‘Pleasure’ and ‘displeasure’ are signs from this
sphere: . . . and also the act of the will. Ideas alike. In
summa: what becomes conscious is under causal
conditions that escape us completely, the succession
of thoughts, feelings, ideas in consciousness expresses
nothing about this succession being causal: but things
are apparently like this, to the maximum degree. On
this appearance we have based all our representation of
spirit, reason, logic, etc. (all this does not exist: they
are synthesises and fictitious units)... And these we have
projected again into things, behind things!
Consciousness itself is usually taken as a global
sensorium and supreme instance: however, it is but a
means for communicability: it has developed in the
dealing, and in relation to the interests of the deal...
understood here this ‘treatment’ with the inclusion of
both the influences of the external world and the
necessary reactions on our part to them; as well as our
influences on the outside. Conscience is not
management, but an organ of direction.' (Nietzsche,
2008).
The ‘mind’ is a field that has, beyond what is
currently known, immense new regions to discover.
And what would be the approach that should be used to
be able to advance in this field?
Of course it should be the scientific method
(Armstrong, Green, & Mahoney, 2022; MacRitchie,
2022), without tricks or lies (J.-S. Gómez-Jeria, 2023b;
J. S. Gómez-Jeria, 2023) And who exactly are the
subjects that will be studied? The various types of
Homo sapiens (see below), for which one should
proceed as follows: 'we must begin with ourselves as
we are (J.-S. Gómez-Jeria, 2023a) without worrying
about what kind of 'being' this is, we begin with the
human being, not with reason, not with the rational
soul, not with a higher being called spirit, but also not
only with nature, with the mere living being, but with
the real human being as we know him from our
Juan Sebastián Gómez-Jeria, J Adv Educ Philos, Sep, 2023; 7(9): 351-371
© 2023 | Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 352
experience' (Di Vincenzo & Manzi, 2023; Kozowyk,
2023; Kumar & Campbell, 2023; Meneganzin &
Bernardi, 2023; Pomeroy, 2023; Reilly, Tjahjadi,
Miller, Akey, & Tucci, 2022; Sansalone et al., 2023;
Sevim-Erol et al., 2023; Skov et al., 2022). This
restriction leaves us, for the moment, in the situation of
'discovering islands' of knowledge without yet knowing
how to connect them all. It is somewhat similar to the
case of archaeology: we have for example the
wonderful necklace found in Ba'ja (Jordan, 7,4006,800
BCE) (Alarashi et al., 2023) at the site of Göbekli Tepe
(Turkey, 9,500 BCE) (Dietrich, Heun, Notroff,
Schmidt, & Zarnkow, 2012; Dietrich, Köksal-Schmidt,
Kürkçüoğlu, Notroff, & Schmidt, 2012; Peters &
Schmidt, 2004) the pyramids of Egypt (Brichieri-
Colombi, 2020; Fahmy, Molina-Piernas, Domínguez-
Bella, Martínez-López, & Helmi, 2022; Minin, Minin,
& Yue, 2020; Sharafeldin et al., 2019) and many other
archaeological sites dated to those same periods. But
what we don't have yet is the 'history', the 'thread' that
connects them all.
It is also necessary to mention that the strict
application of the scientific method leaves out some
philosophical and religious considerations (Cooper,
1985; Dewey, 1936; Feyerabend, 1977; Hattaway,
1978) that may involve entities with other ontological
statuses and/or belonging to other different domains of
existence. This non-belonging to the domain of
applicability of the scientific method makes it
impossible to use it to decide on some of the
possibilities mentioned below. It is reasonable to
suggest using the scientific method in order to get a full
knowledge of the structure and functioning of the
central nervous system. This knowledge can in no way
serve to intrude in areas where this method cannot give
scientifically founded opinions. On the other hand, the
other various forms of knowledge that deal with non-
physical aspects cannot issue judgments that go against
what has been scientifically proven to be true.
Here we present a general and personal view
of the various ways in which Man is studied. We
highlighted some new topics such as the need and
importance of being able to access all stored memories.
I. Personality.
Let's start with a brief explanation about the
possible stages in personality development from
childhood to adulthood (Apter, 2018; Lamb, 1978;
Larsen & Buss, 2008; Mangan, 1982; McAdams,
Shiner, & Tackett, 2019; Specht, 2017; Tetzchner,
2023). According to several psychological and
developmental theories, personality formation begins
from early childhood, shaped by genetic factors and
initial interactions with parents. Then, as the child
grows, relationships with peers, siblings, schooling
come into play. The sense of personal identity and self-
concept is developed. In adolescence, factors such as
pubertal changes, progressive separation from parents,
exploration of individuality and sexuality, peer group,
contribute to consolidate important personality traits.
Upon reaching adulthood, work experiences, couple
bonds, parental role if given, determine the evolution of
the personality already formed but still malleable. Life
crises, losses, stressful events continue to shape the
personality in middle age and old age, as well as the
way to cope with physical deterioration and the
proximity of death.
Personality does not seem to reside in a single
neural substrate, but is based on the complex interaction
between various brain structures and systems (Canli,
2006; Mangan, 1982). The prefrontal cortex, crucial for
executive functions, is linked to traits of responsibility
and meticulousness. Neurotransmitter systems such as
serotonin and dopamine are associated with personality
dimensions such as emotional stability and novelty-
seeking. The hippocampus and amygdala, related to
memory and emotion, are relevant to consolidate the
sense of identity. The frontal and temporal lobes
mediate social and communicative skills. The
connections between the 'social brain' and the limbic
system underpin empathy and extraversion. Widely
distributed neural networks underlie distinct cognitive
styles. Oscillatory patterns in various frequency bands
distinguish varied temperaments. In summary, the
evidence suggests that personality emerges from the
dynamic integration between various neural systems
and networks and does not appear to be located in a
singular, isolated substrate. The tragic massive use of
lobotomy indicates this (remember the cases in which it
was used to 'manipulate' aspects of personality, such as
learning difficulties or problems controlling aggression,
modifying several other personality traits in the process
(Johnson, 2014; Kragh, 2021; Raz, 2013). So
personality involves individual traits that influence
behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. It includes aspects
such as extroversion, kindness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability. Personality varies greatly from
individual to individual.
Let us begin by saying that the concepts of
'personality' and 'consciousness' are not equivalent or
absolutely identical according to the usual usage and
definitions in psychology and neuroscience. Let's say
for the moment that, in general, consciousness refers to
subjective experience, the ability to have inner
perceptions, thoughts, and sensations. It is the degree of
alertness and sense of existence. Consciousness is a
general and shared phenomenon among human beings.
The absence of absolute clarity about what personality
is and what consciousness is (having at least one
definition of both that is accepted by the entire
scientific world) gives rise to several positions on what
the relationship between them would be.
So, one may have different levels of
consciousness, but the same underlying personality
(example: an individual with a very calm and
Juan Sebastián Gómez-Jeria, J Adv Educ Philos, Sep, 2023; 7(9): 351-371
© 2023 | Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 353
inexpressive temperament may, due to the use of certain
drugs, experience altered states of consciousness where
he hallucinates and loss of sense of reality. However,
his essential personality is not affected). And people
with different personalities have a similar degree of
consciousness (example: two twin brothers raised in the
same environment can develop very different
personalities, one extroverted and the other introverted.
However, both share the same level of awareness and
lucidity about reality).
And what could be the possible relationships between
the two concepts?
1. Some regard consciousness as a component or
faculty of the mind, but independent of
personality. Personality is built on the basis of
a previous subjective consciousness or
experience.
2. Another view posits that certain personality
traits, such as the level of introspection,
influence the development of individual
consciousness. Therefore, personality partially
shapes consciousness.
3. Some theorists argue that consciousness is
integral to personality, and the two concepts
cannot be completely separated. Individual
subjectivity emerges from the unique
personality.
4. There are also those who propose that
consciousness is an epiphenomenon or by-
product of the brain dynamics that give rise to
personality. It is not a constituent part but a
side effect.
5. From a neuroscientific perspective,
consciousness and personality involve
overlapping but also distinct neural networks,
indicating some degree of dissociation.
It is very likely that there is interdependence
between the neural processes that give rise to
consciousness and personality, with a certain reciprocal
influence, but also retaining some differentiated aspects.
On the question of whether personality is
reflected or manifested in consciousness, there are
several positions.
1. Some psychological currents hold that
important aspects of personality operate in the
unconscious and therefore are not fully
reflected in consciousness.
2. Other perspectives argue that personality is
composed precisely of conscious thought
patterns, emotion, and behavior, so it would be
reflected in conscious experience.
3. Certain humanist and existential currents
propose that consciousness is the main way in
which the unique personality of each
individual is expressed and experienced.
4. From neuroscience, it is proposed that many of
the neural processes that make up the
personality happen at a non-conscious level, so
it would not fully manifest in consciousness.
5. Some authors propose middle points, where
core traits are consciously experienced, but
there are other aspects of personality that
operate non-consciously and implicitly.
II. Some current problems in the study of
consciousness.
These are just some of the most important issues facing
the study of consciousness.
1. Understand why and how brain processes give
rise to subjective experience on the assumption
that this actually happens. Although we can
understand how the brain processes
information and controls behavior, the
relationship between neural processes and
consciousness remains a mystery.
