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Social Psychology of Education (2023) 27:435–459
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-023-09841-8
Social competencies, classroom relationships,
andacademic engagement: Alatent change score
modeling approach amonglower secondary school
students
EliVibekeEriksen1 · LeneVestad1 · EdvinBru1 · SimonaC.S.Caravita1
Received: 3 June 2022 / Accepted: 24 August 2023 / Published online: 19 September 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract
This longitudinal study applied latent change score (LCS) modeling to examine
individual changes in students’ (N = 1205) academic engagement (behavioral and
emotional), social competencies (relationship skills and social awareness), and
classroom relationships (emotional support from teachers and collaborative peer
relations). Average changes during the first year of lower secondary school were
investigated, and an LCS model specifying that individual changes in social compe-
tencies are related to individual changes in academic engagement partially via indi-
vidual changes in classroom relationships was tested. The results indicated an aver-
age decline for all variables, particularly emotional engagement. Changes in social
competencies were associated with changes in classroom relationships and indirectly
with changes in academic engagement via changes in emotional support from teach-
ers. A direct association was found between changes in social awareness and behav-
ioral engagement. The findings reflect that the promotion of social competencies in
lower secondary school may foster positive classroom relationships and academic
engagement, mainly via perceived social awareness for behavioral engagement or
via emotional support from teachers for both dimensions of academic engagement.
Keywords Academic engagement· Relationship skills· Social awareness·
Emotional support from teachers· Collaborative peer relations· Lower secondary
school
1 Introduction
Evidence suggests that students’ social competencies are crucial for a spectrum of
favorable developmental outcomes (Catalano etal., 2004; Engels etal., 2001) and
play a key role in shaping students’ successful educational trajectories (Durlak etal.,
2010). At the beginning of lower secondary school, students are typically at an
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
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436
E.V.Eriksen et al.
age when their capacity for social competence development increases (Blakemore,
2008), while developmental changes in their perceived capabilities become more
comprehensive (Harter, 1990). For some students, this may lead to a negative shift in
their perceptions of social competencies (Manning, 2007). Furthermore, entry into
lower secondary school is typically accompanied by new social demands in associa-
tion with the new and potentially more complex social contexts in which they find
themselves (Strand, 2019; Ulmanen etal., 2014), resulting in disparities between
their social developmental needs and the educational context (Wang & Eccles,
2013). Moreover, students’ engagement in academic work simultaneously deterio-
rates during this period (Bakken, 2021; Diseth etal., 2020; Wang etal., 2015).
This period of rapid individual development and changes in the educational
context provides an opportunity to investigate how individual changes in students’
social competencies, classroom relationships, and academic engagement are related.
This may facilitate an enhanced understanding of why intervention efforts aimed to
enhance students’ social-emotional competencies have also been suggested to be
relevant predictors of academic engagement and improved relationships with teach-
ers and peers, including better adjustment in the educational context (Domitrovich
etal., 2017; Jones & Doolittle, 2017; Santos etal., 2023). Examining relationships
between individual changes in these phenomena over time using longitudinal data
would contribute to this. Therefore, this two-wave longitudinal panel study extends
existing research by using a latent change score (LCS) model in examining indi-
vidual changes during the first year of lower secondary school, including how indi-
vidual changes in two social competencies (relationship skills and social awareness)
relate to individual changes in academic engagement (behavioral and emotional)
via individual changes in emotional support from teachers and collaborative peer
relations.
1.1 The Norwegian lower secondary school context
Ten years of schooling is compulsory in Norway, and this period of education is
divided into two main stages: primary school (1st to 7th grade) and lower secondary
school (8th to 10th grade). Students begin attending primary school at age six and
lower secondary school at age thirteen. Most Norwegian lower secondary schools
are separate from primary schools, are often larger, and recruit students from mul-
tiple primary schools. Thus, students typically attend classes with new peers and
teachers. Students entering secondary school are also exposed to grades for the first
time and increased academic demands. That is, some students may begin to experi-
ence high achievement expectations and academic-related stress during the lower
secondary school years (Bakken, 2021; Murberg & Bru, 2004). Such changes may
result in reduced integration between the social and academic contexts for affected
students (Eccles & Roeser, 2009; Wang & Hofkens, 2020), all of which may nega-
tively impact students’ engagement (Hanewald, 2013; Wang & Eccles, 2013).
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437
Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
2 Academic engagement andits changes inlower secondary school
Following Skinner etal. (2008), we employ a motivational conceptualization of aca-
demic engagement, whereby students’ engagement in academic work is constituted
by their behavioral and emotional participation in the classroom. Behavioral engage-
ment concerns students’ attention, effort, and persistence in learning activities,
whereas emotional engagement refers to students’ affective participation, such as
their enjoyment and enthusiasm. Emotional engagement is closely linked to intrinsic
or autonomous motivation (Skinner etal., 2008). Each dimension is instrumental
in the internal dynamics of academic engagement, reflecting students’ approaches
to learning. The underlying assumption is that high-quality learning results from
behaviors and emotions that reflect a diligent learning effort (Fredricks etal., 2004).
