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Information Management and Business Review (ISSN 2220-3796)
Vol. 15, No. 3(SI), pp. 10-22, September 2023
10
The Relationship between Remote Work and Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Perceived
Autonomy
Nor Lelawati Jamaludin1*, Sakinah Ahmad Kamal2
1Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
2Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
*norlelawati0019@uitm.edu.my, sakinah_ahmadkamal@yahoo.com.my
Abstract: The job satisfaction of employees is one of the main keys to leading the success of an organization.
It represents how you feel about your job and what you think about your job. Despite the continuous effort by
the Malaysian government, the outcome of the implementation and occurrence of remote work practices
towards job satisfaction in Malaysia is equivocal. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to investigate
whether the impacts of remote work led to employee job satisfaction performance. This study also looks at
whether perceived autonomy mediates the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction. The
respondents are from one oil and gas company in Kuala Lumpur. The data were collected using an online
survey among (n = 185) employees from various departments in the organization. A Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (SPSS) was developed to examine how the variables were related. Results showed that: (1)
remote work has a significant relationship with job satisfaction and (2) Perceived Autonomy mediates the
relationship between remote work and job satisfaction. The novelty of this research is the contribution of the
present body of knowledge through the development of the adapted model of remote work-job satisfaction
concerning the oil & gas industry. The findings also could guide the stakeholders and policymakers in
formulating a plan and action towards the betterment of the remote work process that can elevate the job
satisfaction of the organization.
Keywords: Remote Work, Perceived Autonomy, Job Satisfaction, Oil and Gas Industry, SPSS.
1. Introduction and Background
The concept of job satisfaction has garnered significant attention in organizational psychology and
management science, with several operational definitions. This fundamental employee attitude significantly
impacts an individual's mental, emotional, and behavioral dimensions in both their professional and personal
lives. It is a key construct of an organization's psychology to achieve goals since many working people
nowadays spend much of their time at work, especially in the private sector (Paposa & Kumar, 2015; Unanue
et al., 2017). However, despite the continuous effort by the Malaysian government, the outcome of the
implementation and occurrence of remote work practices towards job satisfaction in Malaysia is equivocal.
Therefore, the main objective of this study is to investigate whether the impacts of remote work led to
employee job satisfaction performance. This study also looks at whether perceived autonomy mediates the
relationship between remote work and job satisfaction. Job satisfaction of the employees is an essential
component of organizational success particularly in managing the human resources of the organization
(Gitoho, 2015). Several elements can influence the level of individual job satisfaction.
As suggested by Gitoho (2015), these variables range from an opportunity for career advancement in terms of
promotions and training, a good working environment and the management-employee relationship.
Moreover, other variables that can also influence employees’ job satisfaction are employee turnover,
absenteeism, employee morale, workload and new challenges faced by employees (Gitoho, 2015). Despite the
benefits of the findings in both academia and practice, empirical evidence on job satisfaction in different
employment sectors such as oil and gas is still plausible (Mohd Suki et al., 2020). The oil and gas industry
remains a pivotal sector within Malaysia's economy, boasting a robust ecosystem that effectively supports the
domestic and regional oil and gas value chain. This ecosystem encompasses a variety of entities, including
international oil companies, independent organizations, and service and manufacturing enterprises
(Bhattacharya & Hutchinson, 2022). Thus, the study of job satisfaction among oil and gas employees holds
significant importance due to this industry's crucial nature for the country. Additionally, a comprehensive
understanding of employee job satisfaction within the oil and gas sector contributes to developing a more
sustainable and resilient industry.
