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Handbook of industrial energy analysis
... Process-based analysis (PA) is a data collection method that examines how each product is manufactured and disposed by dividing each manufacturing process and material. This approach, based on the collection of process data, is usually used product-LCA, and developed by Boustead and Hancock (1979) and the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC). PA consists of evaluation, analysis, and improvement. ...
... Thus, the estimation excluded cut-off criteria in the PA method is not calculated. The result in the IOA method is not able to cover all as well (Boustead and Hancock, 1979). ...
... The result of using this method can be underestimated because the system boundary is in uncertainty. The resulting error could be up to 10% in the PA method (Boustead and Hancock, 1979). However, the result of the IOA method is too aggregate. ...
The water footprint is a useful and important method for calculating water consumption in products and systems. Up to date, many studies on water footprints have focused on the high water consumption sectors of agriculture and livestock products, but few have looked at social infrastructure. The aim of this study is to calculate the water footprint using previous water footprint evaluation methodologies for the expressway infrastructure system and compare the results of each different methodology used for expressway infrastructure systems. Boulay’s methodology, the Ministry of Environment’s methodology using Ecoinvent, and Ministry of Environment’s methodology using Korean life cycle inventory were used and compared. As a result, 58,801 m³ H2Oeq of direct and indirect water was used for 1 km expressway with Boulay method, also 42,030 m³ H2Oeq, and 27,485 m³ H2Oeq, of direct and indirect water was consumed using Ministry of Environment’s methodology using Ecoinvent and Ministry of Environment’s methodology using Korean life cycle inventory. The study approach and results can support for more sustainable water management in infrastructure system.
... At the time, we weren't as concerned with greenhouse gas emissions or electricity use as we were with cutting down on solid trash. Authorized by Boustead and Hancock [14], the first life-cycle perspective publication was a handbook on industrial energy analysis. Numerous life-cycle analyses had been published by that time, and there had been a subse-quent surge in interest in the topic among the general populace [24]. ...
... Direct energy pertains to the actual generation of electricity, while indirect energy is associated with the extraction and transportation of raw materials, plant construction, decommissioning, and recycling of the power plant. This classification has been previously documented in literature sources [14] [31]. ...
... Hence, the nitrogen 115 demand for blanketing is likely overestimated. In addition, this nitrogen demand has been modeled with a technosphere exchange of nitrogen, liquid; however, it is unnecessary to use liquid nitrogen for blanketing and the energy demands of nitrogen liquefaction are several times higher than those for 120 producing nitrogen gas (27), which leads to an overestimation of environmental impacts. ...
... As an immediate mitigation measure, we call for replacing proxies as fast as possible by including the processspecific energy and water demand values from published data sources, several of which have been identified in this article 120 (17,21,22,25,27,31). Proxy data should only be used for remaining gaps that cannot be filled by any other means. ...
High-quality data is a prerequisite for the sustainability assessment of chemicals. However, the most prevalent databases currently contain either intransparent aggregated data (impeding quality checks) or, in absence of measured data, rely on widespread use of proxy data for key inventory flows. This study analyzes the quality and implications of proxy data use for filling data gaps in the chemical sector of the ecoinvent database, the most commonly used database, that has found a broad range of applications in politics, industry and science. The individual datasets in that database are compared against simulation-based data as well as commercial chemical-sector data. The propagation of the proxy data in ecoinvent is traced along the complex chemical sector supply chains and consequences for carbon footprints and life cycle assessment (LCA) are calculated. The results demonstrate that due to the use of inappropriate proxy data, the heat demand of chemicals production is heavily underestimated, while the electricity demands tend to be overestimated. Environmental impacts such as the climate change impacts of the chemical sector are largely determined by heat demands, resulting in a massive 44% underestimation of climate change impacts of chemical production in ecoinvent in comparison to simulation-based data. Hence, the quality of chemical data does not live up to the importance of the topic of sustainable chemistry and may lead to widespread erroneous conclusions of policy-makers and industries. To allow for robust environmental assessments of chemicals and to provide reliable decision support, more attention needs to be paid to appropriate data collection of key inventory flows. It is therefore necessary that the use of unspecific proxy data in key data sources is reduced to an absolute minimum and that specific industry data is used whenever possible. Such data is partly available, but needs updates and expansions. Better proxy approaches than the existing ones can also contribute to a more precise picture of environmental impacts from the chemicals sector, but these approaches should only represent a last resort for processes and products without any alternatives.
... In other words, this indicator calculates the energy that is used during a specific life cycle stage of a product [13]. It first appeared as a method at the beginning of the 1970s, after the first petroleum crisis [14,15]. CED is measured in megajoules (MJ). ...
... energy that is used during a specific life cycle stage of a product [13]. It first appeared as a method at the beginning of the 1970s, after the first petroleum crisis [14,15]. CED is measured in megajoules (MJ). ...
Green Artificial Reefs (GARs) are marine structures to exploit sea resources in a sustainable way (produce food resources, improve the tourism, etc.). They should be installed on the seabed, process that is not usually easy. Therefore, their installation process should be clearly defined. The aim of this paper is to propose several methods for installing a group of green artificial reefs designed in the PROARR research project. Two of these methodologies are conventional: a bulkcarrier and a special service workboat. The other technique is innovative: an autonomous vehicle. All of them offer different results in terms of maneuverability, positioning, precision and cost. This study will compare these four methods of installing green artificial reefs to improve the knowledge about this type of sustainable way of exploiting the marine resources.
... US EPA fuel emission coefficients only account for carbon dioxide emissions and not other greenhouse gases. Emissions coefficients for electricity, and all other input variables to the LCA model, came from US-based sources (Lal 2004;Fluck, 1992;Mudahar and Hignett, 1987b;Green, 1987;Pimentel, 1980;Cervinka, 1980;Boustead, I., & Hancock, G.F., 1979). ...
... Energy coefficients for the production of pesticide active ingredients were from Green (1987). Energy coefficients for the mining and processing of sand were from Boustead & Hancock (1979). The energy coefficient for the transport of sand by dump truck was from Pimentel (1980). ...
Carbon sequestration in golf course soils has received some attention, but energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from golf course turfgrass maintenance are poorly quantified. This study developed a model to estimate energy consumption and GHG emissions from golf turf maintenance and applied the model to fourteen golf courses located in the northern USA over a three‐year period. Energy use and GHG emissions that result from golf course maintenance operations were divided into three scopes. Scope 1 consisted of onsite emissions (n = 14), Scope 2 consisted of offsite emissions (n = 7), and Scope 3 consisted of supply chain (upstream) emissions (n = 7). Scope 1 emissions primarily result from onsite fuel use, Scope 2 emissions primarily result from offsite electricity generation, and Scope 3 emissions primarily result from the production and transport of goods and materials (e.g., machines, fertilizers, pesticides etc.) to the golf course. All scopes were combined to calculate total energy use and emissions (n = 4). Mean area‐normalized Scope 1 energy use was 24 GJ ha–1 yr–1, mean Scope 2 energy use was 7 GJ ha–1 yr–1, mean Scope 3 energy use was 40 GJ ha–1 yr–1 and the mean of all scopes were 72 GJ ha–1 yr–1. Mean area‐normalized Scope 1 emissions were 1,599 kg CO2e ha–1 yr–1, mean Scope 2 emissions were 1,012 kg CO2e ha–1yr–1, mean Scope 3 emissions were 1,847 kg CO2e ha–1yr–1 and the mean of all scopes were 4,277 kg CO2e ha–1yr–1. Fuel and electricity use accounted for 63 percent of all GHG emissions. Electrifying golf course maintenance equipment and sourcing electricity generated from renewable sources are likely the most effective ways for golf course turfgrass maintenance emissions to be reduced.