Unfortunately, studies have identified an average decline in engagement during
adolescence (Engels etal., 2016; Wang etal., 2015), including in Norway (Bakken,
2021; Diseth etal., 2020), where the present study was carried out. Disengagement
can have severe and long-term consequences, including academic underachievement
and school dropout (Skinner & Pitzer, 2012; Wang & Fredricks, 2014). One poten-
tial factor in this decline may be the academic challenges specific to this period,
which include more complex peer relationships and the need to establish support-
ive teacher–student relationships with new and larger numbers of teachers (Engels
etal., 2016; Strand, 2019). Given that the social contexts and the quality of the inter-
actions in the educational setting may play a significant role in how well students
engage with their studies (Roorda etal., 2011; Wentzel, 2003), we anticipated that
individual changes in social competencies may be linked to individual changes in
academic engagement via individual changes in classroom relationships (i.e., emo-
tional support from teachers and collaborative peer relations).
2.1 Classroom relationships andacademic engagement
Existing research suggests that perceived emotional support from teachers is linked
to positive educational outcomes, such as enhanced self-perceptions regarding aca-
demic competence and greater commitment to learning (Furrer et al., 2014; Ver-
schueren etal., 2012). In a more emotionally supportive classroom environment, stu-
dents are more likely to share their ideas and engage in discussion, exhibit positive
attitudes toward learning, and express enjoyment, as they can rely on their teach-
ers for support (Shim etal., 2013). For instance, Furrer and Skinner (2003) found
that students who perceived teachers as emotionally supportive tended to be more
behaviorally and emotionally engaged with learning. In addition, the teacher–stu-
dent relationship may also function as a buffer against negative emotions in the edu-
cational setting (e.g., boredom or anxiety; Furrer & Skinner, 2003), which in turn
could facilitate growth in students’ academic engagement (Linnenbrink-Garcia &
Pekrun, 2011).
Collaborative peer relations may also facilitate growth in students’ engagement.
For instance, research suggests that functional collaborative peer interactions in the
learning process could result in greater productivity and engagement for learning
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438
E.V.Eriksen et al.
than are achieved when working alone (Johnson & Johnson, 2017). In support of
this perspective, Wentzel (2003) proposed that students who perceive opportunities
to achieve their social learning goals are more likely to express greater interest in
subject content and academic grades. Finally, depending on how well cooperative
learning is structured within the classroom, collaborative peer relations may provide
learning contexts wherein students hold one another responsible for certain stand-
ards of conduct (Wentzel & Watkins, 2002). Such contexts may engage students in
investing greater effort in learning assignments. However, the potential benefits of
collaborative peer relations may vary depending on the peer groups’ attitudes toward
and influences on schoolwork (Wentzel etal., 2018), making it difficult to form clear
expectations regarding the connection between individual changes in collaborative
peer relations and engagement.
Furthermore, the structural context of lower secondary school is likely to differ
from that implemented at primary school level, and the first year may be socially
challenging for some students. For example, emotional support from teachers has
been shown to decline as students get older (Bru etal., 2010), and students tend to
perceive lower secondary school teachers as less emotionally supportive (Zimmer-
Gembeck etal., 2016). In addition, researchers have found that some students find
it challenging to maintain functional collaborative peer relations, as they experience
relationships as more sophisticated and as requiring more complex social strate-
gies (Ulmanen etal., 2014). Nevertheless, it is challenging to accurately predict the
course of change in classroom relationships during lower secondary school, par-
ticularly in perceived collaborative peer relations. That is, while the importance of
social interactions in the learning process has long been recognized (e.g., Christen-
son etal., 2012), few studies have examined students’ academic engagement in the
context of collaborative peer relations throughout adolescence (Ryan etal., 2019).
Moreover, despite promising indications from cross-sectional studies regarding how
emotional support from teachers may serve many beneficial outcomes, very few
studies have addressed the parallelity of change for emotional support from teach-
ers and collaborative peer relations with academic engagement (Quin, 2017). Such
research appears to be particularly important, given the multiple changes in the
social contexts of the learning environment in lower secondary school.
2.2 Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic engagement
Regarding social competencies, adolescence is a developmental stage of specific
interest, with neurostructural and associated cognitive changes taking place in paral-
lel with environmental changes that increase adolescents’ exposure to more com-
plex social situations (Choudhury et al., 2006). The cognitive development that
occurs during this period is likely to enhance one’s ability to understand and take
others’ needs into consideration, including the skills required to adequately initiate
and interact with others (Blakemore, 2008; Steinberg, 2017). However, growth pat-
terns might vary due to differences in individual factors and contextual exposures
(Junge etal., 2020). Moreover, developmental psychological research has found that
the evaluation of oneself becomes more comprehensive and differentiated between
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439
Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
childhood and adolescence (Harter, 1990). For some students, this more compre-
hensive and differentiated self-perception may lead to a decline in self-concept dur-
ing the transition to lower secondary school (Manning, 2007). Young children often
tend to overestimate their competence (Lipko etal., 2009). As they grow older, their
increased cognitive maturity enhances their ability to integrate information from
multiple sources, and thus their self-perceptions become increasingly accurate (Har-
ter & Marold, 1991). Thus, on the one hand, cognitive maturation may enhance their
social competencies, while, on the other hand, their ability to evaluate such compe-
tencies more accurately may cause a deterioration in their perceptions of their own
social competencies.
Developmental and intervention studies, including in the social-emotional learn-
ing research field, indicate that promoting good social competencies is believed
to benefit social settings and lead to favorable student outcomes, such as adaptive
functioning, developmental thriving, positive adjustment, and higher engagement in
learning (Domitrovich etal., 2017; Jones & Doolittle, 2017; Zins et al., 2007). In
this study, we predicted that individual changes in two specific components of social
competencies (relationship skills and social awareness) would be related to individ-
ual changes in students’ classroom relationships and thereby to individual changes
in academic engagement. This will be further elaborated below.