2. Consciousness implies a subjective quality of
experience, such as the color red or sweet
taste. Explaining how and why brain states
give rise to these subjective experiences is
challenging, assuming that this is actually the
case. In other words, how does the sense of 'I'
and the qualitative experience of
consciousness arise from physical brain
processes? This is the 'difficult' problem of
consciousness.
3. Consciousness involves not only qualitative
experience, but also the specific content of
what we perceive and think. How is this
content generated and represented in the brain?
How does it relate to the underlying mental
processes on the assumption that this is
actually the case?
4. Conscious experience appears to be a unified
experience, although the brain is composed of
many different parts and processes. How do all
these parts and processes integrate to generate
a unified experience of consciousness in the
event that this is actually the case?
5. Consciousness is related to the ability to make
decisions and exercise free will. However,
there is debate as to whether free will is
compatible with a scientific understanding of
the mind and brain (Libet, 2004; Libet,
Sinnott-Armstrong, & Nadel, 2011;
Sutherland, Freeman, & Libet, 2004). To what
extent are our conscious actions really free and
responsible? So far, the existence or not of free
will is the subject of discussion. Free will may
not be an illusion but a priceless human
attribute, which can be cultivated and whose
development makes our lives more meaningful
and purposeful. But it can also be an
evolutionary illusion generated by our
language to protect the species(s) from many
acts that could be consummated using the
absence of free will as an excuse.
Juan Sebastián Gómez-Jeria, J Adv Educ Philos, Sep, 2023; 7(9): 351-371
© 2023 | Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 354
6. Consciousness raises fundamental questions
about its relationship to the brain. How do
conscious mental processes relate to brain
processes? Are they independent or are they
two aspects of the same reality? From this
comes a long list of possibilities that
correspond to all possible combinations of
mind and brain (see below). As there is not
yet enough data to decide which is the true
one, thousands, thousands and thousands of
trees have died to make the paper on which
these 'speculations' have been printed.
7. Consciousness involves not only the
experience of external objects and events, but
also the experience of oneself. Understanding
how self-awareness develops and is
maintained is another major challenge.
8. Consciousness is a subjective and private
experience, which hinders, but does not
preclude, its objective scientific study. How
can we reliably measure and quantify
consciousness? How can we make sure our
measurements are accurate and valid?
9. Consciousness in infants and animals: Do they
have any level of consciousness? How to
determine it experimentally? It is difficult to
evaluate it without language.
10. Evolutionary origins: Why and how did
consciousness evolve? Does it have any
function or is it a by-product? For example,
human consciousness probably developed
gradually over hundreds of thousands of years
of evolution. There was no 'miracle moment'.
Compared to other extinct hominin species
such as Neanderthals, modern humans
developed larger frontal lobes associated with
executive functions and self-awareness. This is
unclear because modern humans who arrived
in Eurasia only show new cultural products
after having interbred with Neanderthals
and/or Denisovans. The emergence of complex
articulated language may have played an
important role. It allowed self-reflection,
symbolic thinking, and the communication of
internal states (the simplest or most primitive).
The evolution of autobiographical memory and
imagination increased the capacity of
projection of the self in time. Some propose
that modern consciousness emerged 50-100
thousand years ago during the 'great cultural
explosion' when art, ritual burials and other
symbols of abstraction appear (this only
happens 'massively' after the Homo sapiens-
Neanderthal-Denisovan-others miscegenation)
(Gómez-Jeria, 2017a, 2017b, 2018). The
growth of complex social groups may also
have played a role by requiring greater
awareness of relationships and interactions
between individuals.
Let's say in passing that what we inherit from
Neanderthals is very important. Here are some brief
examples of genes inherited from them and their
possible functions. BNC2 gene seems to be involved in
skin pigmentation. Introgression of the Neanderthal
variant is associated with lighter skin in non-African
populations. Gene TLR6-TLR1-TLR10: related to the
immune response to bacteria and fungi. It was able to
confer survival advantages. OAS1 gene encodes an
antiviral protein that responds to viral infections. It was
also able to provide greater resistance. MC1R gene:
associated with reddish hair color and sensitive to UV
radiation. Adaptation to northern environments. FOXP2
gene: involved in speech and language development. It
is not known whether it conferred any effect in this
regard. AIM2 gene recognizes DNA viruses and
initiates immune response. It generates a stronger
immunity. EPAS1 gene regulates the response to low
oxygenation environments such as at high altitudes. It
allowed survival in the mountains (as in Tibet, for
example).
III. The concepts of the field of consciousness and
bandwidth.
If we poetically call consciousness 'the theatre
of our life' or if we use Gurwitsch's more technical term
'field of consciousness' there is another very important
problem that is known but apparently not yet well
formulated because we lack a lot of information. This is
the relationship between my field of consciousness and
what appears to be an enormous domain ('world')
existing 'within' me, but beyond my reach, and in which
many things occur about which we know little or
nothing. We can imagine the field of consciousness as
the surface of a sea beneath which exists a huge and
very deep ocean. To present an example: at the very
'bottom' of that ocean are those genes that force us to
reproduce and for which we obtain the tremendous
experience of orgasm as an 'evolutionary prize' (that we
have been able to separate these two processes is
interesting). The bad thing about that, and that any adult
can calculate, is the enormous amount of time we spend
on that activity, consciously and unconsciously (and
without free will, although we do not realize it).
Another 'sector' of the ocean is what I call the 'garbage
can' partially discovered and described by Freud.
In this field of study there are questions to be
answered such as: what is the process or what are the
processes by which some phrases suddenly emerge in
my field of consciousness, especially when the subject
to which they refer was not the subject of my attention?
What exactly happens when I am sleeping with dream
activity and in the field of my 'asleep' consciousness
appear various images, sounds, sensations, and
emotions, etc.? Why those and not others? It seems that
it will be easier and faster to fully know the oceans that
exist on Earth than the one I mention here. In any case,
and assuming that we do not become extinct, sooner or
later we will and finally that region of knowledge will
Juan Sebastián Gómez-Jeria, J Adv Educ Philos, Sep, 2023; 7(9): 351-371
© 2023 | Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 355
be free of charlatans, tarot readers, astrologers,
exorcists, and all kinds of feathered people who live at
the expense of others.
The expression 'field of consciousness' was
developed by Gurwitsch (Gurwitsch, 1957, 1964;
Gurwitsch & Zaner, 2010). He proposed that
consciousness has a field structure, similar to an
electromagnetic field, encompassing both the perceived
object and the subject's own perceptual activity. The
field of consciousness is a dynamic whole where each
part is related and determined by the other parts within
the perceived field. He distinguished between the
'theme' or main focus of attention, and the 'margin' or
less conscious perceptual background. Both form an
interdependent unit. The field of consciousness has a
'horizon' that delimits the boundary between what
belongs to the perceptual field and what is left out at
any given moment. Within the field there are
'microsystems' of meaningful interactions between parts
of the whole, which can attract attention and become
new themes or focuses. The field is not fixed, but
constantly changing as new topics, interactions, and
boundaries emerge. It is a self-regulating system in
continuous movement. So, consciousness arises from
the dynamic relationships between the parts within the
field and cannot be reduced to isolated processes. It is a
holistic phenomenon. Without beginning to consider the
field of consciousness as an existing entelechy per se,
we can observe that what 'appears' in it are what appear
to be external contributions to our body (which
'penetrate' it through the senses) and others that have an
indeterminate origin, but which is 'internal': images,
sounds, memories, words of the internal language,
smells, etc.
Regarding the material that appears in the field
of consciousness, for this to happen several neural
processes must be activated. First, sensory information
captured by the sense organs is processed and analyzed
in specific brain areas. For example, the visual cortex
processes visual stimuli and the auditory cortex
processes sounds. Then, that information is transmitted
to associative areas where it is given meaning. There
internal representations are activated, that is, the
concepts, words, images, or memories that we have
stored in neural networks. Subsequently, significant
representations are temporarily maintained in working
memory, allowing us to be aware of them. Working
memory involves a distributed network of prefrontal
and parietal areas. What we do not yet know are the
reasons why that internal process begins that finally
crystallizes in the material that appears in the field of
consciousness. As for the purely 'internal' source
material, this seems to be constituted by memories
(memories in the form of images, sequence of images,
vivid memories of smells, tastes, etc.) and 'internal
language'.
Some curious person might pose this question:
And why do only what emerges emerge and no other
material emerge? To this we can answer that this is a
poorly formulated question. Indeed, it is impossible to
know whether or not there were some that did not
emerge, because they did not emerge! We don't even
know if they existed. This field needs a lot more
research.
It is possible to associate the concept of
'bandwidth' with the field of consciousness. It is also
possible to associate another concept such as
'processing speed'. Some examples are the following
ones. A study by Marti et al. provides neural evidence
of a shared mechanism of restriction in the conscious
processing of temporally contiguous visual information
(Marti, Sigman, & Dehaene, 2012). There is a common
cortical 'bottleneck' that limits conscious processing
when information arrives very quickly in sequence. The
authors propose that this temporal limitation originates
because the prefrontral cortex is key to integrating and
consolidating perceived conscious representations.