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... In other words, this indicator calculates the energy that is used during a specific life cycle stage of a product [13]. It first appeared as a method at the beginning of the 1970s, after the first petroleum crisis [14,15]. CED is measured in megajoules (MJ). ...
... energy that is used during a specific life cycle stage of a product [13]. It first appeared as a method at the beginning of the 1970s, after the first petroleum crisis [14,15]. CED is measured in megajoules (MJ). ...
The principle of sustainability should condition a project in which artificial reefs are being installed to protect biodiversity as well as enhance costal ecosystems. In particular, this principle should be taken into account in the logistical processes related to manufacture and transport. This study assesses the global warming potential (GWP) and cumulative energy demand (CED) of developing a coastal ecosystem enhancement programme in the estuary region of Galicia, north-western Spain. The focus is on the processes involved in creating green artificial reefs (GARs): manufacture, transport and installation. The starting point is the supply chain for the green artificial reef (GAR) units; greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and energy needs for each phase are analysed. Various scenarios are considered to determine which options are indeed available when it comes to establishing the supply chain. Different types of energy supplies, different options for the location of production centres, as well as different means of transport were studied. Results reveal the critical phases for selecting how the GAR units must be produced, transported by road and sea and then installed in their permanent location.
... -Moquette : 800 [47]. ...
... -Revêtement d'étanchéité : 42,85 kg de CO 2 par tonne de produit [47]. ...
Des études ont été effectuées dans d’autres pays comme l’Inde et le Japon pour quantifier le gaz carbonique émis par la construction des bâtiments. Des logiciels d’ACV comme BEES et EQUER développés aux Etats-Unis et en France permettent aussi de calculer l’émission en CO2 au sein d’un habitat.Pourtant, les modèles de calcul et les outils de travail crées ne peuvent pas être utilisés à Madagascar du fait que les données utilisées ne reflètent pas la réalité locale.Ainsi nous avons effectué le travail actuel comportant la quantification de dioxyde de carbone émis pendant le cycle de vie d’un habitat et son fonctionnement.L’approche adoptée est l’Analyse de Cycle de Vie pour évaluer le CO2 émis par le bâtiment pendant 50 ans. Nous avons décomposé le bâtiment en Ouvrages Fonctionnels. Différents types de matériaux correspondants à notre réalité sont considérés. Le modèle Entrée / Sortie (E/S) est adopté. Les éléments de départ sont les matériaux de construction tandis que les éléments d’arrivée sont les différents types d’OF. Les résultats sont donnés par Unité Fonctionnelle.Concernant le fonctionnement, nous avons calculé l’émission en CO2 par postes d’activités domestiques. La consommation en eau ainsi que la production de déchets sont aussi évaluées. Afin d’obtenir un résultat global relatif à un habitat, c'est-à-dire relatif au bâtiment et à son fonctionnement, un outil de travail nommé ECO2H (Emission en CO2 d’un Habitat) est élaboré.Des innombrables scénarios, pour l’enveloppe du bâtiment ainsi que pour le fonctionnement de l’habitat peuvent être réalisés car une multitude de choix concernant les matériaux de construction et les caractéristiques de l’habitat sont exposées.
... The different forms have different relevance in our daily life. The different forms of energy are such so that some conversions from one form to another are easier than others (e.g., chemical energy in oil is readily converted into heat and light through combustion, but it is difficult to convert electricity into nuclear energy, for example with particle accelerators) [2]. ...
... In addition, theory-based energy requirements often significantly underestimate actual energy requirements. For example, reduction of iron oxide to iron theoretically requires 7.35 MJ/kg of energy, but generally consumes 20 MJ/ kg in industrial practice [2]. Theoretical energy and the actual energy consumed by industry differ because of energy losses at various steps in every process. ...
... ψ EX, f = Exergy available in the final product Total input exergy (12) For the primary fuel, Table 10 presents a set of values for sources of exergy associated with selected fuels; these values were compiled from different sources [29,[32][33][34]. Table 10. ...
... This section will estimate the source exergies of these materials. The source exergy of a material includes the exergy content of the raw material augmented by the sum of all the net exergetic inputs received during the production process of the raw material [32]. ...
This paper examines and compares different aluminum reduction technologies found in the literature as alternatives to the current Hall-Heroult technology. The main inefficiencies in the current Hall-Heroult technology were identified and the advantages of the different proposed technologies over the Hall-Heroult technology were determined. The comparison between the different technologies, namely Hall-Heroult, wetted drained cathode, inert anode, and carbothermic, was based on energy and material requirements, and environmental impact. In order to combine all of the evaluation criteria into one numerical value, the exergy concept was utilized as a decision tool. The results emphasize that in order to analyze any conversion system, the exergy of energy, material, environmental impact, and their associated chain production should be taken into consideration.
... Gross Energy Requirement (GER) and Global Warming Potential (GWP) were the two environmental factors used in the adopted methodology to determine the environmental impact. The GWP measures the climatic change in terms of kilograms of equivalent emitted CO 2 , whereas the GER gives an estimate of the life cycle energy drawn from the earth's crust (Boustead and Hancock, 1979;Eggleston Hs et al., 2006). Materials that have been recycled hold negative GWP and GER, which means that they have a net positive impact on the environment, mitigate global warming, and reduce energy consumption. ...
In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on incorporating recycled materials into the production ofeco-friendly construction materials. Additionally, the substantial disposal of end-of-life tires poses significantenvironmental challenges. Using waste tire constituents in the geopolymer materials as binders a feasible andsustainable alternative to conventional concrete with Portland Cement, effectively resolving environmentalproblems and promoting the advancement of eco-friendly building material production. This research focuses onproducing eco-friendly alternatives to Portland Cement-based products. Moreover, it is aimed to explore theutilization of all components of the end-of-life tires (crumb rubber, textile, and steel fibers) in the mixture andreplace Portland Cement with a geopolymer matrix in mortar mixtures. To achieve this, recycled waste tirematerials were added to the geopolymer mixtures based on the design of experiments using a central compositedesign approach. An RSM-based assessment was applied to determine the effect of incorporating recycled ma-terials on the durability and mechanical properties of the geopolymer mixtures. Moreover, the environmentalimpacts of mixtures were evaluated based on global warming potential and gross energy requirements. Theanalysis of experimental results revealed that incorporating recycled materials not only substantially mitigatedthe environmental impact but also improved mixture properties, i.e. reduced water absorption, enhancedresistance to salt scaling, and increased impact resistance. However, there was a slight decrease in compressivestrength. Considering all aspects, the final optimized mixture saved 1172.77 MJ/ton energy and reduced 52.33kg CO2eq/ton per 1 m3 compared to the mixture without recycled materials.
... Conocemos que la mayoría de materias primas convencionales que se emplean en la construcción, cargan consigo algún grado de impacto ambiental. Algunos materiales son procesados a partir de minerales con baja regulación y su fabricación puede traer efectos adversos, como la emisión de contaminantes a la atmósfera y a los acuíferos, el requerimiento de un alto consumo energético durante su producción (Boustead y Hancock, 1979), y de manera colateral la destrucción de hábitats naturales. Según estudios de González y Navarro (2006), la adecuada selección de materiales de construcción, permite disminuir hasta un 30% las emisiones de CO 2 , lo que influye, directamente, en la sostenibilidad y desarrollo de un entorno construido más saludable. ...