Relationship skills In accordance with the Collaborative for Academic and Social
and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2021), relationship skills were operationalized as
the ability to initiate and sustain communication with others, as well as the ability
to maintain supportive relationships. Students who have highly developed relation-
ship skills tend to be more assertive and better at interacting with others (Eckenrode,
2013; Wentzel, 1994). Strong relationship skills are also linked to qualitative feed-
back processes and enhanced willingness to interact with peers (Van Ryzin etal.,
2020). Furthermore, teachers tend to have a greater rapport with students whose
relationship skills are strong, which may lead to improved teacher–student relation-
ships (Curby etal., 2013). Consequently, these students may receive greater emo-
tional support for their learning (Neal etal., 2011).
Moreover, given that satisfactory relationship skills may help students navigate
social interactions in school, they might promote the maintenance of social connec-
tions, ensuring that they receive support and experience a sense of belonging (Gif-
ford-Smith & Brownell, 2003; Pianta etal., 2012). Given that perceived support and
a sense of belonging have been positively linked with intrinsic motivation (Klem &
Connell, 2004; Ryan & Deci, 2017), relationship skills may also facilitate external
resources that support students’ engagement in academic work.
Social awareness In this study, social awareness refers to ones perceived ability
to demonstrate compassion and empathy, by being understanding, supportive and
helpful toward others. We were interested in capturing how students’ social aware-
ness translates into prosocial attitudes and behaviors. This is linked to various attrib-
utes reflecting responsibility and carefulness (OECD, 2015), as well as the ability
to show awareness of these behaviors in social situations (John etal., 2008; Roberts
etal., 2004). Students who exhibit strong social awareness tend to enjoy more sup-
portive relationships (Lerner etal., 2005) and have wider circles of close friends
(Coleman & Byrd, 2003) when they exhibit helpful behavior and actions toward
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440
E.V.Eriksen et al.
their peers. Socially responsible behaviors have also been linked with popularity and
peer acceptance (Wentzel & Watkins, 2002), suggesting that students who behave
prosocially enjoy better collaborative peer relations. Moreover, when students
exhibit teacher-preferred behaviors (e.g., helpfulness; Walker etal., 1993), they are
more likely to experience teacher acceptance and greater support in their learning
(Jussim & Harber, 2005).
While peer rejection may contribute to academic disengagement (Wentzel, 2003),
having close friends will generally provide support and companionship (Gottlieb &
Bergen, 2010), which are positively related to a sense of belonging (Ryan & Deci,
2017). Moreover, acceptance by one’s peers has been positively linked to satisfac-
tion at school and the pursuit of learning goals (Wentzel, 1994), which are positively
correlated with engagement in learning activities (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Students’
helpful actions may also lead teachers to develop higher expectations of student
achievement (Stang etal., 2009), which is likely to enhance engagement (Rubie-
Davies, 2010).
3 The present study
To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to examine how individual
changes in students’ social competencies are related to individual changes in aca-
demic engagement via individual changes in classroom relationships during the
first year of lower secondary school. The study’s main aim, therefore, was to test
an LCS model with the specification that individual changes in social competen-
cies are related to individual changes in academic engagement partly via individ-
ual changes in classroom relationships. The average latent changes in the variables
during the first year of lower secondary school were also studied. Accordingly, this
study addresses the following research questions:
1. What are the average changes in students’ perceived social competencies (rela-
tionship skills and social awareness), classroom relationships (emotional support
from teachers and collaborative peer relations), and academic engagement (behav-
ioral and emotional) during the first year of lower secondary school? Based on
the above argumentation, an average decline in students’ academic engagement
and classroom relationships were considered most likely. Given the cognitive and
contextual changes during this period, no clear expectations regarding individual
changes in students’ social competencies were given.
2. How are individual changes in students’ perceived social competencies related to
individual changes in academic engagement via individual changes in classroom
relationships? Given that well-developed social competencies may help students
to navigate social interactions at school (Hattie & Andermann, 2013) with evi-
dence suggesting that interventions aimed at stimulating social competencies have
also been found to support engagement in learning (Domitrovich etal., 2017)
and the comprehensive literature suggesting that good affective teacher–student
relationships promote academic engagement (Roorda etal., 2011), we proposed
an LCS model specifying that individual changes in social competencies are
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441
Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
positively related to individual changes in emotional support from teachers. The
link between collaborative peer relations and academic engagement is less docu-
mented; thus, no clear expectations regarding indirect associations via changes
in collaborative peer relations were given.
4 Method
4.1 Participants andprocedure
The participants in this study were eight-graders recruited from 11 lower secondary
schools located within a single large municipality in eastern Norway. We employed
a longitudinal panel design with two data collection time points. At each time point,
participants completed a digital questionnaire in the classroom with a teacher pre-
sent. The first assessment (T1) took place at the beginning of 8th grade (Septem-
ber 2018). At the second time point (T2: March 2019), 1094 (51% female) students
completed the questionnaire (age 14–15years). Nine cases were excluded due to
poor response quality, leaving a final sample of N = 1085 at T2. A total of N = 1205
students were included in either T1 or T2 or at both time points. Accordingly, the
average number of participants across schools were n = 110.
This study is part of a longitudinal research project, and the students received
two slightly different approaches to social-emotional learning, one psychologically
oriented intervention (see Vestad & Tharaldsen, 2022), and one with a philosophi-
cal basis facilitating dialogues including rhetorical exercises (see Weiss & Helskog,
2022). Both interventions taught students about competencies regarding communi-
cation, interaction, and consideration for others. The study is approved by the Nor-
wegian Centre for Research Data and follows the ethical standards of the Norwegian
Data Protection Authority. Participation was voluntary, and only participants with
written parental consent were permitted to participate in the study. The participants
were assured of confidentiality and informed of their right to withdraw at their own
discretion at any time.