Luck and Vogel's review article discusses research on
visual working memory capacity (Luck & Vogel,
2013). These aspects can be highlighted. Visual
working memory has a capacity limit of 3-4 simple
objects. This limit is remarkably consistent between
individuals. This ability is associated with the activity
of neurons in the prefrontal and parietal cortex during
the maintenance of visual information. Factors such as
cognitive load, complexity of stimuli and training can
slightly improve visual memory capacity. There are
some individual variations measured that correlate with
differences in the functioning of frontoparietal
networks. Models are proposed on how gamma
oscillations and coupling between neuronal groups
might underlie active storage in working memory.
Huang and Pashler present a computational model of
how selective visual attention works (Huang & Pashler,
2007). The authors propose that attentional selection
operates through a Boolean map that filters visual
information according to cognitive demands. The model
assumes that visual objects compete globally for
representation within a spatial map of salience. Only
objects that satisfy the selection Boolean filter gain
access to additional cognitive processes. This Boolean
map theory reproduces several known empirical effects
on visual attention, such as the search set effect. The
model also generates novel predictions that are
experimentally confirmed in visual search tasks. Cowan
presents a critical analysis of the evidence for the
capacity limit of short-term memory (Cowan, 2001). It
summarizes several studies that find that working
memory for unrelated material (such as random words
or letters) has a maximum of about 4 items or 'chunks'
(coherent cognitive unit of information). Cowan
discusses theories as to why this 4-element boundary
emerges. This would be related to patterns of brain
activation. It also analyzes how the grouping in chunks
and the type of essay (verbal, visual, etc.) influence that
Juan Sebastián Gómez-Jeria, J Adv Educ Philos, Sep, 2023; 7(9): 351-371
© 2023 | Published by Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 356
limiting capacity. It also addresses individual variations
in the magic number of items remembered and
associated cognitive factors.
The explanation for these facts is that they are
evolutionary products that allowed us to be where we
are today. When our ancestors were prey, they needed a
high and fast capacity for selective detection of possible
predators, as well as a good capacity to process
alternatives for immediate responses to these threats.
These processing limits are important when
dealing with topics such as retrieving memories (see
below).
IV. Towards a definition of 'consciousness'
I think that the readers who have read about
the subject will have noticed that, in many texts,
articles, Web pages and the like, the most important
thing is missing: the definition of consciousness. Once
we have a scientific definition acceptable to all or
almost all we will be able to deal not only with the
problems mentioned above, but to examine what have
been presented as being various 'aspects of
consciousness'. A short list of what some mean by
conscience is this.
We understand that consciousness, broadly
speaking, is the state of mind in which a person is aware
of their own sensations, thoughts, emotions, and the
environment around them. Consciousness involves
being awake and alert and having a subjective
experience of the world. Consciousness is a subjective
and highly individual experience and can vary
significantly between people due to factors such as
culture, education, beliefs, genetics, mental health, and
other personal aspects. So, this author, the reader
reading this, a serial killer, a CIA agent who murders
civilians with drones, an individual who practices
domestic violence and a pedophile priest have
consciousness as just defined. This is very important. It
is possible to make some subdivisions for a better
analysis, such as those that follow, and that do not
change for the moment anything of what has just been
affirmed.
1. By phenomenal consciousness: We will
understand the subjective experience of having
sensations and mental states. It is the
subjective quality of consciousness, such as
the perception of colors, sounds, tastes, smells,
and emotions. This phenomenal experience is
unique to each individual and cannot be
directly shared or experienced by others. For
example, if we gather 100 people and show
them a huge flag that for us is red, surely they
all say it is red, even if there is a colorblind in
the group. And if we separate them and show
them an atlas of colors with many shades of
'red' and ask them to indicate 'the red they saw'
it is certain that there will be no unanimity
about it.
2. By self-awareness: We understand the ability
of an individual to be aware and to have
knowledge of himself as a being separate from
others. This involves an understanding of one's
identity, personal characteristics, history,
emotions, and thoughts. Self-awareness allows
a person to have a reflective perspective on
their own existence.
3. By object consciousness: We mean the ability
of an individual to be aware of objects and
events in the external world, as well as
perceptions and experiences related to them. It
includes the ability to perceive the
environment, recognize and understand
objects, and respond to external stimuli.
4. By altered consciousness: We mean a state of
consciousness that differs from normal
consciousness. It can be caused by different
factors, such as the use of psychoactive
substances, neurological disorders, spiritual
practices, or abnormal mental states.
Alterations in consciousness may involve
changes in perception, cognition, emotions, or
sense of identity. This should be the first point
to analyze because the term 'consciousness'
suffers from a vagueness of definition
(intensional vagueness).
For example, points 1-3 just mentioned may be
common to all human primates. If we do a test with
YES or NO as the only possible answers to detect the
existence or absence of the types of consciousness
mentioned in points 1-3, this author, the reader, a serial
killer, a CIA agent who murders civilians with drones,
an individual who practices domestic violence and a
pedophile priest would give the same answers. A finer
test to identify content related to points 1-3 would be
answered with lies by a serial killer, a CIA agent who
murders civilians with drones, an individual who
practices domestic violence and a pedophile priest (and
the reader if he belongs to any of these groups).
Point 4, referring to what is called 'altered
consciousness' is the one that leads to problems.
Technically, the term 'altered consciousness' refers to a
state of consciousness that differs from normal or
everyday consciousness.
Let's look at the matter of so-called 'altered
consciousness'. It is defined in terms of a certain
'normal consciousness'. Therefore, it is reasonable to
start with some definition or characteristics of what is
called 'normal consciousness'. Here is another
definition.
'Normal consciousness' is a state of alertness
and mental clarity in which a healthy adult person is
awake, aware of their surroundings and able to interact
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with it in a coherent and adaptive way. In this state, a
person has a continuous and fluid experience of his
subjective and objective reality. The requirement of
'healthy' implies that we are referring to people within
neurological and medical parameters considered
normal, in which a habitual state of intact
consciousness is presumed. The presumption of a
shared 'normal consciousness' is based more on
theoretical and correlational extrapolation, not on
direct, verifiable observation. More research is
required to confirm whether subjective consciousness is
truly the same in all individuals.
The truth is that we have no direct way of
knowing whether the subjective experience of 'normal
consciousness' is exactly the same in all healthy adults.
There are several points to consider. Consciousness is
inherently subjective and qualitative, it cannot be
measured or compared directly from person to person.
We depend on verbal reports. There are individual
variations in personality traits, temperament, cognitive
styles, etc. that could subtly affect the phenomenology
of consciousness. We cannot rule out neuroanatomical
differences or brain activity between individuals that
give rise to nuances in consciousness. Verbal reports on
conscious experience are limited by language and may
not capture the deeper aspects. The comparisons assume
that, under similar external conditions, healthy humans
have a common brain structure that gives rise to
consciousness in an equivalent way. But it can certainly
be the case that what is usually considered 'normal
consciousness' in one individual is actually an altered
state of consciousness in another (according to the
definitions of 'normal' and 'altered').
That is, it is not enough to cross paths with
some Homo sapiens on the street who seem to have a
'normal' external behavior to deduce that their normal
state of consciousness is the same as ours or that of the
majority. In theory it is relatively easy to detect some
adults when they are not in their state of 'normal
consciousness'. For example, with neurological or
psychiatric conditions that affect consciousness such as
brain injuries, epilepsy, schizophrenia, mood disorders,
dementias, etc., with effects of drugs, medications or
toxics that alter the normal state of consciousness, with
infectious diseases or inflammatory processes that
compromise the central nervous system, with head
trauma, strokes or other conditions that damage brain
areas related to consciousness, with extreme sleep
deprivation or other environmental factors that cause
transient alteration of consciousness, etc. In other cases,
such as a serial killer, a CIA agent who kills civilians
with drones, an individual who practices domestic
violence and a pedophile priest we are condemned, for
the moment, to not be able to detect them in time.
And, to make matters worse, here is a short list
of 'altered' states of consciousness. It is not known if
some names refer to the same phenomenon and there is
no clear definition of many of them (Gómez-Jeria &
Madrid-Aliste, 1996) alcohol intoxication, opiate
intoxication, psychosis, delirium, dementia, sleep (sleep
alternates between REM stages, with intense brain
activity, and non-REM of less activity but physically
important, throughout cycles during the night), coma,
vegetative state, state of minimal consciousness,
epilepsy, epileptic absences, epileptic seizures,
migraines with aura, hypnosis, trance, meditation,
religious ecstasy, sensory deprivation, hallucinations,
mystical enlightenment, nirvana, Samadhi, outburst,
drunkenness, sleepwalking, narcolepsy, cataplexy, sleep
paralysis, lucid dreaming, 'out-of-body' experiences,
'near-death' (Gómez-Jeria & Saavedra-Aguilar, 1994;
Saavedra-Aguilar & Gómez-Jeria, 1989) psychedelic
drug-induced states, depersonalization, derealization,
dissociative identity disorder, dissociative disorders,
conversion disorders, peak experiences, restricted states
of consciousness, morning hypnagogia, daydreaming,
dreaming, stupor, creative, hyperalert, lethargic,
hysterical, fragmented, regressive, expanded, liberated
and perhaps many more.
Wakefulness and alertness: In normal
consciousness, a person is awake and conscious,
not under the influence of drugs or disorders that
alter their waking state. It is fully attentive to its
environment and able to respond to external stimuli
appropriately. This author, the reader, a serial
killer, a CIA agent who kills civilians with drones,
an individual who practices domestic violence, and
a pedophile priest all seem to meet this criterion.