... The impact assessment refers to the environmental indicators for the conventional LCA and road traffic noise. The conventional indicators included the climate change using global warming potential for 100 years in kg CO 2 -eq (IPCC, 2021), and non-renewable cumulative energy demand in MJ (Boustead and Hancock, 1979). These two indicators have been found to often correlate with several other environmental impacts for LCA (Steinmann et al., 2016). ...
The evaluation of environmental impacts for low-noise roads is a challenging topic in life cycle assessment (LCA) due to noise reduction considerations. This paper presents hybrid modifications of conventional LCA, using acoustical pavement characterization data from the close proximity (CPX) test, and models of noise emission, propagation and exposure to incorporate the inventories and impacts of road traffic noise. Furthermore, based on the system and indicators considered in LCA, the monetarization of direct and external costs of low-noise roads was included, in order to extend environmental interpretation to a monetary perspective. The modified LCA was applied in a realistic road test section, comparing (1) traditional stone mastic asphalt (SMA) with low-noise semi-dense asphalt (SDA) surfaces, and (2) different strategies for using SDA. The results of the test section indicated the significant role of road traffic noise in human health impacts, that translate to economic benefits for using low-noise pavements.
... One of the first mentioned pieces of research in the field of LCA was a study carried out for the Coca Cola Company by the Midwest Research Institute (MRI) in 1969, where resource consumption for beverage containers was compared to environmental releases Jensen, Hoffman, Møller, & Schmidt, 1997). Boustead explained the application of the method for quantifying the amount of energy used in beverage cans production, and the publication Handbook of Industrial Energy Analysis (Boustead & Hancock, 1979) enabled the spread of the method for quantifying energy on a physical basis into other disciplines in the UK. The term Life Cycle Assessment was coined by the Institute Eidgenössische Materialprüfanstalt in St. Gallen in 1978 (Kümmel, 2000), followed by the introduction of the term Grey Energy referring to the quantified expression of primary energy used for a service or product as an indicator for environmental impact (Spreng & Doka, 1995 (Hildebrand, 2014). ...
The challenges to which contemporary building design needs to respond grow steadily. They originate from the influence of changing environmental conditions on buildings, as well as from the need to reduce the impact of buildings on the environment. The increasing complexity requires the continual revision of design principles and their harmonisation with current scientific findings, technological development, and environmental, social, and economic factors. It is precisely these issues that form the backbone of the thematic book, Sustainable and Resilient Building Design: Approaches, Methods, and Tools. The purpose of this book is to present ongoing research from the universities involved in the project Creating the Network of Knowledge Labs for Sustainable and Resilient Environments (KLABS). The book starts with the exploration of the origin, development, and the state-of-the-art notions of environmental design and resource efficiency. Subsequently, climate change complexity and dynamics are studied, and the design strategy for climate-proof buildings is articulated. The investigation into the resilience of buildings is further deepened by examining a case study of fire protection. The book then investigates interrelations between sustainable and resilient building design, compares their key postulates and objectives, and searches for the possibilities of their integration into an outreaching approach. The fifth article in the book deals with potentials and constraints in relation to the assessment of the sustainability (and resilience) of buildings. It critically analyses different existing building certification models, their development paths, systems, and processes, and compares them with the general objectives of building ratings. The subsequent paper outlines the basis and the meaning of the risk and its management system, and provides an overview of different visual, auxiliary, and statistical risk assessment methods and tools. Following the studies of the meanings of sustainable and resilient buildings, the book focuses on the aspects of building components and materials. Here, the life cycle assessment (LCA) method for quantifying the environmental impact of building products is introduced and analysed in detail, followed by a comprehensive comparative overview of the LCA-based software and databases that enable both individual assessment and the comparison of different design alternatives. The impact of climate and pollution on the resilience of building materials is analysed using the examples of stone, wood, concrete, and ceramic materials. Accordingly, the contribution of traditional and alternative building materials to the reduction of negative environmental impact is discussed and depicted through different examples. The book subsequently addresses existing building stock, in which environmental, social, and economic benefits of building refurbishment are outlined by different case studies. Further on, a method for the upgrade of existing buildings, described as ‘integrated rehabilitation’, is deliberated and supported by best practice examples of exoskeleton architectural prosthesis. The final paper reflects on the principles of regenerative design, reveals the significance of biological entities, and recognises the need to assign to buildings and their elements a more advanced role towards natural systems in human environments.
... In a full LCA study, the energy and materials used, and pollutants or wastes released into the environment as a consequence of a product or activity are quantified over the whole life-cycle; again 'from cradle-to-grave' [26][27][28]. The methodology of LCA follows closely that developed for energy analysis [57][58][59][60][61][62], but evaluates all the environmental burdens associated with a product or process over its whole life-cycle [63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70]. This requires the determination of a balance or budget for the raw materials and pollutant emissions (outputs) emanating from the system. ...
Small-scale combined heat and power (micro-CHP or mCHP) plants generate heat in the process of localised electricity production that can usefully be captured and employed for domestic space and water heating. Studies of the relative merits of three alternative network-connected mCHP plants are reviewed based respectively on an Internal Combustion engine (ICE), a Stirling engine (SE), and a Fuel Cell (FC). Each plant will, in most cases, result in lower carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, relative to those from the most efficient condensing boilers. In addition, they lead to operational cost savings for the consumer, depending on house type. However, their capital costs are presently more expensive than a conventional boiler, with the FC being prohibitively so. The ICE and SE variants display the greatest economic and environmental benefit. Nevertheless, the performance and costs associated with these innovative technologies have rapidly improved over the last decade or so. Comparisons are also made with heat pumps that are seen as a major low-carbon competitor by the United Kingdom (UK) Government. Finally, the potential role of micro-CHP as part of a cluster of different micro-generators attached to contrasting dwellings is considered. The review places mCHP systems in the context of the UK transition pathway to net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050, whilst meeting residential energy demand. However, the lessons learned are applicable to many industrialised countries.
... (1) Climate change, using Global warming potentials for 100 years as characterization factor, in kg CO 2 -eq (IPCC, 2021) (mid-point); (2) Non-renewable cumulative energy demand, in MJ-eq (Boustead and Hancock, 1979) (mid-point); (3) ReCiPe method, damage to human health (from the pathways of global warming human health, stratospheric ozone depletion, ionizing radiation, ozone formation human health, fine particulate matter formation, human carcinogenic toxicity, human non-carcinogenic toxicity and water consumption human health), in DALY (Huijbregts et al., 2017) (endpoint). ...
Noise mitigation is the main advantage of semi-dense asphalt (SDA) pavements compared to traditional pavements such as stone-mastic asphalt (SMA), but noise is not quantitatively considered in traditional life cycle assessment (LCA). This article performs a comprehensive LCA for SMA and SDA including noise considerations. State-of-the-art sound emission and acoustical ageing models were used to determine the road traffic noise. The latest Swiss dose-response curves and current noise exposure data were used to evaluate health impacts due to noise. Additionally, traditional LCA is also included for assessing the greenhouse gas emissions, non-renewable cumulative energy demand and health impacts of non-noise processes. The results show that SDA causes around 70 % higher greenhouse gases and energy demand than SMA, primarily due to its shorter service life. However, the noise impacts in disability adjusted life years (DALYs) are higher by two to three orders of magnitude than non-noise processes, and the use of SDA can reduce 40 % of the total DALYs. It is shown that road traffic noise plays a significant role in the LCA of pavements. The trade-off between greenhouse gas and energy related impacts, on the one hand, and health effects, on the other hand, requires critical consideration by decision makers when promoting low-noise pavements.
... Energy system analysis (ESA) has emerged as a broad interdisciplinary research field in its own right. The subfield of energy analysis developed methods to understand energy transformation and use processes, mainly motivated by the two oil price hikes of the 1970s and led by proponents such as Chapman [1,2] and Boustead and Hancock [3]. The energy analysis methods reflected thermodynamic properties such as energy, enthalpy and exergy, and economic ones such as economic output and/or prices. ...