4.2 Measures
All scales used a six-category scoring format ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 6
(totally agree). Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega are reported for scale reli-
ability. In cases wherein the two differed, the omega value should be emphasized as
it takes into consideration the factor loadings from the confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA).
Academic engagement was measured using a revised version of Skinner
etal.’s scale (2008; previously documented by Eriksen & Bru, 2021). Behavioral
engagement included four items estimating students’ attention, effort, and persis-
tence while initiating and participating in learning activities (e.g., “I listen care-
fully,” “I pay attention during class”). Cronbach’s α was 0.87 and McDonald’s ω
was 0.85 at T1, with α = 0.92 and ω = 0.93 at T2. Emotional engagement included
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E.V.Eriksen et al.
four items assessing students’ emotional engagement (e.g., “The subjects we have
at school interest me,” “I like doing schoolwork”). Cronbach’s α was 0.93 and
ω = 0.93 at T1, while at T2, α = 0.95 and ω = 0.95.
Emotional support from teachers To assess students’ perceptions of emotional
support from teachers, they were administered a scale developed for this study
and documented by Vestad etal. (2022) that included the five items: “I can trust
my teachers,” “My teachers will always help me if I have problems,” “I feel my
teachers believe in me,” “I feel my teachers care about me,” and “I feel that teach-
ers appreciate me.” Cronbach’s α was 0.91 and ω = 0.95 at T1. At T2, α = 0.0.94
and ω = 0.95.
Collaborative peer relations were measured using a five-item scale that
included the following items: “I collaborate with fellow students to understand
lessons,” “I help other students to understand lessons,” “I encourage my fel-
low students to make an effort when struggling with schoolwork,” “My fellow
students help me understand the learning materials,” and “My fellow students
encourage me to make an effort when I struggle with schoolwork.” The scale was
previously documented by Vestad et al. (2022). Cronbach’s α for the scale was
0.88 and ω was 0.89 at T1, whereas for T2, α = 0.93 and ω = 0.93.
Relationship skills were measured using a five-item scale documented by
Eriksen and Bru (2021) and Vestad etal. (2022) and to capture students’ percep-
tions of their own ability to connect with peers (e.g., “I get to know others easily”
and “I capture the interest of others in a positive way”). Cronbach’s α was 0.90
and ω was 0.90 at T1. At T2, α = 0.92 and ω = 0.93.
Social awareness Students were administered a scale developed for this study
to capture their experiences of how other students perceived them with respect
to helpful behavior and actions. The scale consisted of the introductory phrase
“I think others perceive me as,” followed by five complementary items: “help-
ful,” “caring,” “supportive,” “kind,” and “understanding.”. Internal consistency
was good as Cronbach’s α was 0.92 and ω was 0.93 at T1, and at T2, α = 0.95
and ω = 0.95. The measurement model for this construct yielded good fit: x2
(df) = 138.14 (34), RMSEA: 0.05 (90% CI 0.04–0.06), CFI: 0.98, TLI: 0.97,
SRMR: 0.02, and factor loadings for both time-points were all > 0.80, support-
ing good model fit as well as construct validity. Moreover, correlations with the
measure of relationship skills were of the expected direction and size in T1 and
T2, as well as for the latent change scores (r = 0.50, 0.51 and 0.46, respectively).
4.3 Control variables
Gender was included as a control variable concerning changes in classroom
relationships. Although findings regarding gender differences in classroom rela-
tionships are sparse, several indicators suggest that females are more likely than
males to establish relationships and have more positive perceptions of teachers
and peers (Brass etal., 2019). Gender was measured using a dichotomous vari-
able: 1 = males and 2 = females.
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Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
Social-emotional learning approaches A dichotomous variable for which the val-
ues 1 was given for the psychological oriented intervention and 2 for the philosophi-
cal based intervention.
Grade point average (GPA) was controlled for, due to the assumption that stu-
dents’ academic achievement is correlated with their academic engagement (Klem
& Cornell, 2004). We used the average grade across the subjects Norwegian, Eng-
lish, and math after the first semester, ranging from 1 (lowest) to 6 (highest). The
average GPA was 3.44, with a standard deviation of 0.92.
4.4 Statistical analyses
The study employed an LCS model to investigate average individual changes in
variables and to test the model for associations between individual changes across
the two time points. LCS is known to be suited to investigate development and par-
allel developmental courses in life and how variables of change affect each other
across time (Klopack & Wikrama, 2020). LCS are error-free estimates of individ-
ual changes between the two time points (Castro-Schilo & Grimm, 2018). By using
individual change scores in the structural model, several confounding factors related
to stable individual factors could be discounted.
First, and in alignment with research question 1, the unconditional LCS for each
variable was estimated directly from longitudinal CFA. The latent factor of the sec-
ond time point was decomposed into a latent factor for the first time point (T1) and
a true LCS (T2 = T1 + (T2−T1)). This was done by letting the latent variable from
the second time point be perfectly regressed on the latent variable from the first
time point with a residual of zero. In the equation (T2−T1) represent the error-free
LCS to be further used in structural equation modeling (SEM; Reuter etal., 2010).