Continuous subjective experience: In this state,
the person has a continuous and uninterrupted
subjective experience. You are aware of your
thoughts, emotions, bodily sensations, and sensory
perceptions, and can follow the flow of your inner
experience consistently. This author, the reader, a
serial killer, a CIA agent who kills civilians with
drones, an individual who practices domestic
violence, and a pedophile priest all seem to meet
this criterion.
Temporal and spatial orientation: Normal
consciousness includes adequate temporal
orientation (awareness of the present, past, and
future) and spatial orientation (awareness of the
physical environment and one's own body's
location in space). This author, the reader, a serial
killer, a CIA agent who kills civilians with drones,
an individual who practices domestic violence, and
a pedophile priest all seem to meet this criterion.
Self-awareness: An important feature of normal
consciousness is the ability to have awareness of
oneself as an individual separate from others. The
person has knowledge of his identity, personal
characteristics, history, social roles and can reflect
on his own existence. This author, the reader, a
serial killer, a CIA agent who kills civilians with
drones, an individual who practices domestic
violence, and a pedophile priest all seem to meet
this criterion.
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Coherence and continuity of thought: In normal
consciousness, thoughts and mental processes are
organized and connected in logical and coherent
ways. The person can follow a line of thought,
maintain attention, and change focus in a voluntary,
controlled manner. This author, the reader, a serial
killer, a CIA agent who kills civilians with drones,
an individual who practices domestic violence, and
a pedophile priest all seem to meet this criterion.
Autonomy and free will: Normal consciousness
involves the ability to make decisions and exercise
free will consciously. The person has a sense of
agency and responsibility for their actions, based
on their ability to reason and act in accordance with
their own intentions and values. This author, the
reader, a serial killer, a CIA agent who kills
civilians with drones, an individual who practices
domestic violence, and a pedophile priest all seem
to meet this criterion.
In the 1980s, Benjamin Libet conducted a
series of experiments in which he analyzed the brain
activity and subjective perception of subjects as they
performed voluntary movements (Libet, 2004; Libet et
al., 2011; Sutherland et al., 2004). One of his most
famous experiments involved asking participants to
move their hand whenever they wanted, while recording
brain electrical activity. Libet found that there was a
brain action potential that preceded the subject's
awareness of wanting to perform the movement. In
other words, movement-associated brain activity was
initiated before participants were aware that they had
made the decision to move their hand. This led Libet to
raise the idea that conscious decision-making could be
influenced by unconscious brain processes that occur
before we are aware of our choices. These findings
generated debates and reflections in the scientific and
philosophical community about the nature of free will.
Some argue that, if unconscious brain processes precede
our conscious decisions, then free will as traditionally
understood might be limited or questioned. Others
argue that the relationship between brain activity and
consciousness is not yet fully understood, and that free
will is not necessarily in conflict with the results of
Libet's experiments.
Social connection: Normal consciousness also
involves the ability to relate to others empathically
and consciously (Pina & Gontier, 2014). The
person can understand and respond to the emotions
and mental states of others and engage in social
interactions adaptively. This author, the reader, a
serial killer, a CIA agent who kills civilians with
drones, an individual who practices domestic
violence, and a pedophile priest all seem to meet
this criterion.
There are other aspects designated as
'conscience', such as the so-called 'moral conscience'
(an individual's ability to discern between what is
ethically right and wrong and act accordingly. It
involves an awareness of values, ethical principles and
social norms, and the ability to make informed ethical
decisions) and so-called 'ethical awareness' (awareness
of our actions and their impact on others, guided by
moral principles and values. It involves a reflection on
the moral implications of our decisions and behaviors,
and consideration of the rights and well-being of
others.) These two definitions are highly subjective
since the so-called values, ethical principles, social
norms, rights, and duties of life in groups are very
variable and depend on the historical moment and
geographical place. The latter is true, but if we consider
the same geographical place and the same historical
moment (today's West), this writer, a serial killer, a CIA
agent who kills civilians with drones, an individual who
practices domestic violence and a pedophile priest do
not have the same moral conscience, nor the same
ethical conscience. Unfortunately, there are still no
reliable tools that allow us to know them in each case.
Before closing this section, let's mention that
there are some animals that could have states of
consciousness (mentions of dream states were
removed). Dolphins (appear to have personal identity,
self-awareness), elephants (mourning for their dead,
possible self-recognition), non-human primates (limited
self-awareness, intentional behaviors), birds (dance
synchronization in flocks, ritual courtship), octopuses
(use of tools, problem solving), dogs (emotional
expressions, recognition of individuals), rodents (cyclic
states of brain activity and inactivity), reptiles (states of
stillness with reduced metabolism) and fish
(coordinated flight reactions in schools) (Dawkins,
1998; Pea-Guzmn, 2022; Veit, 2023). Some of them
are debatable.
V. Consciousness, mind, psyche.
For completeness of this text it is necessary to
present some similarities and differences between the
concepts of consciousness, mind, and psyche.
Consciousness: Consciousness refers to the state of
mind in which we are aware of our own sensations,
thoughts, emotions, and the environment around us.
It is the subjective and phenomenal experience of
reality. Awareness involves being awake, alert, and
having an ongoing conscious experience. It is a
state in which we can have knowledge of ourselves
and the world.
Mind: Mind is a broader term that includes not
only consciousness, but also cognitive, emotional,
and mental processes in general. The mind
encompasses the set of mental activities that occur
in the brain, such as thinking, perception, memory,
imagination, and reasoning. It is the seat of
conscious and unconscious psychic processes. The
mind is responsible for processing information,
generating ideas and mental representations, and
guiding behavior.
Psyche: The concept of psyche is most associated
with psychology and philosophy. It refers to the
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deepest and most complete aspect of the mind,
which includes not only consciousness and mental
processes, but also unconscious and subconscious
aspects. The psyche relates to the totality of a
person's mental and emotional life, including both
conscious and unconscious aspects. Some argue
that it is the immaterial and spiritual component of
the human being.
Similarities: All concepts (consciousness, mind,
and psyche) refer to the realm of an individual's
mental experience and activity. All three concepts
are related to subjectivity, that is, the unique
experience and perspective of each person. All of
them involve cognitive, emotional, and mental
processes. In short, all three involve cognitive
processes, perception, subjective experience,
thought, emotions, senses, higher intellectual
functions, connection between physical and mental
states, internal representations of reality.
Differences:
Differences between consciousness and psyche:
Consciousness involves present subjective
experience, psyche deep internal processes,
consciousness is the state of immediate alertness,
psyche the complex unconscious structure of the
mind, consciousness focuses on perceptions of the
moment, psyche on ingrained internal motivations,
consciousness implies a first-person perspective.
The psyche has non-conscious components,
consciousness is responsive to the environment, the
psyche determines internal drives, consciousness
integrates information from the here and now, the
psyche includes the personal history of the
individual, consciousness is a neural correlate, the
psyche has a spiritual component.
Differences between consciousness and mind:
Consciousness focuses on present subjective
experience, mind on broad cognitive processes,
consciousness involves immediate feelings, mind
capabilities such as thinking and reasoning,
consciousness is responsive to the present moment,
mind includes abstract representations,
consciousness is a state of alertness, mind a system
of cognitive functions. Consciousness implies a
first-person perspective, the mind can operate with
objective logic, consciousness integrates
perceptions of the now, the mind involves
imagination and prospection as well, consciousness
is a dynamic flux, the mind manipulates stable
representations, consciousness is a central
phenomenon for identity, the mind does not
necessarily define the self.
Differences between psyche and mind: The
psyche involves unconscious processes, the mind
includes conscious operations, the psyche
determines internal drives, the mind allows rational
thought, the psyche is linked to the spiritual, the
mind to the cognitive, the psyche houses repressed
contents, the mind manipulates manifest ideas, the
psyche forms the deep structure of the personality.
The mind the objective intellectual functions, the
psyche is the product of biographical development,
the mind performs definite tasks, the psyche is the
source of irrational emotions, the mind generates
logical thought, the psyche is responsible for
dreams, the mind controls wakefulness, the psyche
is the core of the individual, the mind a set of
capacities.
VI. The mind-brain problem
It is usual to divide philosophical positions on
the subject of the mind-body (or mind-brain)
relationship into monistic and dualistic. This is the
standard distinction in philosophy of mind. Below are
some propositions in this regard (Churchland, 1986,
2002; Dardis, 2008; Demarin, 2020; Fei, 2023; Gordon,
2022; Grossberg, 2021; Klinge, 2020; Morris, 2019;
Schnider, 2008; Tomasi, 2020; Westphal, 2016).
Dualistic: The mind and brain are two distinct and
separate entities. It can be subdivided into:
1. Ontological dualism (or Cartesian dualism):
Formulated by René Descartes in the
seventeenth century, it is the traditional form
of dualism. He holds that the mind (res
cogitans) and the body (res extensa) are
separate and fundamentally distinct
substances. The mind is immaterial, without
spatial extension, while the body is material
and occupies space. The mind is indivisible, it
does not follow physical laws, the body does.
This radical distinction marked modern
Western philosophy.