The field of Energy System Analysis (ESA) has experienced exponential growth in the number of publications in the last two decades. This paper presents a comprehensive bibliometric analysis on ESA by employing different statistical techniques to investigate the underlying science's structure, characteristics, and patterns. The focus of results is on quantitative indicators relating to the number and type of publication outputs, collaboration links between institutions, authors and countries, and dynamic trends within the field. The five and twelve most productive countries have 50% and 80% of ESA publications, respectively. The dominant institutions are even more concentrated within a small number of countries. A significant concentration of published papers within countries and institutions was also confirmed by analysing collaboration networks. These show dominant collaboration within the same university or at least the same country. There is also a strong link among the most successful journals, authors and institutions. Within the field, the Energy journal has had the most publications, its editor-in-chief is the author with both the highest overall number of publications and the most highly cited publications. In terms of the dynamics within the field in the past decade, recent years have seen a higher impact of topics related to flexibility and hybrid/integrated energy systems alongside a decline in individual technologies. This paper provides a holistic overview of two decades' research output and enables interested readers to obtain a comprehensive overview of the key trends in this active field.
... (2) Nonrenewable cumulative energy demand, in MJ-eq (Boustead and Hancock, 1979); ...
This study employed the methodology of life cycle assessment (LCA) to assess the environmental impacts of rubberized semi-dense asphalt (SDA) pavement. Asphalt mixtures were prepared at the asphalt plant, followed by hybrid approach of mechanical and leaching tests in the laboratory to assess the possible service life and PAH leaching. The LCA was carried out considering two scenarios: (1) the reference scenario focuses on standard SDA produced of only virgin materials; (2) the test scenario refers to rubberized SDA using crumb rubber, a secondary material from waste tires. In the reference scenario, waste tires were assumed to be used as fuels for clinker production; while in the test scenario, waste tires were applied for SDA and primary fuels were used for clinker production (system expansion approach). In a sensitivity analysis, a scenario with waste tire treatment in municipal solid waste incinerators (MSWI) was also assessed. The impact assessment includes greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions, nonrenewable cumulative energy demand (CED), human and ecotoxicity (USEtox), and the Swiss method of ecological scarcity. The results indicate that the investigated impacts were not improved by the test scenario. The USEtox results also reveal that the leaching impacts can be as serious as binder production and material transport if PAHs emit to groundwater. From an environmental point of view in Switzerland, it is not recommended to promote rubberized SDA by reducing the waste tires used for clinker production. However, if there are waste tires used for MSWI, the rubberized SDA is still an environmentally viable option.
... Cumulative energy demand (CED) is a tool that is widely applied to investigate the energy used throughout the life cycle of a good or service [36,37]. This approach can be considered as a screening indicator for the environmental impact analysis, but it does not replace an assessment with the use of comprehensive impact assessment methods, such as ReCiPe 2016 or ILCD 2011. ...
The electro-mobility of vehicles could solve the negative effects of road transport, by decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. However, some electric vehicles also have a negative impact on the environment related to the nature of electricity used. This paper aims to evaluate the electricity sources for electric vehicles using a Life Cycle Thinking approach. Life cycle assessment, using several midpoints and endpoint methods, highlighted that the most damaging sources were lignite and diesel, while hydropower, wind, and biomass were the most sustainable ones. Cumulative energy demand showed that biomass used the least energy (0.034 MJ eq.), but originates from 100% non-renewable sources. Lignite, which also comes from 100% non-renewable sources, used the most energy (17.791 MJ eq.). The lowest carbon footprints were for wind, biomass, and photovoltaic (<0.1 kg CO2 eq). Municipal waste incineration and natural gas had a medium impact, while lignite, coal, peat, and diesel had a high impact (>1.0 kg CO2 eq.). Considering life cycle costing, photovoltaic electricity generation was the most expensive (0.2107 USD/kWh) while natural gas the cheapest (0.0661 USD/kWh). Therefore, this study presents an integrated approach that may offer a valid tool for decision-makers, giving them the possibility to choose the electricity sources for electric vehicles.
... a These suppliers were referenced in data cited by Boustead and Hancock (1979). ...
Agricultural machinery is crucial to agriculture because it enables field activities and production in large scale. Through mechanisation, agriculture requires inputs such as fuel and indirectly demands materials. Its impact can be assessed through energy, water and carbon footprints. Some studies have updated indices for agricultural machinery, showing different results from those of the 1970s and 1980s. This study presents environmental indices based on energy, carbon and water footprints for the life cycle of six types of agricultural machinery. The machines studied were tractors, sugarcane harvesters, coffee harvesters, sprayers, planters and combiners. Inputs used directly (assembly phase) and for the maintenance phase have been taken into account. The total energy, carbon and water footprints were by multiplying the material flows by their respective energy embodiments, consumed water and carbon footprints indices. Carbon steel accounted for the highest share (30–70%) of energy demand, 45–79% of carbon footprint and 19–59% of water footprint. However, the coffee harvester was an exception since it used nylon making it the machinery with the largest water footprint. Repair and maintenance accounted for a smaller share of all footprints, except for the sugarcane harvester. The water footprint was from 21 to 55 m³ for tractors and between 35 and 391 m³ for other machines. Energy demand varied between 259 and 685 GJ to tractors and between 400 and 3500 GJ for other machines. The carbon footprint varied between 11 and 30 t CO2e for tractors and between 27 and 176 tonne [CO2e] for other machines.
... • Primary Energy Demand: a PI quantifying the amount of energy directly withdrawn from the hydrosphere, atmosphere or geosphere (Keoleian et al., 2005a), that derive from the CED (cumulative energy method) method (Boustead and Hancock, 1979). It is distinguished from non-renewable and renewable resources: for the former (i.e., fossil fuels and uranium), the amount is expressed in MJ-equivalents, whereas in case of the latter it is quantified in biomass kg-equivalents. ...
The present study provides a review of the most diffused technical and non-technical
performance indicators adopted worldwide by infrastructure owners. This work,
developed within the European COST Action TU 1406—“Quality specifications for
roadway bridges, standardization at a European level,” aims to summarize the
state-of-art maintenance scheduling practices adopted by bridge owners, mainly
focusing on the identification and classification of the most diffused performance
indicators (PIs). PIs are subdivided in technical and non-technical ones: for this latter
subclass, PIs are classified in environmental, social and economic-targeted. The study
aims to be a reference for researchers dealing with performance-based assessments
and bridge maintenance and management practices.
... Therefore, to estimate the overall efficiency of a production process, the entire technological chain should be traced back in order to estimate the quantities of the natural resources consumed in each stage. Such an approach was known as Cumulative Energy Consumption (CEnC) calculation and used firstly in energetics to estimate the consumption of natural energy resources (primary energy sources, mainly fuels) consumed in electricity generation (end-use-energy) [27]. However, this method is not appropriate for estimation of the natural resources consumption in production processes of chemical, metallurgical and other process industries, as they use both energetic and non-energetic natural resources. ...
The Cumulative Exergy Consumption (CExC) Concept was proposed and developed by Professor Jan Szargut, paving new ways for various applications of the exergy method in all process industry branches.
The fundamental and applied works of Professor Szargut stimulated a growing interest to the application of the CExC approach to analysis of industrial chemical processes. Most of chemical industry products are manufactured by long production chains, including chemical, physical and thermal processes and consuming various energy natural resources and non-energy feedstock. A number of gaseous, liquid and solid waste flows are еmitted and throw out from each stage of the production chain. For these reasons the CExC concept was found to be an extremely useful way to estimate not only the thermodynamic efficiency of the natural resources utilization, but also to evaluate some environmental effects of the production process.