Unconditional LCS models with a significant mean indicate that individuals on aver-
age decrease (or increase) over the two time points. A significant variance for the
same measure suggests a variability around the mean in which not all individuals
have decreased (or increased) (McArdle & Grimm, 2010). Second, and in line with
the second research question, the unconditional LCS of study variables was mod-
eled in SEM. To prevent higher correlations for the same indicators across time,
indicator-specific effects were modeled by adding time-invariant method factors.
Indirect effects were investigated following the recommendations of MacKinnon
and colleagues (2004) using a bias-corrected bootstrap procedure to estimate 95%
confidence intervals (CI).
Mplus (version 8.4) with maximum likelihood estimation with robust stand-
ard errors was used in the estimation to evaluate goodness-of-fit by the root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-
Lewis index (TLI), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). Following
Hu and Bentler (1998), RMSEA with a cut-off value close to < 0.06 was considered
to indicate good fit, while < 0.08 was considered to indicate acceptable fit, supple-
mented by a 90% CI. A cut-off value close to < 0.95 was used for TLI and CFI. An
adequate fit is also supported when a cut-off value close to < 0.08 is used for SRMR
(Hu & Bentler, 1998).
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E.V.Eriksen et al.
As students were nested within schools and classes intraclass correlation (ICC)
was examined for all variables. Results of ICC suggested a small amount of class-
room-level dependency ranging between 0.01 and 0.05. Design effects were cal-
culated and were below the suggested cut-off at 2 (ranging between 1.0 and 1.9).
Owing to the low dependency of the nested data, multi-level analysis was not an
option; instead, type complex was used in analysis to adjust the standard errors.
Longitudinal measurement invariance was tested by constraining the factor loadings
(metric invariance) and intercepts (scalar invariance) to be equal across time and to
be compared to the freely estimated models (configural invariance). The criterion
suggested by Cueng and Rensvold (2002), allowing change of ≤ 0.01 in the CFI for
scalar measurement invariance, was met for all variables.
4.5 Missing data analysis
The analyses used to explore the mechanisms of missing values (Little, 1988)
revealed that the data were not completely missing at random (MCAR: chi-
square = 114.17 (42), p = .000.). To handle the total sample of missingness, which
ranged between 6 and 11%, including increased precision to reduce bias, auxiliary
variables that were highly correlated with the study variables were included in the
estimation. The use of multivariate estimation also increased the probability of miss-
ing at random (MAR: unobserved variables were missing at random). Therefore,
the full information maximum likelihood (FIML) procedure was used in the estima-
tion to minimize potential bias (Enders, 2010). This indicates that the total sample
of 1205 students was taken into account in the estimation. The results were also
checked for potential biases by running and comparing models with FIML imputa-
tion and the listwise deletion of missing data. The results from the two model types
were the same, with only minor differences in decimals for the standardized indices.
4.6 Results
4.6.1 Longitudinal measurement models
The results of the longitudinal measurement models showed an acceptable fit. Factor
loadings for the dependent variable behavioral engagement were adequate through
strong for both time points: T1: 0.55–0.0.93 and for T2: 0.69–0.97. To ensure an
acceptable model fit, the error terms of the two first items were allowed to corre-
late: “In class, I work as hard as I can” and “I put a lot of effort into doing well at
school.” Strong factor loadings at both time points were evident for the dependent
variable emotional engagement: T1: 0.84–0.93; T2: 0.90–0.94. To have an accept-
able model fit, error terms for the items “I like to keep up with my schoolwork” and
“I think it’s fun to work with the subjects” were correlated. This is also known from
previous research with similar age groups (e.g., Tvedt etal., 2021). The longitudinal
measurement model for the intermediate variable emotional support from teachers
also showed strong factor loadings: T1: 0.74–0.91; T2: 0.82–0.95. The same were
the case for the intermediate variable collaborative peer relations: T1: 0.73–0.84;
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445
Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
T2; 0.83–0.90, as well as for the independent variables for relationship skills: T1:
0.66–0.92; T2: 0.80–0.88 and social awareness: T1: 0.81–0.89; T2: 0.84–0.93.
4.6.2 Unconditional LCS models
Model fit, mean, variance, and standard deviation for the unconditional LCS models
are provided in Table1.
Skewness and kurtosis are given for saved factor scores representing the LCS,
because Mplus does not give skewness and kurtosis for the LCS. In alignment with
the first research question of how students change during the first year of lower sec-
ondary school, all variables showed, on average, a significant negative change. The
highest negative LCS mean was for Δemotional engagement, while Δemotional sup-
port from teachers, Δcollaborative peer relations, and Δbehavioral engagement also
had negative LCS means. Δrelationship skills and Δsocial awareness had the lowest
negative change. Nonetheless, a significant variation for all variables indicated that
not all students had a negative change. To support this notion and to illustrate such
dispersion around the average change, the standard deviation (√S2) for the LCS is
provided for all study variables in Table1. For example, Δemotional engagement
had a SD of 1.20, which indicates that for approximately 66.6% of the sample clos-
est to the LCS mean (± 1SD), students’ perceived change in emotional engagement
will range from a slightly positive change of 0.54 to a substantially more negative
change of −1.86. For 95% of the sample, the perceived change would range from a
rather strong positive change of 1.69 to a substantial negative change of −3.01. The
results of bivariate correlations of LCS for the study variables are found in Table2.
Overall, the correlations varied from strong to weak. The strongest LCS cor-
relation was between Δbehavioral- and Δemotional engagement (r = .53). Strong
bivariate correlations were also apparent for Δemotional support from teachers
and Δcollaborative peer relations (r = .52), as well as for Δcollaborative peer rela-
tions and Δrelationship skills (r = .49). The weakest correlations were between
Δemotional engagement and Δrelationship skills (r = .17), and for Δbehavioral
engagement and Δrelationship skills (r = .19).