2. Property dualism: The mind and brain have
radically different properties. The mind
possesses properties such as qualitative
subjectivity, intentionality, unity of
consciousness, while the brain has physical
properties such as mass, spatial extent,
location, material texture. Mental properties
are not reducible to physical properties, they
have a completely different nature. A thought
is not the same as a neural discharge. This
irreducible difference between mental and
cerebral properties indicates that they belong
to distinct ontological domains. Thus, from the
dualism of properties, the mind and brain are
two different linked entities, as they present
two sets of divergent properties that do not
overlap. Although they interact, they retain
their own radically different spheres. It is not a
distinction of appearance, but ontological at
the level of defining characteristics. The
properties of each reveal its independent
nature.
3. Category dualism: The mind and brain belong
to two completely different ontological
categories. The mind corresponds to the
category of the mental, the experiential, the
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immaterial. The brain belongs to the category
of the physical, the material, the extensive.
These are two mutually exclusive categories.
The mental and the physical form radically
different domains, with properties and laws of
their own. The same entity cannot
simultaneously have both physical and mental
properties, these belong to separate categorical
spheres. Therefore, since the mind possesses
mental properties and the brain physical
properties, they must be two types of entities
belonging to distinct ontological categories.
They cannot be reduced to each other because
they are conceptually divergent categories. The
relationship between mind and brain is
therefore between members of distinctive
categories, not within the same category.
4. Epistemological dualism: There are two
radically different ways or methods to know
the mind and the brain. To study brain
processes we use the objective scientific
method, such as empirical observation,
experimentation, quantitative measurement.
But this method is inadequate for studying
subjective mental phenomena, such as
qualitative experiences, qualia, introspection,
etc. To examine the mind requires a subjective
approach in the first person, through one's own
introspective experience. This divergence in
the pathways of knowledge appropriate to the
mind and brain indicates that they are distinct
entities, requiring distinct epistemologies to be
understood. The mental and the physical are
known through radically different methods,
which reveals that they have a different
ontological nature.
5. Dualism of criteria: The mind and brain are
defined and verified through radically different
criteria. Mental states are characterized by
criteria such as qualitative subjective
experience, privileged first-person access,
phenomenal correlates, etc. Instead, brain
states are characterized by objective criteria
such as neural location, synaptic activity
patterns, neurochemistry, etc. They do not
share common definition criteria. For example,
a memory has different subjective verification
criteria than a neural substrate of memory.
This divergence in the criteria for defining and
contrasting the mind and brain indicates that
they are of a very different character. The fact
that radically different criteria are applied to
determine their respective states shows that
they are ontologically distinct. Divergent
criteria reveal independent domains.
6. Interactionist dualism: The mind and brain
are ontologically distinct substances that can
causally influence each other. Mental states
can generate physical effects in the brain, for
example, when a desire causes muscles to
move. Similarly, brain states can generate
mental effects, such as when a blow to the
head causes the experience of seeing lights.
This capacity for bidirectional causal influence
is only possible if the mind and brain are
distinct entities. If they were identical or
reducible to each other, they could not interact
causally in that way. The fact that there is
causal interaction between the mind and the
brain proves that they are independent
substances capable of impacting each other.
7. Parallelistic dualism: The mind and brain are
two parallel substances or realities that evolve
in perfect correlation, but without causally
influencing each other. When mental events
occur, there is always a physical brain
correlate, and vice versa. But not because there
is a causal relationship, but because they are
constantly synchronized by some
predetermined mechanism. Changes in the
mind only accompany changes in the brain,
without generating them directly. Similarly,
modifications in the brain are reflected in the
mind without provoking them. Mind and brain
follow coordinated but independent courses,
without direct mutual interaction. This
synchronization shows that they are distinct
entities, because if they were identical they
would not require coordination but would
change in unison by themselves. In short, the
perfect parallelism between mind and brain
implies that they are ontologically diverse,
otherwise they could not be so systematically
coordinated.
Monism
1. Materialism (type of materialistic or
physicalist monism): Materialism states that
mental processes are actually brain processes,
they do not exist outside of neural activity. The
mind emerges from the complex brain, it
cannot exist separately from a physical
substrate. Subjective thoughts, feelings, and
experiences originate entirely from neural
patterns. It rejects any immaterial or non-
physical element in the mind. This is the result
of biochemical and electrical interactions. The
laws of physics that govern matter apply to
mental processes as well. It seeks to explain
mental phenomena such as memory,
perception, reasoning, in terms of brain
mechanisms. It includes variants such as
behaviorism, functionalism, and mind-brain
identity theory. It has been criticized for not
being able to fully explain the subjective
nature of conscious experience. In short,
materialism sees the mind as an emergent
phenomenon of the physical brain, reducible to
neural activity.
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2. Idealism (type of idealist or mentalist
monism): Holds that reality is constituted by
mind, ideas, and consciousness, as opposed to
matter. As for the mind-brain relationship, he
states that the mind is the basis of everything,
and the brain is a mental and subjective
construction. Ideas and mental contents are the
only reality, matter and physical objects are
projections of consciousness that have no
independent existence. From this perspective,
the brain and the material world are products
of universal mental processes, not the other
way around. Thoughts, perceptions, and ideas
make up reality, while the brain is simply part
of mental experience. Even the laws of physics
ultimately derive from transcendental mental
principles. In short, for idealism the mind is
the ultimate source of reality, creating the
illusion of an external physical world that does
not really exist objectively but as a mental
construct. The brain is thus a phenomenon
subject to the conceptual structures of
consciousness.
3. Neutral Monism: Neutral monism holds that
the mind and brain are not separate substances,
but that both are composed of the same 'neutral
substance' that is neither strictly mental nor
physical. From this perspective, mind and
brain are two sides of the same coin, two ways
of looking at the same underlying entity. The
mental and the physical are reduced to a
common substrate from which they emerge as
distinct manifestations. That substrate is
neither pure ideas nor raw matter, it is a neutral
fundamental reality that gives rise to mental
experience and brain states. There is no
ontological duality between mind and brain,
because deep down they are built from the
same basic elements that do not belong
definitively to the mental or physical realm.
Thus, neutral monism unifies mind and brain
by conceiving them as derivatives of the same
underlying principle that is neutral with respect
to the distinction between the mental and the
physical.
4. Epiphenomenalism: States that mental states
and processes are epiphenomena or by-
products of brain processes, without having a
causal effect on them. From this perspective,
the neural processes of the brain generate the
phenomena of conscious experience in a
unidirectional way, but the latter do not cause
any kind of physical effect in turn. Sufficiently
complex brain activity produces the emergence
of mental states, but it is only an
accompanying phenomenon without causal
powers. The mind observes what happens in
the brain but is powerless to affect the
underlying physical processes. Therefore,
epiphenomenalism claims that all mental
functioning is a linear consequence of brain
processes while the mind is only an ineffective
by-product with no capacity for feedback. The
brain generates the illusion of an active mind
when in reality it is an epiphenomenon without
causal agency.
5. Double aspectism: Proposes that the mind and
the brain are two aspects or facets of the same
underlying reality. The mental and the physical
are different manifestations or qualities of the
same neutral process. The mind and brain
seem separate entities, but deep down they are
like two sides of the same coin, two forms that
take a common substrate. This neutral
substrate is expressed in turn mentally and
physically, as consciousness and neural
activity. There is no reductionism because it is
not claimed that one is more fundamental, they
are two equally primary modes of expression.
Thus, according to the double aspectism,
mental and cerebral events are the double
aspect of a single complex process that has
both subjective and objective nature
inherently. It is not dualism because they are
not separate substances, nor monism because it
is not reduced to each other, but two facets of
something deeper.
6. Occasionalism: States that there is no direct
interaction between mind and brain, its
coordination is due to the continuous
intervention of God. When a thought occurs, it
is God who produces the corresponding
physical brain modification so that they match.
Likewise, every neural activity is an occasion
for God to generate the appropriate thought or
mental perception. In this way, mental and
brain changes do not cause each other, but are
synchronized by the occasional divine action
that makes them coincide. God must intervene
on every occasion so that a mental process is
accompanied by the proper brain process.
Thus, occasionalism denies any direct causal
power between mind and brain, attributing
their apparent relationship to the continuous
divine activity that harmonizes them. The
interaction is only occasional, not necessary,
mediated by God in each moment to give the
appearance of coordination.
7. Phenomenalist monism: Holds that reality is
ultimately constituted by mental phenomena or
conscious experiences. Both matter and
physical objects are reduced to combinations
of perceptions, sensations, and ideas. From this
perspective, the brain is also a construct of
mental phenomena, it has no independent
physical existence. Brain processes are just
groups of sensory experiences associated in a
certain way. Even physical laws ultimately
come from observed relationships between
mental phenomena. Thus, phenomenal monism
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asserts that supposed states of the brain are
actually mental states, and the mind-brain
correlation reflects only relationships between
conscious experiences. In short, this monism
reduces all reality to the basic components of
subjective mental experience, including the
apparent physical matter of the brain that
dissolves into conscious phenomena.
8. Eliminativist monism: Holds that the
concepts of mind, consciousness and mental
states will eventually be discarded and
eliminated from science as non-existent
entities. From this perspective, terms such as
thoughts, beliefs, desires do not refer to
anything real in the brain, they are residues of
false intuitions about human psychology. The
only real thing is material brain processes,
which can be explained without the need to
postulate the existence of a mind. Advances in
neuroscience will demonstrate that there is no
mental activity other than neural activity.