In this work an example of a CExC approach application for a thermodynamic estimation of some environmental effects from industrial ammonium nitrate production process is presented. The CExC concept and methodology are used to compare three methods for the waste effluents treatment and recycle of the useful components. The net reduction of the total CExC as an algebraic sum from the CExC saving as a positive result of the treatment and the additional CExC consumption depends mainly on the energy source used jn the treatment processes and on the efficiency of energy conversion processes respectively.
... Therefore, to estimate the overall efficiency of a production process, the entire technological chain should be traced back in order to estimate the quantities of the natural resources consumed in each stage. Such an approach was known as Cumulative Energy Consumption (CEnC) calculation and used firstly in energetics to estimate the consumption of natural energy resources (primary energy sources, mainly fuels) consumed in electricity generation (end-use-energy) [27]. However, this method is not appropriate for estimation of the natural resources consumption in production processes of chemical, metallurgical and other process industries, as they use both energetic and non-energetic natural resources. ...
The chemical exergy calculation method and Cumulative Exergy Consumption (CexC) concept are two key and invaluable contributions of Professor Jan Szargut not only to thermodynamics, but also to chemical engineering science and practice. His new concept of the reference state of chemical exergy of substances opened the door for the exergy method application for estimation of chemical, metallurgical and other subsectors of modern process industry. The next achievement of Professor Szargut was the proposition and development of a new exergy-based approach - Cumulative Exergy Consumption (CExC), intended for the quantitative estimation of all kind of natural resources consumed in all stages of a multi-stage production process. On the basis of the Cumulative Exergy Consumption concept, Professor Szargut proposed methodologies for estimation of the environmental and economic effects of the production processes (Ecological Cost Method). These ideas of Professor Szargut were very fruitful and in the next years became the basis of new branches and concepts in modern exergy-based thermodynamics.
In this work an example of application of CExC approach to the production processes of two major nitrogen fertilizers (urea and ammonium nitrate) is briefly presented. On the basis of a series of previous works on exergy analysis of these processes, an attempt is made to estimate the real minimum of natural resources (mainly natural gas) consumption in modern low-energy production chains. A comparison of the results for old (1998) and modern low energy ammonium nitrate and urea production plants shows that the CExC for ammonium nitrate production is reduced by 43% and for urea production by 32%. The calculated CExC for both low energy fertilizers production routes is near the real lower limit, no significant reduction of CExC seems to be possible in the next years if the existing production technologies would be used.
... Many companies now are monitoring their waste generation as a result of their manufacturing processes. In doing so, Pinch analysis [18], industrial energy [19] and energy and life-cycle analysis [20] are three main techniques for minimum energy and resource consumption for flow systems. Similarly, recycling, mainly driven by economic and regulatory factors, is performed to retrieve the material content of used and non-functioning products [1]. ...
This chapter explains the development of the most important step of the ‘Critical Review’ from the beginning in the late 1960s, over SETAC, here, especially, the ‘Code of Practice’, to ISO 14040-43 (1997–2000) and ISO 14040 (2006) as well as ISO 14044 (2006). While ISO 14040-43 (1997–2000) can be regarded as the first series or the first edition, the update in 2006 as ISO 14040 (2006) and ISO 14044 (2006) has elaborated the commonly accepted rules for LCA (Life Cycle Assessment). They are the ‘core standards’:
ISO 14040 (2006): Environmental management − Life cycle assessment − Principles and framework.
ISO 14044 (2006): Environmental management − Life cycle assessment − Requirements and guidelines.
Moreover, the chapter describes the importance of the Technical Specification ISO 14071 for the performance and quality of the critical review process.KeywordsCode of Practice (1993)Critical reviewInterpretationISO (International Standard Organisation)ISO 14040-14043 (1997–2000)
ISO 14040 (2006)
ISO 14044 (2006)
ISO/TC207/SC5
LCALCILife cycle assessmentLife cycle inventory analysisPeer reviewSETACTechnical specification ISO 14071 (2014)
The agricultural input constraint such as irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, fuel, and electrical energy are the key factors for increased water and carbon footprint values in atmosphere. Thus, optimal use of above mentioned farm inputs is highly needed for reduced environmental pollution. The CF and WF concepts provides a new comprehensive view, for the assesment of water and carbon footprints of onion crop cultivated under flodded and drip irrigation practices conducted at costal belt of Konkan region of Maharashtra state, India. The average CO2 emissions were computed as 22.30, 18.8, 20.46, and 20.01 t CO2 ha−1 under control, 0.8 ETC, 1.0 ETc, and 1.2 ETc irrigation scenarios, respectively. Irrespective of the growing seasons, the 1.2 ETc treatment resulted in highest onion yield (33.1 kg ha−1) among all the treatments, but with higher carbon emission rate. Whereas, the 0.8 ETc treatment was water efficient with minimum carbon emission rate, thereby forming a basis for achieving the optimal yield potential of the crop with a significant saving of water. The yield recorded during season 1 was higher by 22.8, 18.6, and 13.9% under 0.8 ETc, 1.0 ETc, and 1.2 ETc treatments, respectively, as compared to season 2. The emission rate of green WF was recorded to be significantly lower by 12.26, 23.63, and 26.97% under 0.8 ETC, 1.0 ETC, and 1.2 ETC, respectively, as compared to the control irrigation level. The higher values of green WF in control were mainly due to increased irrigation depth under flooded irrigation. The gray WF was also higher under control treatment as compared to rest of the treatments. The average CO2 emissions were recorded to be 22.30, 18.8, 20.4,6 and 20.01 t CO2 ha−1 under control, 0.8 ETC, 1.0 ETC, and 1.2 ETC irrigation scenarios. The irrigation treatment with highest amount of water application resulted in highest water and carbon footprint values, indicating an increasing trend from 0.8 ETc to 1.2 ETc during both seasons. The higher CF values in relation to irrigation were also correlated to increased water application and lower crop yields. Thus, drip irrigation coupled fertigation method may be the most possible way to reduce both WF and CF in relation to improved water and nutrient application to the crops.
Two thirds of all people own a mobile phone or smartphone, which are typically not very durable and often are replaced. As a result, mobile phones already outnumber people on earth and represent the fastest growing waste stream. This entails a whole range of problems. On the environmental impact side, issues range from high input of metal ores to large amounts of electronic waste. Here, we quantify the environmental benefit of reparability on the example of a modular and easily repairable smartphone facilitating a longer lifetime. Within the scope of a life cycle assessment, we analyse the climate, energy, land, material and water footprint, focusing on the potential savings that arise from modularity and the longer lifetime. A modular use case, in which a smartphone is used for 5 years through replacement of defective modules, is compared to a reference use case with 2.5 years standard use and no replacements by means of the application-related functional unit "smartphone use for one year". The reference use case is responsible for 9 kg climate-damaging emissions, consumes 33 kWh of energy, 0.4 m ² of land, 16 kg of raw material and 32 kg of primary material as well as 3 m ³ of water and would require 8,000 m ³ of dilution water to eliminate water pollution by dilution. The modular use case can save an average of 40% of emissions and natural resources per functional unit. In the area of gold production alone, 3 kg of raw materials or 9 kg of primary materials can be saved. Scaled to 2 billion smartphones sold worldwide yearly, raw material savings are in the order of 13,000 multi-family houses, while CO 2 emissions can be saved in the order of 12 million medium-haul flights per year. Spatial hotspots of environmental impacts can be reduced and mitigated if easy reparability is ensured through a modular design and if customers use their smartphones longer.