4.6.3 LCS instructural equation modeling
The second research question addressed the extent to which individual changes in
social competencies were related to individual changes in academic engagement
via individual changes in classroom relationships (See Fig.1 for estimates from the
structural equation model.) The structural LCS model was estimated with Δsocial
awareness and Δrelationship skills as independent variables, perceived Δemotional
support from teachers and Δcollaborative peer relations as intermediate variables,
and Δbehavioral and Δemotional engagement as dependent variables. Gender, SEL
approaches, and GPA were the control variables. The structural model yielded an
acceptable fit: χ2 = 3654.68(1600), RMSEA: 0.04 (90% CI 0.04–0.04); CFI: 0.94;
TLI: 0.93; SRMR: 0.05. The explained variance of the indicator-specific effects
for behavioral engagement were all adequate (0.04–10.2%; emotional engage-
ment: 2.8–4.9%, emotional support from teachers: 1.1–2.8%, collaborative peer
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E.V.Eriksen et al.
Table 1 Unconditional model fit, means, variances, and standard deviations (SDs) for LCSs. Skewness and kurtosis are given for factor change scores generated from the
LCS analyses. Factor determinacy indicates correlations between the original and saved LCS
*** = p < .001
χ2 (df) RMSEA CFI TLI SRMR Average latent
change LCS
MΔ
Variance of
the LCS S2Sd for LCS MΔ Factor
determi-
nacy
Skewness for
LCS Kurtosis for LCS
Δbehavioral
engagement 153.86 (22) 0.07 (0.06–0.09) 0.96 0.94 0.06 −0.33*** 0.58*** 0.76 0.95 −1.02 2.55
Δemotional
engagement 139.12 (23) 0.07 (0.06–0.08) 0.98 0.97 0.03 −0.66*** 1.44*** 1.20 0.95 −0.37 0.61
Δemotional
support from
teachers
151.20 (39) 0.05 (0.04–0.06) 0.98 0.98 0.05 −0.44*** 0.85*** 0.92 0.98 −0.75 5.75
Δcollaborative
peer relations 238.96 (38) 0.07 (0.06–0.08) 0.95 0.94 0.06 −0.34*** 0.83*** 0.91 0.94 −0.96 4.30
Δrelationship
skills 300.69 (38) 0.08 (0.07–0.08) 0.94 0.93 0.06 −0.21*** 1.01*** 1.00 0.94 −0.93 4.91
Δsocial aware-
ness 118.42 (38) 0.04 (0.04–0.05) 0.98 0.98 0.05 −0.15*** 0.86*** 0.93 0.96 −0.70 5.99
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447
Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
relations: 3.8–21.3%, relationship skills: 1–15.6% and social awareness: 1.6–6.5%),
and the results thus indicated that, at most, 21.3% of study variables variability was
explained by indicator-specific effects, suggesting that the observed measures were
relatively homogenous across the two time points for the latent variables.
Continuing research question 2, the correlation of change between Δsocial aware-
ness was relatively strongly and positively associated with perceived Δcollaborative
peer relations and significantly associated with perceived Δemotional support from
teachers. It was also directly associated with Δbehavioral engagement. Δrelationship
skills were significantly associated with perceived Δcollaborative peer relations and
weaker but statistically significantly with perceived Δemotional support from teach-
ers. Moreover, perceived Δemotional support from teachers was positively related
to Δemotional and Δbehavioral engagement. Δcollaborative peer relations did not
reach any significant association with Δemotional and Δbehavioral engagement.
Altogether, Δrelationship skills and Δsocial awareness accounted for 13% of the
Table 2 Correlation of latent change scores (LCSs)
**p < 0.01
123456
1.Δbehavioral engagement 1
2. Δemotional engagement .53 1
3. Δemotional support from teachers .34 .36 1
4. Δcollaborative peer relations .28 .24 .52 1
5. Δrelationship skills .19 .17 .29 .49 1
6. Δsocial awareness .28 .20 .34 .52 .46 1
Fig. 1 LCS in SEM with indicators of individual changes in social competencies, classroom relation-
ships, and academic engagement. For ease of model display, correlations, means, intercepts, and factor
loadings are not included in the figure. Note Gender, social-emotional learning approaches, and GPA
were entered as covariates
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448
E.V.Eriksen et al.
variance in teachers Δemotional support and for 36% in Δcollaborative peer rela-
tions. These LCS variables further explained 15% of the variance in Δemotional
engagement and 14% of the variance in Δbehavioral engagement.
4.6.4 Indirect effects
The results of the indirect effects using a bias-corrected bootstrap procedure
(MacKinnon etal., 2004) showed that for Δrelationship skills via Δemotional sup-
port from teachers with Δemotional engagement were relatively weak, yet signifi-
cant (β = 0.05; 95% CI 0.02–0.09). A stronger result was noted for Δsocial awareness
via Δemotional support from teachers with Δemotional engagement (β = 0.08; 95%
CI 0.05–0.13). By contrast, Δrelationship skills (β = 0.02; 95% CI −0.02–0.06) and
Δsocial awareness (β = 0.02; 95% CI −0.02–0.07) via Δcollaborative peer relations,
were non-significant. The indirect effect of Δrelationship skills with Δbehavioral
engagement via Δemotional support from teachers was significant (β = 0.04; 95% CI
0.02–0.08). The same was true for Δsocial awareness through Δemotional support
from teachers with Δbehavioral engagement (β = 0.07; 95% CI 0.03–0.11). How-
ever, the indirect effects of Δrelationship skills and Δbehavioral engagement via
Δcollaborative peer relations (β = 0.02; 95% CI −0.01–0.06), and Δsocial awareness
through Δcollaborative peer relations (β = 0.02; 95% CI −0.02–0.08) with behavio-
ral engagement were not significant. This suggests that in this study, Δcollaborative
peer relations were not related to Δemotional- or Δbehavioral engagement.