Thus, eliminativist monism predicts that
science will completely eliminate any notions
of the mental by understanding that the brain
functions perfectly without the need for mental
states. There is no correlation between mind
and brain because there is really no such thing
as a mind with internal states. There is only
material brain activity.
Importantly, some of these perspectives may
overlap or be compatible with each other, while others
may be mutually exclusive. On the other hand, one
cannot discern with absolute certainty which of all these
possibilities is correct. Each explanation seems to have
convincing arguments, but also weaknesses and lack of
definitive evidence. Faced with this intellectual
challenge, I decided only to expose in detail some of the
intricate twists and turns of this puzzle that has revealed
and still reveals countless brilliant minds. I dare not
prematurely opt for one hypothesis or another. And it is
at this point where it must be affirmed that it is illicit to
use the scientific method as a tool to decide on which
position is the 'correct' or the 'most correct' because this
is neither the objective of this intellectual tool, nor the
way to use it.
What to do with all these possibilities? Let us
relate the story of the Gordian Knot (see Arrian and
Plutarch). The origins of the knot date back to the
eighth century BC, when Gordius became king of
Phrygia (Anatolian region, in present-day Turkey).
Tradition has it that one day a cart tied to a yoke, both
matted with dogwood bark (Sorbus aucuparia), stopped
in the middle of the royal square. No inhabitant could
untangle the complicated knot, so they consulted an
oracle, who predicted that whoever achieved it would
be the future ruler of Asia. Gordio, a farmer, accepted
the challenge and, to the astonishment of those present,
undid the elaborate mooring. He was thus proclaimed
king and in honor of the event, he dedicated the chariot
to Zeus. The intricate knot then remained part of the
treasures of the temple of Gordius. All those who tried
to undo it failed, until the arrival of Alexander the Great
in 333 BC. Impatient before the skein, Alexander drew
his sword and with an accurate slash split the knot. That
night, according to records, there was a heavy storm
and Alexander knew that the oracle had been fulfilled.
He then set out on his legendary conquests in Persia,
Egypt, and India. The legend of the knot endures as a
metaphor for the human ability to nip seemingly
indecipherable challenges in the bud.
Then, the Gordian Knot happens to symbolize
here the mind-brain problem, a very complex and
difficult problem to solve. This problem needs a new
Alexander (keeping the proportions of course) who,
with the sharp sword of the scientific method, 'cuts' this
knot. Only through a rigorous process of hypothesis
formulation, experimentation, verification, and
reproducibility will humanity ever be able to
corroborate the ultimate solution to this ancient riddle.
That is why the academic community should unite in a
collective search guided by intellectual curiosity and
passion for knowledge.
In the next section we will see that there is a
'place' within us that seems to be accessible to
introspection and partial or total recovery of what is
'inside'. It is the memory.
VII. Memory
I suppose that, as I do, writing fragments of
thoughts is something that many do in order to develop
some themes in the future. This fragment of Nietzsche
has caught my attention: 'Actually, I should have
around me a circle of deep and tender people who
protect me something from myself and who also know
how to rejoice me: because for someone who thinks
things like I have to think, the danger of destroying
himself is always very close' (Nietzsche). On January 3,
1889, Nietzsche suffered a mental breakdown. He had a
stroke (it was not his first) during the night of August
24-25, 1900, and died around noon on August 25. My
idea is that this collapse is perhaps due to a clear
awareness that he had reached a limit beyond which he
could not pass. I mention this because there is empirical
evidence strongly suggesting the possibility of the
occurrence of a collapse or mental chaos in certain very
stressful situations not associated with brain damage.
This section is to show an example of what can
be done starting with some verifiable facts, continuing
with some ideas (which are not yet known if they are
true or not), and ending with some experimentation.
'Verifiable' facts correspond to the available
information that suggests that with the use of some
primitive techniques (psychoanalysis, hypnosis) or with
the consumption of certain substances it is possible to
emerge in the field of consciousness memories that
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seemed to be stored and that were not normally
accessed. It is necessary, of course, to corroborate with
witnesses the reality of these memories, especially those
that correspond to the period when language was not
yet possessed. To this can be added that some
occasional stimuli can suddenly emerge in the field of
consciousness memories of which nothing was known
of their existence. See my article on Proust (Gómez-
Jeria, 2017c).
The original idea is then the recovery of all the
memories and sensations that are held in the 'memory
banks' (the reasons for this are not only scientific, but
also philosophical). The first idea I had was to assume
that there are sensations or memories 'acquired' during
the stay inside the womb before the senses and memory
structures developed (Type I), sensations or memories
acquired within the womb when the senses and memory
structures had already developed (Type II). memories
acquired after birth but before possessing language
(Type III), others obtained during the period in which
language was learned (Type IV) and finally others
acquired when natural language was already handled
(Type V). Perhaps it is possible to add some other
subdivision.
The study of memory in the human fetus is a
developing area of research and there is still much to
discover. However, fetuses have been shown to possess
certain rudimentary memory systems. The following
facts about fetal development, and which seem to be
true, were taken from non-scientific sources (by
'scientific sources' we mean scientific articles that do
not contain some kind of falsification) because the
model presented here is not yet scientific, but it is
necessary that the reader has some elements that
indicate that there is some possibility of improving it so
that in some future it will be ( (Buonocore & Bellieni,
2017).
1. From the third trimester of pregnancy, fetuses
can respond to tactile and vestibular stimuli.
They may show reflex responses, such as
thumb sucking or body movements in response
to tactile stimulation or jerky movements.
These responses suggest that fetuses have a
tactile and vestibular form of memory in which
they can remember and recognize certain
stimuli.
2. Some essential aspects about fetal ear
development are: Week 16. Nowadays, it is
clear that a fetus responds to sound stimuli
from this week of gestation. Of course, at the
moment his ear at the structural level is not
mature. Week 25. The hearing organ begins to
become functional. Weeks 29 to 32. The
maturation of the inner ear is completed. From
that milestone, the baby begins to hear through
the amniotic fluid the sounds inside his
mother's body. It perceives a heartbeat in the
first months of extrauterine life and also the
work of other organs (rhythm of breathing,
current of blood flow, bowel sounds). He
listens to his mother's voice (Martinez-
Monche, 2023; Moreno & Entrevista, 2023).
At week 24 the fetus is able to pick up sounds
from outside. Imprinting is the memory that
the baby's body has about the fetal
environment that surrounded it during the
pregnancy period (Cudi, 2023).
3. It has been discovered that fetuses can have a
form of gustatory and olfactory memory.
Studies have shown that fetuses may respond
differently to tastes and smells presented to
them before birth. For example, fetuses have
been observed to swallow more when offered
sweet-tasting amniotic fluid, compared to
bitter-tasting amniotic fluid. The sensations
created in the fetus are the result of what it
smells and tastes in the amniotic fluid,
according to the foods and substances
consumed by the mother, and which will also
permeate breast milk (González, 2023). These
sensations have effects on heart rate and fetal
movements (Rodríguez, 2023). Fetuses at 30
weeks retrieved information in the short term
and from 34 weeks were able to keep the
stimuli in memory for at least four weeks
(Long, 2023).
In summary, although the memory systems in
the human fetus are rudimentary, they have been
observed to possess basic tactile, vestibular, auditory,
gustatory, and olfactory memory capacities.
Understanding memory in the fetus is a growing field
and more research is required to fully understand these
processes. These new results should be incorporated
into this research proposal.
The context and cues associated with a
memory can play a crucial role in its retrieval. Studies
have shown that memory retrieval may be more
successful when the context or cues present during the
original event are recreated. This is the reason for
simulating the possible environment. The problem here
is that the environment of each case is individual and
that there are no known ways to determine it
scientifically in each of them. That is why the theory
holds that memories and sensations of type I and II
could be recovered by preparing an experimental setting
that simulates as perfectly as possible the interior of the
mother's womb. Nothing better for this task than to use
a sensory isolation tank (also called flotation tank or
sensory deprivation tank) like the one used by physicist
Richard Feynman, who made experiments with
marijuana and ketamine (it is not clear if he got any
benefit). For the sensations or memories of type I one
has the idea of making them 'pass' (if there are any or
some) into the field of consciousness of the
experimentalist (Gurwitsch, 1957, 1964; Gurwitsch &
Zaner, 2010). The object of this is that they change to
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the category of 'memorable' memories, whether they are
good or bad. And, as it becomes so, its effects can be
managed. The question here is what must be
implemented within the isolation pond to minimize the
field of consciousness so that it serves only as a
'receiver' of eventual memories and sensations and
prevent type III, IV and / or V materials from disturbing
it. Perhaps the sound environment of the subject could
be simulated, and/or tactile effects, smells and/or tastes
could be also simulated.
Note that the ability to retrieve forgotten
memories is a complex topic and still the subject of
research in the field of psychology and neuroscience.
Not all experts agree on the reliability and validity of
certain memory retrieval techniques, especially those
involving hypnosis or memory retrieval therapy.
Memory can also be subject to distortions and false
memories (the latter defined as a phenomenon in which
someone remembers something that did not happen or
remembers it differently from the way it actually
happened, Wikipedia).