The increasing area under paddy crop, excessive groundwater pumping, over-use of agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) and increasing area under paddy residue burning have become the key contributors of increased carbon emission (CE) and carbon footprint (CF) in Punjab state. After agrochemicals (71.7% CE), residue burning (16.4% CE) was recorded to be the largest contributor of CE in the state, followed by irrigation (6.9% CE). Among the three major zones, CE was recorded to be 13.4%, 58.5% and 28.1% in the NorthWest , Central and SouthWest zone, respectively, with being highest and lowest in Central and NorthWest zone, respectively. The average annual CF (t CO 2 eq/t) was recorded to be 1.11 ± 0.23, 0.94 ± 0.05 and 0.99 ± 0.06 t CO 2 eq/t for NorthWest , Central and SouthWest zones, respectively, with a total value of 3.04 ± 0.34 t CO 2 eq/t at state level. On average, CF of the state indicated an increasing trend from 0.96 t CO 2 eq/t in 2017-2018 to 1.09 t CO 2 eq/t in 2019-2020. The higher CF values indicated higher GHG S emission in relation to groundwater pumping, fertilizer and pesticide applications, mechanical operations and post-harvest residue burning. Although rice production is very much needed for food security of the region, however, the quantitative and qualitative depletions of available resources (water, soil fertility, air quality, etc.) have started imposing negative impacts on agricultural production and environment. Thus, there is a need to take immediate remedial measures and reduce the over-exploitation of groundwater, over-use of fertilizers and pesticides, and burning of post-harvest paddy residue in the state.
Carbon footprint, a primary environmental concern, varies depending on individual consumption patterns. This study assessed the carbon footprint of three prominent bottled water producers in Chattogram, using a modeling tool created in excel that showed the weighted average contribution of three bottle producers is 154g CO2-eq per 1.5L bottle in a year. The study also revealed that the raw material production process and transportation of materials are the highest contributors to GHG emissions in the bottled water production process. The overall production of bottles depended on the beverage component's recycling allocation and bottle weight. Different levels of recycling ratio result in carbon footprint reductions of 3%, 15%, 30%, and 60%, respectively. Further, bottle weight reduction results in a specific reduction in the carbon footprint of overall bottled water production. Hence, the findings of this study will aid the organizations in this expanding sector in adopting a sustainable production method and meeting sustainable development goals.
Renewable energy generation has great potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, however, it may exacerbate other environmental impacts, such as water scarcity, elsewhere in the supply chain. Here, we reveal a wide range of global environmental impacts of concentrated solar power, run-of-river hydropower, and biomass burning compared to classical coal-fired power: Spatially explicit life cycle impact assessment is used to evaluate their supply chains with respect to demand for energy, land, material, and water, greenhouse gas emissions, and impacts on human health and ecosystem quality with a focus on mining. Hotspot analyses in terms of location and type of impact show that there is no clear preference for any of the technologies, mainly because water consumption is often critical on-site. The examined concentrated solar power plant is the least suitable for a sustainable energy transition: Its spatial hotspots are spreading the furthest globally and may exceed those of coal combustion in number and severity. The presented methodology is the basis to mitigate such environmental hotspots. A global analysis and comparison of environmental impacts of supply chains for coal-powered and renewable electricity production shows that, while cumulative impacts of renewable electricity are lower, single impacts of renewable electricity production can be higher, especially associated with mining.
Progressive urbanization and the concomitant requirement to develop new cities fuels the need for more sub-surface utility infrastructure. Conventional methods of utility placement, i.e. open-cut trenching techniques, are expensive in terms of their many social, environmental, and indirect economic costs. This necessitates consideration of alternative construction methods such as Multi-Utility Tunnels (MUTs). However, a lack of quantification of their short-term and long-term costs and impacts (i.e. a comprehensive understanding of all the consequences of moving to MUTs) inhibits uptake. Carbon accounting, a globally important consideration, is increasingly adopted within the construction industry and could be used as a convincing argument for why alternatives such as MUTs might be a preferred method of utility placement in cities that are advancing global sustainability agendas. This paper compares carbon cost estimations of open-cut excavations with flush-fitting MUTs. The results show that although flush-fitting MUTs have much greater carbon footprints in the short-term compared to open-cut installation methods, they would save a considerable amount of carbon in the long-term (over their lifetime) by eliminating the need for numerous excavation and reinstatement (E&R) procedures, which are inevitable for repair and maintenance of buried utility services. The research reveals the tipping points in favour of flush-fitting MUTs, in terms of carbon saved, when repetitive E&R works are eradicated, to support their adoption.
This chapter gives an overview of the mainstream approaches and solutions to the problem of multifunctionality in the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) phase. Many industrial processes are multifunctional. Their purpose generally comprises more than a single product or service. Practitioners in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are thus faced with the problem that the product system(s) under study provide more functions than the one investigated in the functional unit of interest. Among others, an appropriate decision must therefore consider which economic and environmental flows of the multifunctional process or system are to be allocated to which of its products and services. The discussion on multifunctionality goes back to energy analysis (a precursor of LCA), and several of today’s well-known solutions for the multifunctionality problem origin from this time. There is no generally accepted solution for the multifunctionality problem, and it is even hard to imagine that there will ever be a solution. On the other hand, it is generally recognized that different solutions may considerably influence LCA results depending on the exact position of the multifunctional process in the product’s flow chart. As a consequence, sensitivity analyses should be applied to test the influence of different solutions. An issue that deserves more attention is the fact that most LCA case studies so far apply one of the solutions without properly justifying where and what exactly the multifunctionality problem is and which criteria are used for determining that. In this chapter, these steps are therefore distinguished, explicitly aiming for more transparency in the discussion on multifunctionality approaches and solutions.