5 Discussion
By following students through the first year of lower secondary school, this longi-
tudinal study aimed to expand existing cross-sectional research by testing an LCS
model that specified that individual changes in social competencies are related to
individual changes in academic engagement via individual changes in classroom
relationships. The findings are discussed below.
5.1 Average changes insocial competencies, classroom relationships,
andacademic engagement.
In line with our hypotheses, an average decline was found for academic engage-
ment and classroom relationships during the first year of lower secondary school.
Emotional engagement showed the most substantial decline, followed by emotional
support from teachers and behavioral engagement as well as collaborative peer rela-
tions. The average decline in academic engagement corroborates existing research,
suggesting that students experience reduced engagement in academic work while
transitioning to lower secondary school (Bakken, 2021; Wang et al., 2015). The
strong decline in emotional engagement aligns with Hagenauer and Reitbauer’s
(2013) findings, indicating that students transitioning to lower school began with
relatively high levels of emotional engagement, which decreased as the school year
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449
Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
progressed. This pattern also aligns with the stage-environment fit theory which
attributes the average decline to mismatch between the new social structures, aca-
demic demands, and developmental needs (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Given that stu-
dents are less likely to be capable of sustaining behavioral participation when they
experience emotional disaffection (Pekrun etal., 2010), a negative change in the per-
ceived relevance of schoolwork and difficulties in coping with academic demands
may also account for the average decline in behavioral engagement. Nonetheless, the
significant variance for emotional engagement in the present study suggests that not
all adolescent students experienced decrements during this period.
Our findings add to the growing body of evidence indicating that classroom
relationships decline in lower secondary school. The average decline in perceived
emotional support from teachers may be associated with students’ exposure to new
teachers as they move from the smaller, more personalized classroom environment
in primary school to the larger, more achievement-oriented environment in lower
secondary school, which might make it more challenging for some students to estab-
lish supportive relationships (Ulmanen etal., 2014). In addition, lower secondary
school students tend to be more oriented toward grades, competition, and their own
achievements than primary school students (Weissbourd etal., 2014). Such changes
might make collaborative peer relations more challenging, as students might develop
a negative interdependence between performance and goal achievement (Johnson &
Johnson, 2017).
Two processes working in opposite directions may explain the more modest
decline in social competencies. That is, cognitive maturation is likely to improve
social competencies (Blakemore, 2008; Steinberg, 2017), while improved capac-
ity for more accurate self-evaluation has been shown to produce a decline in per-
ceived competencies (Harter, 1990). As part of the latter process, some students
will likely experience a negative shift in their self-perceptions of their social compe-
tencies and confidence to adequately interact with others in the educational setting
(Manning, 2007). Moreover, results for collaborative peer relations may indicate
that students find social interactions in lower secondary school more complex and
demanding than in primary school (Ulmanen etal., 2014), thus reducing their per-
ceived social competencies. This interpretation opens up for the possibility of a bi-
directional relational between social competencies and classroom relationships. The
causal dominance between individual social competencies and perceptions of class-
room relationships will be of interest to future research but requires further points
of measurement to facilitate the implementation of random intercept cross-lagged
models.
5.2 Individual changes insocial competencies andtheir relationship
withindividual changes inclassroom relationships andacademic
engagement
This study’s main objective was to examine how individual changes in students’
academic engagement were related to individual changes in social competencies,
and whether individual changes in classroom relationships acted as intermediate
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450
E.V.Eriksen et al.
variables. The findings yielded some support for this model. Students who exhibited
more positive individual changes in social competencies also showed more positive
individual changes in classroom relationships. These longitudinal relationships rein-
force findings from existing cross-sectional research suggesting that the ability to
initiate and sustain communication, including supporting and helping one’s peers,
may make it easier to integrate into peer groups and establish positive relationships
around collaborative schoolwork (Van Ryzin etal., 2020). Our findings suggest that
to maintain a supportive classroom climate for students in lower secondary school,
it may be beneficial to have a specific focus on supporting their social competencies.
Although the LCS model specified that perceived social competencies influence
collaborative peer relations and emotional support from teachers, the link between
social competencies and classroom relationships is likely to be reciprocal. That is,
while social competencies could be stimulated by specific curricula for social-emo-
tional learning, it is also possible that social competencies are influenced by certain
environmental factors in the classroom setting (Howe & Mercer, 2007).
As hypothesized, individual changes in social competencies yielded statistically
significant indirect associations with individual changes in academic engagement
via individual changes in emotional support from teachers. This aligns with previ-
ous findings in earlier cross-sectional research linking prosocial behaviors to greater
teacher acceptance and better teacher–student relationships, resulting in greater
emotional support for students (Neal etal., 2011) and enhanced academic engage-
ment (Eriksen & Bru, 2021). However, the results of the structural model showed no
indirect associations via individual changes in collaborative peer relations, as indi-
vidual changes in collaborative peer relations were non-significantly related to aca-
demic engagement when the individual changes in emotional support from teachers
were included. When entered as the only intermediate variable, weak but statisti-
cally significant positive associations with individual changes in academic engage-
ment emerged. The results suggest that individual changes in emotional support
from teachers are likely to be more crucial for academic engagement than individual
changes in collaborative peer relations, which further supports earlier findings indi-
cating that perceived emotional support from teachers may play an essential role in
shaping students’ academic engagement (Roorda etal., 2011). The findings from
this study propose that enhancing students’ perceptions of emotional support from
teachers may have the potential to counteract declining academic engagement.