Let's briefly recall how little is known about
the memory systems of the adult human (Ghosh, Konar,
& Rakshit, 2021; Lexcellent, 2019; Manrique &
Walker, 2017; Novick, Bunting, Dougherty, & Engle,
2020; Otani & Schwartz, 2019; Radvansky, 2021). One
is sensory memory, which retains short-lived sensory
information from the senses, such as sight and hearing.
The information is stored for a few seconds before
fading or moving into short-term memory. Another
system is short-term memory (or working memory),
which stores information temporarily while it is being
actively used. It has limited capacity and can hold
information for a few seconds or minutes. Short-term
memory is critical for attention, reasoning, and
decision-making.
Long-term memory is the system that stores
information most permanently and is the main target of
this work. It is divided into two main types:
1. Explicit or declarative memory that refers to
conscious and deliberate memories, such as
autobiographical events, factual knowledge,
and consciously learned skills. It is subdivided
into episodic memory, which stores personal
experiences and events in a spatiotemporal
context, and semantic memory, which stores
general knowledge and concepts.
2. Implicit or non-declarative memory, which
contains knowledge and skills acquired
unconsciously or implicitly, such as riding a
bicycle, driving a vehicle, playing a musical
instrument, or learning motor skills. It does not
require conscious effort to retrieve stored
information.
Emotional memory, whose system is related to
long-term memory, but focuses on the retention of
intense emotional experiences. Emotional memories
tend to be more vivid and lasting because of the
connection between emotions and memory
consolidation.
For stored memories of type III/IV or IV/V a
first model could be this. The memories of these types
have associated labels (label is any 'event' associated
with the event itself, such as emotions, smells, etc.,
types II, IV and V), in which there may or may not be
labels with language (with language only types IV and
V).
VIII. Memories
Let us begin this section remembering the
recent work of Knight et al., (Bellier et al., 2023). They
analyzed a unique intracranial
electroencephalography dataset of 29 patients who
listened to a Pink Floyd song and applied a stimulus
reconstruction approach previously used in the speech
domain. We successfully reconstructed a recognizable
song from direct neural recordings and quantified the
impact of different factors on decoding accuracy’. This
is a real advance!
There is a theory in neuroscience and
psychology that episodic memories formed before a
child acquires language tend to be encoded with greater
emotional charge and less semantic detail. It is based on
studies that show that people have difficulty verbalizing
or describing early childhood memories in detail, but
still retain the associated emotional charge. The
hypothesis is that, having no language, encoding those
early memories relies more on brain regions linked to
emotions like the amygdala, rather than linguistic
regions like the neocortex. Therefore, the memory
imprint would have an emotional 'label', but it would
lack the narrative and semantic details that language
provides. This would explain why early memories are
often fragmentary, such as an isolated sensation, smell,
or image, rather than an integral episode. Some
evidence comes from studies with patients who lost
language skills and mainly retain the emotional tone of
early memories. This theory could help explain the
often-elusive nature of our earliest childhood memories.
Episodic memories formed after a child
acquires language would have a different kind of 'labels'
or coding, the theory goes. By being able to verbalize
and put experiences into words, later memories would
have richer semantic labels. Semantic tags provide
contextual information, details of specific people,
actions, places, objects, and situations. It allows you to
build a coherent narrative of the episode rather than just
an isolated image or impression. The linguistic regions
of the neocortex would be more active in the formation
of these verbal memories. But the emotional coding is
not lost, the language also allows to express the feelings
associated with the episode. Therefore, memories of
events after language are usually more vivid, complete,
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and integrated. It even allows semantic storage of facts
and concepts, not just personal episodes. Language then
greatly expands the nature of memory encoding,
making it more semantic, narrative, and factual. But the
emotional experience is still present.
There are some 'anecdotal' reports of
recovering forgotten memories through the use of some
compounds with hallucinogenic properties (LSD,
psilocybin). That qualification of 'anecdotal' is
explainable by the prohibition (stupid to say the least)
of scientifically investigating that possibility. It is also
necessary to say that, due to the genetic differences
between human primates, it is not possible to say a
priori that this methodology will work, if at all, for all
primates. The literature is full of scientific and technical
articles showing that some drugs have shown more
efficacy in certain ethnic groups (comment in passing; it
is curious that the use of the expression 'ethnic groups'
is accepted without any problem and garments are torn
when the term 'races' is used. After all, one could draw
up a list of ethnic groups and declare that they form a
race.) In any case, a recent study suggests that only
between 1.5% and 7% of the human genome is unique
to our species and that 1.5 to 7% is not identical in all of
us. Nor is the remaining 98.5 to 93% of DNA from
other sources identical. The percentages may change in
the future, but not the substance of the matter.
That said, there are a few other problems such as these:
1. Experiences under the influence of
hallucinogens are highly subjective and can
vary greatly from person to person.
Hallucinogens alter perception, cognition, and
emotions in complex ways, which can cause
people to experience intense, vivid sensations
and perceptions that can resemble memories.
However, these experiences are not necessarily
an accurate representation of actual past
events.
2. Hallucinogens can affect memory and the
ability to distinguish between real events and
imagined or constructed events. This means
that people who use hallucinogens may be
more susceptible to suggestion and may
generate false memories or distort their
existing memories. These false memories can
seem as vivid and real as genuine memories,
making it difficult to determine their veracity.
This is the most complex part of the matter.
3. Although there have been some studies on the
effects of hallucinogens on memory, most of
them have focused on the therapeutic potential
of these substances in disorders such as post-
traumatic stress disorder and depression, and
not specifically on the retrieval of memories.
The scientific evidence available to date is
limited and does not conclusively support the
idea that hallucinogens are effective in
recovering lost or repressed memories.
4. People's expectations and beliefs can influence
the interpretation of their experiences under
the influence of hallucinogens. If someone
firmly believes in the ability of hallucinogens
to retrieve memories, they are more likely to
attribute their experiences to that effect, even if
there is no objective basis for doing so.
There are some common techniques used in
the recovery of forgotten memories but as stated above,
do not work for all primates. For example, hypnosis,
memory retrieval therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy,
and interview techniques (for forensic purposes).
It is also said anecdotally that through some
meditation techniques it is possible to recover all
memories. Leaving aside the scientific approach, let's
mention that legend tells us that Buddha ('The
Awakened One') was able to remember all his
reincarnations (many as they say) through meditation.
At least let's concede that perhaps he was able to
retrieve at least the memories of his present life (I have
no opinion on the rest), which would be consistent with
the anecdotal information in this regard. And what do
these comments come to? One of the requirements to
move towards the door of Plato's Cave (Gómez-Jeria,
2019) is the recovery of all personal memories. This is a
fundamental step towards a type of superman that
possesses a physical structure similar to that of modern
human primates. There are other interesting possibilities
that we will touch on elsewhere.
There are a few things to comment on. As we
grow, our memory stores a large amount of information
derived from everything we perceive and experience.
However, not everything we perceive is recorded in our
long-term memory. Memory appears to work through
encoding, storage, and retrieval processes. Coding
involves processing incoming sensory information and
transforming it into mental representations in order to
store them. At this stage, attention plays a crucial role,
as it allows us to focus on certain stimuli and ignore
others. Only a small fraction of the available
information is encoded. When we are children, our
attention is open to encoding all the new experiences
we face. The hippocampus, a brain region key to
memory formation, is very active at capturing and
encoding events. As we grow, our focus becomes more
on information relevant to our goals and interests. Other
influencing factors are emotions and repetition.
Emotionally charged experiences, both positive and
negative, are more likely to be remembered. Repeated
information strengthens neural connections by
increasing their persistence in memory. Once encoded,
memories go through a consolidation process. Related
neural connections are strengthened and stabilized.
When we need to retrieve a memory, the associated
neural networks are activated. The more a memory has
been consolidated, the more accessible it will be. In
short, as we grow up, not everything we perceive is
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stored in long-term memory. Only a small, highly
significant, repetitive, emotionally charged fraction is
encoded, consolidated, and finally stored for later
retrieval. Our attention, it seems, acts as a filter,
determining what information to encode.
The possibility of accessing all my memories,
but in a controlled way would have its benefits. I could
review my life as a temporary development. I could
understand connections and patterns in my life that are
normally hidden, seeing how certain experiences
shaped me and understanding on a much deeper level
the reasons behind my personality and reactions.
Undoubtedly, access to that enormity of information
would expand my self-knowledge in new and intense
ways. It would take time to integrate and process so
much information about myself. Even so, the
amazement of being able to relive perhaps all or almost
all of the richness of my unique life would fill me with
fascination. And above all you could begin to analyze,
understand, treat, and finalize the 'negative' memories
and thus clean the Freudian garbage can. It would be a
mentally healthy human primate.
But the matter does not seem to be so easy.
One issue is to have theoretical access to all memories
and another issue is to access them since it is not known
what is 'there' (what memories are stored, a paradox).
To deal with the problem of not knowing the
specific contents, I can think of a few ways I could
choose to access them:
1. You could randomly access different
memories, such as taking out a random sample
to explore. It would be an unpredictable and
spontaneous way to relive past experiences.
2. I could focus on extended periods of time
(childhood, adolescence, etc.) or important
events (birthdays, graduations, travel) to relive
that stage or significant moment.
3. I could also try to access memories associated
with different people, places or activities that
have been important in my life. For example,
memories with a loved one or in a certain city
where I lived.
4. Another option is to try to obtain memories
related to topics such as fears, joys, learning,
relationships. That way I would live
experiences linked to those concepts.