Bioinspirierte Materialien, wie artifizielle Spinnenseide, können zukünftig wichtige Bestandteile von neuen Produkten sein. Artifizielle Spinnenseide verbindet die optimierten Eigenschaften von natürlichen Materialien mit modernen Methoden der Materialwissenschaften. Die These, dass die Verwendung von artifizieller Spinnenseide zur Nachhaltigkeit beiträgt, sollte jedoch fundiert überprüft werden. Beim Vergleich von Polymer- mit Spinnenseidenfasern ist der Kostenfaktor immer das erst-rangige Argument. Polymerfasern sind sehr kostengünstig, wenn man den aktuellen Markt-preis berücksichtigt. Bei knapper werdenden Rohstoffen und steigenden Rohstoffpreisen, wie z.B. für Rohöl, und unter Berücksichtigung von Einflüssen der Umweltverträglichkeit bei der Produktion, könnte sich die biotechnologische Produktion von artifizieller Spinnenseide je-doch, in Summe aller Faktoren, als vorteilhaft herausstellen. Biotechnologische Prozesse laufen unter sanften Bedingungen (moderate Temperaturen, normaler Druck, geringe Chemikalienkonzentrationen) ab, wohingegen chemische Prozesse meist bei hohem Druck und hoher Temperatur unter Zuhilfenahme von Chemikalien, mit zum Teil negativen Umwelt-auswirkungen, ablaufen. Um Nachhaltigkeit durch Quantifizierung von Umweltauswirkungen messbar zu machen bietet sich dich Methodik der Ökobilanzierung bzw. das Life Cycle Assessment an. Um eine fundierte Aussage zu den potenziellen Umweltauswirkungen der Herstellung und Verwendung artifizieller Spinnenseiden treffen zu können, wurde eine vergleichende ökobilanzielle Betrachtung durchgeführt. Die erstellte vereinfachte Ökobilanz erfolgte entsprechend den Richtlinien der ISO 14040 und 14044. Eine vereinfachte Ökobilanz zeichnet sich dadurch aus, dass viele der notwendigen Daten der Sachbilanz aus Mangel realer Daten geschätzt oder berechnet werden. Es wurde einerseits die Herstellung von artifizieller Spinnenseide basierend auf einer, aus dem Labormaßstab hochgerechneten Abschätzung der Erzeugung künstlicher Spinnenseide im Produktionsmaßstab erarbeitet, sowie andererseits als eine konkrete Anwendung des Einsatzes künstlicher Spinnenseide, die Bewertung eines Spinnenseiden-Submikrogewebes im Staubbeutel im Vergleich zu einem etablierten Staubbeutel Filter-gewebe, durchgeführt. Zur Erstellung der Sachbilanzdaten wurden die einzelnen Prozess-schritte des Produktionsverfahrens mit Equipment abgebildet, um somit die verbrauchten Materialien, Medien und Energien im Prozess valide abzuschätzen und deren Umweltaus-wirkungen berücksichtigen zu können. Zur Abbildung des Lebenszyklus und der Prozessschritte der ökobilanziellen Betrachtung wurde das Programm Umberto verwendet, welches es ermöglicht chemische und biotechno-logische Prozesse abzubilden und zu vergleichen. Umberto ermöglicht eine einfache Modellierung, Berechnung und Visualisierung, sowie durch Verwendung einer umfangreichen, wissenschaftlich gut fundierten und transparenten Ökobilanz-Datenbank, wie ecoInvent 2.2, die Bewertung von Stoff- und Energieflüssen. Die Stoffflussdaten bieten eine wertvolle Unterstützung für den Vergleich von Technologievarianten und bei der Auswahl von Verbesserungsmaßnahmen. Die Auswertung der Ergebnisse der ökobilanziellen Betrachtung der Produktion von 1 kg Spinnenseide zeigte als größtes Potential zur Verbesserung der Umweltauswirkung den Produktionsschritt der Fermentation. Über eine Reduzierung des Glucosebedarfs und der notwendigen Kühlenergie bei der Fermentation könnte die Herstellung von Spinnenseide optimiert und so eine erhebliche Reduzierung der Umweltauswirkung erreicht werden. Die Bewertung der Verwendung des Spinnenseiden-Submikrogewebes in einem Staubbeutel im Vergleich zu einem etablierten Staubbeutel Filtergewebe führte eindeutig zu einer Umweltentlastung. Die Einsparung an Energie und des Standard-Filtermaterials überwog deutlich die Aufwendung zur Herstellung und Entsorgung des zusätzlichen Spinnenseiden-Submikrogewebes. Durch Einsatz eines Staubbeutels mit Spinnenseidengewebe könnten 9 kg CO2-Equivalente in der Wirkungskategorie Klimaerwärmung pro Jahr und Haushalt eingespart werden und mit der Annahme, dass alle eingesetzten Staubbeutel eine Lage Spinnenseidengewebe enthalten, könnte für Deutschland eine Umweltentlastung von 241 Mio. kg CO2-Equivalenten in der Wirkungskategorie Klimaerwärmung pro Jahr erreicht werden. Somit könnte die in der EU-Richtlinie 666/2013 geforderte Energieeinsparung von Staub-saugern bei gleichbleibender Saugleistung zu einem Teil durch den Einsatz eines Spinnenseidengewebes geleistet werden. Die Ergebnisse der ökobilanziellen Betrachtung des Spinnenseiden-Submikrogewebes im Staubbeutel wurden 2015 beim Journal Green Materials veröffentlicht. Der Vergleich mit Polyamid 6,6 zu Abschätzung weiterer potenzieller Anwendungen zeigte, dass die Ergebnisse der vereinfachten Ökobilanz für Spinnenseide basierend auf der Hoch-rechnung des Laborprozesses bei einem 1:1 Ersatz kein Umweltentlastungspotential auf-weist. Als Ansatzpunkte für eine Verbesserung der Emissionswerte der Herstellung von Spinnenseide im Vergleich zu anderen Materialien wurde einerseits die Verwendung von realen Daten der Herstellung von Spinnenseide im Produktionsmaßstab identifiziert, und andererseits zur Erhöhung der Vergleichbarkeit die Anwendung gleicher Allokationsmethoden und Umsetzung weitere Annahmen bei den Herstellprozessen empfohlen.
Brazil is one of the major global poultry producers, and the organic waste generated by the chicken slaughterhouses can potentially be used as a biofertilizer in agriculture. This study was designed to test the hypothesis that continuous use of biofertilizer to the crops, substituting the use of mineral fertilizer promote C-offset for the soil and generate crop energy efficiency for the production system. Thus, the objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of biofertilizer use alone or in combination with mineral fertilizer on soil organic carbon (SOC) stock, carbon dioxide (CO2) mitigation, C-offset, crop energy efficiency and productivity, and alleviation of environmental pollution. The experiment was established in southern Brazil on a soil under 15 years of continuous no-till (NT). Experimental treatments were as follows: i) Control with no fertilizer application, ii) 100 % use of industrial mineral fertilizer (Min-F); iii) 100% use of organic waste originated from poultry slaughterhouses and hereinafter designated biofertilizer (Bio-F), and iv) Mixed fertilizer equivalent to the use of 50% mineral fertilizer + 50% of biofertilizer (Mix-F). Effects of experimental treatments were assessed for the crop sequence based on bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), soybean (Glycine max) and corn (Zea mays) in the summer and wheat (Triticum aestivum) and black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb) in the winter composing two crops per year, as follow: bean/wheat-soybean/black oat-corn/wheat-soybean/black oat-corn/wheat-bean. The continuous use of Bio-F treatment significantly increased the index of crop energy efficiency. It was higher than that of control, and increased it by 25.4 Mg CO2eq ha-1 over that of Min-F treatment because of higher inputs of crop biomass-C into the system. Further, continuous use of Bio-F resulted in a significantly higher CO2eq stock and offset than those for Min-F treatment. A positive relationship between the C-offset and the crop energy efficiency (R2 = 0.71, p < 0.001) indicated that the increase of C-offset was associated with the increase of energy balance and the amount of SOC sequestered. The higher energy efficiency and C-offset by application of Bio-F indicated that the practice of crop bio fertilization with poultry slaughterhouse waste is a viable alternative for recycling and minimizing the environmental impacts.
The paper analyzes the methods of increasing efficiency and environmental safety of refrigeration systems for oil and gas refineries. A comparative assessment of the effectiveness in refrigeration cycles using various refrigerants was implemented. Particular attention is paid to increase effectiveness of centrifugal compressors by reducing irreversible losses in refrigeration cycles and the use of new scheme solutions. The main approaches for the terms of reference formation how to manufacture compressor equipment taking into account the optimal control methods were revealed.
Estimation of the carbon footprint in rice cropping systems can help in identifying the major options available in the quest to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in agricultural production. This research study assessed the greenhouse gas emissions of irrigated rice production based on field experiments and surveys. The study determined the effect of application of different nitrogen rates on crop yield, carbon footprint and net carbon in irrigated rice (Oryza sativa var KRC Baika) production systems. A three-year (one minor season followed by two major seasons) field experiment was conducted on a Vertisol in a completely randomized design with four nitrogen application rates. Biomass yield and the N content of straw and grain were determined after harvest. Additionally, data on detailed farm activities relative to the cultivation of the rice crop, input use as well as biomass yield were obtained and used to estimate the carbon footprint during the study. The results showed that between 862 and 1717 kg CO 2-eq ha −1 was emitted from rice fields per season. From this study, nitrogen fertilizer with about 42% of the emissions, was the biggest contributor to total GHG emissions ha −1 of rice crop. Applying nitrogen fertilizer at 90 kg N ha −1 gave a similar yield, but with a lower carbon footprint relative to the application of 135 kg N ha −1. Therefore, applying N at 90 kg N ha −1 maintained yields, reduced GHG emissions and had a positive net carbon. The results of this study can be applied to ensure that farmers maintain yields with less cost to the environment.