More unexpectedly, the modification indices indicate that the structural model
should allow for a direct association between changes in students’ social awareness
and behavioral engagement. Changes in perceived socially responsible behaviors
could overlap trajectories of conscientiousness, which comprise aspects of dedica-
tion, responsibility, carefulness, and perseverance (Costa & McCrae, 1998; OECD,
2017). This might reflect that students who exhibit more positive development in
terms of behavioral aspects of social awareness could also develop a greater sense
of responsibility and take greater leadership toward their schoolwork, leading to the
pursuit of learning goals and engagement in learning activities. This support the
finding that conscientious individuals are more likely to exhibit higher persistence
and performance motivation (Richardson & Abraham, 2009). However, further
research is necessary to clarify this relationship.
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451
Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
5.3 Methodological considerations
Although the present study investigated short-term changes over a six-month period,
a longitudinal design and the study’s large sample, including employing an LCS
model, were considered methodological advantages. The longitudinal approach
made it possible to analyze a structural model using LCSs, reducing the risk of spu-
rious relationships owing to stable factors that can affect independent, intermediate,
and/or dependent variables simultaneously. Finally, some of the individual changes
were both positive and negative and some had relatively high kurtosis. This was
handled by the LCS approach and the robust maximum likelihood estimator. The
scale assessing social awareness was developed for this study to assess behavioral
responsible aspects of social awareness. The measurement model yielded good fit
to data and indicated that the social awareness scale measured a uniform concept
distinct from the other concepts of the study. Analysis of internal consistency also
indicated good psychometric properties. The correlations of the measure of social
awareness with the measure of relationship skill was in the expected direction and
size. Yet, future studies are needed to further validate this scale. All data, except for
information about academic achievement, were based on self-report. Future research
combining self- and teacher reports or using observational data will strengthen the
knowledge base in this field of research. With the inclusion of more time points, it
will also be possible to implement statistical approaches that are better at exploring
the causal directions or dominance between social competencies, classroom rela-
tionships, and academic engagement (e.g., random intercept cross-lagged modeling).
6 Conclusion
The findings indicate that students, on average, experience declines in perceived
social competencies, collaborative peer relations, emotional support from teachers,
and academic engagement (behavioral and emotional) during the first year of lower
secondary school. However, substantial variations in individual changes emerged,
and some students experienced positive changes in the variables studied. Moreo-
ver, individual changes in social competencies were related to individual changes in
emotional support from teachers and collaborative peer relations. Indirect associa-
tions with individual changes in academic engagement occurred mainly via individ-
ual changes in emotional support from teachers. Furthermore, and somewhat more
surprisingly, we identified a direct association between individual changes in social
awareness and individual changes in behavioral engagement. The results from this
study of individual changes during the first year of lower secondary school corrobo-
rate findings from cross-sectional studies regarding the link between perceived emo-
tional support from teachers and academic engagement. Considering the new and
potentially complex environment that is characteristic of lower secondary school, we
considered that knowledge regarding the dynamic changes and associations of these
in students’ social competencies, classroom relationships, and academic engagement
is essential. Although our LCS model was formed based on theoretical assumptions,
the results do not offer an empirical basis for conclusions about the directions of
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452
E.V.Eriksen et al.
causal relationships between the variables. Therefore, researchers should examine
the likely reciprocal links of these variables over an extended period and conduct
experimental trials to facilitate causal inferences.
Funding Open access funding provided by University of Stavanger & Stavanger University Hospital.
Declarations
Conflict of interest No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is
not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission
directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen
ses/ by/4. 0/.
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Social competencies, classroom relationships, andacademic…
Eli Vibeke Eriksen is a PhD candidate at the Centre for Learning Environment and Behavioral Research
in Education, University of Stavanger, Norway. Her research interests encompass social and emotional
competencies, academic engagement, emotional well-being, and classroom relationships
Lene Vestad is an Associate Professor at the Centre for Learning Environment and Behavioral Research
in Education, University of Stavanger, Norway. Her research interest include adolescence mental health,
academic motivation, stress and coping, and social and emotional competencies
Edvin Bru is a Professor of Educational Psychology at the Norwegian Center for Learning Environment
and Behavioral Research in Education, University of Stavanger. His research interests are emotional and
behavioral problems, social and emotional competence, stress and coping, social school climate and moti-
vational psychology
Simona C. S. Caravita is a Professor of Educational Psychology at the Norwegian Center for Learning
Environment and Behavioral Research in Education, University of Stavanger. Her research interests
encompass positive youth development, behavioral problems, aggressive and bullying behavior, peer rela-
tionships, social school climate
Authors and Aliations
EliVibekeEriksen1 · LeneVestad1 · EdvinBru1 · SimonaC.S.Caravita1
* Eli Vibeke Eriksen
Eli.v.eriksen@uis.no
Lene Vestad
Lene.vestad@uis.no
Edvin Bru
Edvin.bru@uis.no
Simona C. S. Caravita
Simona.c.s.caravita@uis.no
1 University ofStavanger, Kjell Arholms gate 41, 4021Stavanger, Norway
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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