5. You could even access memories by asking
random questions and letting the answer
emerge.
In short, without knowing the contents, I
would have to be guided by intuition, broad
associations, and a certain randomness to explore and
relive my stored memories. It would be fascinating to
find out what emerges. This would make me a very,
very complete person.
In addition, there is a very important fact to
mention. The possibility of making conscious all the
material that lies 'hidden' and that may correspond to
various types of traumas and/or unpleasant situations
that were 'hidden' from consciousness would allow us to
deal and solve them and prevent their unconscious
influence on our actions.
Note that having access to all of our stored
memories could add some valuable elements to the
philosophical debate about the mind-brain problem. It
would allow us to explore more deeply the relationship
between our subjective experiences and brain processes,
verifying in first person how a memory revives when
activating certain neural circuits. By recovering
forgotten memories, we could delve deeper into the
nature of memory and its brain storage, strengthening
cognitive theories. We would also have a wider field of
experimentation to test hypotheses about how mental
states emerge from physical processes. We would live
more clearly the integration between mind and brain, to
verify how each personal experience is registered in our
neural tissue. But we would also see the explanatory
limits of that correlation, since full access to memories
does not make us omniscient about our own
consciousness, there are gaps that persist. In short, this
capacity would expand our knowledge about mind-
brain interaction, but it would also highlight that there
are dimensions of subjectivity that transcend the
physical, forcing us to continue to delve with humility
into this complex philosophical problem.
As I said above, recuperating all
simultaneously stored memories in the sense of making
them 'appear' in the field of consciousness is not
possible in human primates. That would be an intense
and overwhelming experience. An authentic avalanche
of emotions and sensations associated with those
memories would flow, both happy and blissful and sad
and painful that would be unmanageable since they
would be intermingled.
From a current neuroscientific perspective, it is
highly unlikely that all stored memories could appear
simultaneously in the field of consciousness. There are
several limitations at both the level of cognitive and
neural processing that prevent it. Consciousness has
limited bandwidth in terms of the amount of
information it can keep active and process at once. This
creates a bottleneck that prevents fully conscious access
to all memories in parallel. When two memories or bits
of information are activated at the same time, they tend
to interfere with each other and become inaccessible or
confusing. Activating all memories simultaneously
would cause massive interference. The different neural
groups associated with different memories inhibit each
other. This prevents them from firing at the same time
and competing for limited processing resources. The
total number of neurons that can fire at once is limited.
It is impossible for all neurons associated with decades
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of memories to fire simultaneously. Attention acts
selectively by focusing only a small set of neural
representations at a time. It would be impossible to
attend to the mass activation of so many different
memories.
IX. Other aspects to consider
I will briefly mention what has been believed
or is believed to be some extra components of the
physical body. I think it is important for the
completeness of this work and for possible connections
with some positions on the mind-brain relationship.
Some of them could eventually be studied with the
scientific method.
In a very general way, two concepts can be
defined: soul and spirit. The soul is an intangible entity
and is often considered immortal in many religious and
philosophical traditions. It is believed that the soul is
the essential part or the very essence of a human being
or living being. In various cultures and beliefs, the soul
can be seen as the source of consciousness, personality,
morality, and individuality. Some people believe that
the soul survives the death of the body and continues to
exist in some form in the afterlife. Spirit is an
immaterial entity believed to animate or give life to a
living being. In many cultures and religions, spirit is
considered to be the life force that distinguishes living
things from inanimate objects. Spirit can also refer to
the essence or intangible nature of a being or entity.
Often, the term 'spirit' is associated with concepts such
as vitality, energy, and connection to the transcendental
or divine. In some beliefs, it is believed that spirits can
exist separately from the body and can interact with the
physical world. Let's look at some examples.
In Islam, the al- is believed to be the human
spirit that Allah infuses into every human being. The al-
is considered a divine gift that bestows life and
consciousness on the individual. This concept is
mentioned in the Qurʼān, the holy book of Islam. In
Islamic psychology, the 'Nafs' denote body, person,
soul, human being, which has different levels and
states. The 'Nafs' can be purified and elevated through
worship and seeking closeness to Allah (Nasr, 2009;
Saheeh, 1997).
In Ancient Egypt, the 'ka' was conceived as a
spiritual aspect or vital essence that remained attached
to the body after death. It represented individual divine
force or presence (Assmann, 2013; J. Taylor, 2003;
Teeter, 1997). It was believed that he needed care in the
afterlife. Offerings and food were provided at the tomb
to ensure that the 'ka' had what it took to live an eternal
existence. The 'ka' was thought to have a special
connection to the image or statue of the deceased
person and required its preservation (Wasserman,
2008). The 'ba' was considered as the personality or
soul of the person, (J. Taylor, 2003). It was often
depicted as a bird with the appearance of the deceased
individual. The 'ba' was associated with mobility and
the ability to move freely between the world of the
living and that of the dead. During the day, the 'ba'
could return to the world of the living to interact with
loved ones, while at night he returned to the afterlife. It
was thought that the 'ba' should be reunited with the 'ka'
and the body in the tomb to achieve eternal life in the
afterlife. The 'akh' was the luminous and immortal
aspect of the spirit that resided in the afterlife after
death (Assmann, 2013). The 'akh' is an advanced phase
of existence in the afterlife and is considered the final
result of the transformation of the individual after death.
When the 'ka' and the 'ba' met and merged properly, the
individual attained the state of 'akh.' The 'akh' was
considered a luminous and divine being who had
overcome the challenges and trials in the underworld
and who had attained eternal life. It was believed that
the 'akh' was in a special relationship with the gods and
that he could ascend to heaven and join the gods in his
divine existence (J. H. Taylor, 2001; Wilkinson, 2003).
The 'shut' represented the shadow or silhouette of the
person. It was believed that each person had a shadow
that should be preserved in the grave. The shadow was
related to the identity of the person and his connection
to the world of the living. Ensuring the preservation of
the shadow was essential for the individual to exist in
the afterlife. The 'ren' was the true name of the person
who guaranteed his existence in eternity. Keeping the
name was crucial, as losing it would mean extinction in
the afterlife.
In Polynesian culture, the concept of 'mana' is
central. 'Mana' is believed to be a spiritual force or
supernatural power that can reside in objects, places, or
people (Donaldson, 2019; Tomlinson & Tengan, 2016).
In the Trobriand Islands, part of Papua New Guinea,
there is a belief in 'vain,' which refers to the spirit of a
deceased person (Malinowski & Frazer, 1961). In New
Zealand Maori culture, the term 'atua' is used to refer to
divine beings or ancestral spirits who play an important
role in everyday life and religious beliefs (Bishop,
2021). In the Zulu culture of South Africa, the 'Moya' is
the term used to refer to the human spirit or breath of
life. The 'Moya' is believed to be the very essence of
life and consciousness (Berglund, 1976). In the Nahua
culture, which included the Aztecs, the 'Nagual' was
believed to be a protective spirit or spirit animal
associated with a person. It was believed that the
'Nagual' was linked to a person's soul and that it
influenced their destiny (Carrasco, 2012). In Mayan
cosmology, it was believed that each person had a 'hun'
and a 'pok,' which were components of the human soul.
The 'hun' was related to consciousness and life, while
the 'pok' was linked to spirit and life force (Freidel,
Schele, & Parker, 2001).
We must also mention the experience of an
'observer' or a presence that seems to observe or
accompany a person during the use of hallucinogens.
This is a phenomenon that has been constantly reported
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by many people who have experimented with
psychedelic substances. There is no known scientific
explanation for these reports. Perhaps this is related to
the ‘strange sensation that another person is nearby
when no one is actually present and cannot be seen,
heard, or felt by the sense of touch’ (Hara, Blanke, &
Kanayama, 2021).
The main conclusions obtained from the
reading of all the material presented here are that we
need to achieve a full and complete knowledge of the
central nervous system structure and functioning at all
levels and that we need to do the same for the ‘mind’.
Only after this stage we shall be able to reach the next
stage in our evolution.
We think that in this short work we have been
able to present an overview of the current situation. We
hope that it will help to open new avenues of study of
this fascinating subject. It is problematic to declare one
day that our knowledge of our physical body is
‘complete’ and that there is nothing more to investigate
about it. Scientific method cannot do this. Frontier
research show that there are indirect observational
pieces of evidence for the existence of dark matter and
dark energy, and that only about 4.5% of all universe
content is ordinary matter. String theory and other
theories of theoretical physics suggest the possibility of
the existence of additional spatial dimensions beyond
the three we experience in our daily lives (length,
width, and height). These extra dimensions could be
small and curled up, making them difficult to detect on
macroscopic scales. The question you might ask
yourself is if any of these phenomena were real, would
they have any relevance to our physical body or not?
Let it be said that I am not trying to introduce the
argumentum ad ignorantiam.
I feel it necessary to conclude this text with
these reflections. About eight million years ago we
started the path that led us to what we are today. We've
made tremendous progress over the last 50,000 years,
but we still have an aggressiveness that we share with
the other primates. We are destroying the world and
those who can make the decisions to stop this suicidal
attitude do not seem to care. Climate change is already
a reality, and I wonder whether we are going to become
extinct or whether this civilization is going to suddenly
disappear. It is said that when these times come, there
always appears a Hero who tries to save us. I wish that
will be the case.
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