Paint sludge (PS) is a waste product coming from spray application of paints in automotive industry. For the first time, this work assessed the economic costs and environmental impacts connected to recycling PS in bituminous binders for asphalt pavement applications. Previous works have demonstrated that PS could be used as a replacement of up to 20% (w/w) of neat bitumen in the production of hot mixture asphalts (HMAs), without worsening the technical performances of pavements. The annual production of PS from Italian automotive plants (3000 t/year) could be accommodated in a paved area of 1.64 km2 that, when employed in local roads, with an average width of 5 m, corresponds to approximately 330 km. Costs for treating PS to be prepared for recycling resulted in 144 €/t raw PS. This cost was of the same order, or even less, of that required for PS incineration or disposal in a landfill for hazardous waste (250–300 €). The LCA analysis revealed that the production of HMAs by employing a binder that contains 20% (w/w) of PS, reduced the gross energy requirement (GER) and global warming potential (GWP) indexes by 15% and 39%, respectively, compared to an HMA produced with the traditional process.
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The promotion of biofuels and green commodity chemicals, under the concept of the biorefinery, is an outcome of global concerns about energy security, economic development in rural communities, the depletion of fossil fuel reserves, and anthropogenic climate change. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has developed as a methodology to assess the environmental performance of new products and technologies, addressing environmental impact categories such as climate change, natural resource depletion and land use. It allows checks to be made on the impacts of biofuels and green commodity chemicals, and to make comparative assessments against the fuels and chemicals which they are intended to replace. However, LCA can be complicated and strict guidelines have been established which should be adhered to for carrying out LCA, in order to allow claims and comparisons to be made. This chapter provides a review of the use of LCA methodology for biofuels and green commodity chemicals, the challenges which can be associated with its undertaking, and the nuances of methodological choices on the outcomes of LCA.
In der Wirkungsabschätzung geht es darum, die Informationen aus der Sachbilanz (d. h. die Ergebnisse mit den kumulierten Schadstoffemissionen und Ressourcenverbräuchen) für die Kommunikation und/oder die Entscheidungsunterstützung auf wenige (Umwelt-)Parameter zu verdichten. Eine Verdichtung bedeutet, dass eine Gewichtung oder Priorisierung der vorliegenden Informationen vorgenommen wird.
Due to our lifestyle and way of using energy, especially in transportation systems, increase in green house emissions has become a threatening reality at present time and its impacts will be worse in the near future. Green transportation system aims to maintain a pollution free environment with lesser emissions and less impact on human health and on the natural environment. An eco-efficient transportation system means improving environmental quality, efficiency, and profitability by reducing unnecessary inputs and outputs in production and operation processes of transportation system. According to World Business Council on Sustainable Development, eco-efficiency is being achieved by the delivery of competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life, while progressively reducing ecological impacts and resources intensity throughout the life cycle, to a level at least in line with the Earth’s estimated carrying capacity. Eco-efficiency is a bridge between economy and the environment and is about increasing resource productivity and decreasing environmental pressure. Green transportation depends heavily on the energy linked to vehicle movements. Energy efficiency is affected by vehicle design, road infrastructure and operations. Every one of these factors should be reviewed from eco-efficiency perspective and environmental issues should become a prominent element in green transportation strategies, operations and technologies. Article will end with some recommendations towards green transportation, which is more eco- efficient option.
Over the last decades, wind energy has been named as a clean method to generate electrical power. But, to claim this argument many aspects must be evaluated. On one hand, wind power, as an electrical energy source, generates minimum environmental impact when in operation. On the other side, the material extraction for the manufacturing process does create environmental impact and require electrical energy usage. Therefore, when claiming the sustainability of wind power, as a method of electrical power generation, many aspects must be evaluated, such as the Life Cycle Analysis of the turbine. This study has been taken to evaluate the energy cost and its payback period off the wind power turbine S-600, manufactured by Greatwatt, has being evaluated. This evaluation has covered the embodied energy in the gross material present on the final product and its energetic payback period, for the specific case of working in a rural area in the state of Paraná, Brazil. The ISO 14040 methodology, for life cycle analyses, has being applied to estimate the embodied energy in the gross material present on the generator. The annual average energetic production estimation has considered 4 cases, varying the voltage output and hub height, and the nominal capacity, claimed by the manufacturing company. To assess the embodied energy payback period, the theoretical generation capacity has been estimated. Thus, by this analysis, this article has concluded that the embodied energy in the gross material is 803.39MJ. The energetic payback period for this product, at 10 meters hub height, is 11.6 months, if operating on 12 V, and 12.6 months, if operation on 24 V. Furthermore, in the situation of installed at 30 meters from the ground, the energy payback period drops down to 5.3 and 5.5 months, operating on 12 or 24 V respectively. In the situation of nominal generation, the energetic payback period would dropdown to 4.6 and 3.1 months, operating on 12 or 24 V respectively.
Dünyanın her köşesinde bolca bulunan doğal kaynaklarla yerel olarak üretilebilen beton, günümüzde altyapı ve konut ihtiyacının karşılanması için dünyada en yaygın kullanılan yapı malzemesidir. Nitekim bu çok yönlü malzeme dünyada kişi başına yılda 1 m3 ten fazla düşen üretimiyle günümüzde ‘en fazla üretilen insan yapımı malzeme’ konumundadır. Tabiatından gelen güç, dayanıklılık, geri dönüştürülebilirlik, yangın dayanımı, toksik olmama, yüksek termal (ısıl) kütle gibi nitelikleriyle beton, sürdürülebilir malzeme olarak kabul edilmektedir. Bununla birlikte beton üretiminin ilişkilendirildiği çevresel etkiler nedeniyle üretim ve kullanım süreçlerinde farkındalık gerektirdiği de bir gerçektir.
Günümüzde karbon ayak izi, birincil çevresel gösterge olarak beton ve diğer taşıyıcı malzemeli yapıların değerlendirilmesi ve karşılaştırılması için kullanılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada beton yapıların karbon ayak izi, yaşam döngüsü değerlendirmesi (YDD) ile irdelenecektir. Beton, temel bileşeni çimentonun karbondioksit salınımı (emisyonu) yüksek üretim süreci nedeniyle nispeten yüksek gömülü CO2 değerlerine sahip olsa da, yüksek termal kütlesi nedeniyle yapının hizmet ömrü boyunca yapının enerji performansının iyileştirilmesine yardımcı olarak başlangıçtaki yüksek değerlerin etkisini telafi edecektir. Kullanım ömrü sonunda beton diğer yapı malzemelerine geri dönüştürülebilir. Tam bir geri dönüşüm yapılamasa dahi beton molozları karbonlaşmaya devam ederek atmosferden CO2 çekmeye devam edecektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Beton, Sürdürülebilirlik, Yaşam Döngüsü Değerlendirmesi, Yaşam Döngüsü Analizi
This chapter introduces two methodologies based on the life cycle concept: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC). LCA and LCC are briefly described in order to provide the reader with an overview of the procedures and a complete bibliographic framework.
This chapter contains sections titled: Energy Use Implications Drivers and Solutions for Energy Efficiency Overview of the Book Contents
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