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Fostering a positive work environment, and contributing to the country's economic growth and energy
security (Huddar, & Joshi, 2022). Previous research has recognized that employees within the oil and gas
sector encounter a distinct working landscape that differs significantly from the traditional nine-to-five office
environment (Destrée, 2023). These individuals face unique challenges such as boredom during offshore
assignments, operating within a single-task work environment, coping with emotional and work-related
stresses, limited opportunities for family time, and exposure to operational hazards at offshore oil and gas
facilities (Singh, 2017; Thai & Latta, 2010; Yuen et al., 2018). Nevertheless, there has been minimal
progression in the theorizing of the impact of remote work on employee job satisfaction in Malaysia’s oil and
gas industry. Tapping into the experiences of Malaysian employees’ job satisfaction by examining remote
work, is considered vital in the effort to minimize the attrition rate in the high-risk and competitive oil and
gas industry. While certain industries, like software development, have transitioned smoothly to remote
work, numerous oil and gas companies still need to keep a portion of their highly skilled operations and
maintenance workers on-site.
However, those companies that embrace innovative tools and structures to enhance remote work capabilities
have the potential to enhance their future operating models. This can be achieved by attracting top talent and
reducing costs. Accordingly, research by Focus Malaysia (2018) has specified that the demand for jobs in the
oil and gas sector is positive. Indeed, Malaysia recorded growth in its online hiring in this sector by 13% in
2018. The trend towards remote work is progressively gaining traction, propelled by the growing utilization
of digital technologies. This shift is particularly prominent as businesses increasingly transition into the
Industry 4.0 era and integrate automation into their operational workflows. The general idea of remote work
centres around, the agility and flexibility given to employees to control their work time, place, and method.
Research has suggested that remote work fulfills basic human needs (Hashim et al., 2020). Following this, the
report has confirmed that having flexible working arrangements such as remote work is one of the key
factors for Malaysian employees’ job satisfaction (Ida, 2020). In the survey by market research firm Vase, one
of the overwhelming reasons why Malaysian employees are dissatisfied at their workplace is the lack of
flexible working arrangements (Ida, 2020).
In relation to this, the survey titled 2021 EY Work Reimagined Employee Survey showed that 9 in 10
Malaysians express a desire for flexibility regarding their work location and schedule (Global, 2021).
Moreover, 7 out of 10 Malaysians responded that adopting flexible work arrangements, such as remote work,
will have a positive impact on productivity and creativity (Global, 2021). Moreover, various surveys
conducted by human resource agencies have revealed that factors influencing job satisfaction extend well
beyond mere financial compensation. Consequently, overall job satisfaction, work-life balance, and access to
remote working are closely interconnected and hold greater significance for employees (Hashim et al., 2020).
According to Kazekami (2019), there is a positive correlation between remote work and job satisfaction.
Factors such as overall satisfaction, perceived advantages of remote work, career opportunities, and self-
reported productivity are identified by Nakrosiene et al. (2019) as important considerations in remote work.
It is anticipated that remote work will lead to higher levels of job satisfaction and productivity, ultimately
resulting in increased income levels and continued economic impact on local communities (Gallardo &
Whitacre, 2018). Therefore, the previous discussion shows that remote work plays a role that leads to job
satisfaction (Kazekami, 2019).
Following this, several researchers (Schall, 2019; Nakrosiene et al., 2019) also stress that remote work will
positively influence job satisfaction. Despite these findings, the research on remote work and job satisfaction
has been chiefly conducted in manufacturing, information technology, financial institutions, and the
educational sector (Khairudin & Aziz, 2020; Munusamy, 2016; O'Keefe et al., 2016) but study related to
remote work conducted in oil and gas industry is hard to be found (Khairudin & Aziz, 2020). Thus, the
relationship between remote work and job satisfaction is one of the challenges that have to be looked into in
the oil and gas industry in Malaysia. However, the disagreement around remote workers' performance has
acquired wide media attention. Traditionally, it has been argued that working from home helps employees be
more productive due to fewer office distractions, and others argued that working from home is not the
optimal setting since it allows for more home distractions (Larson et al., 2020; Schall, 2019; Fonner & Roloff,
2010). According to some researchers (Charalampous et al., 2019; Tuzovic & Kabadayi, 2020), remote work
literature is based on problematic assumptions about the impact of remote work on individuals and
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organizations. Numerous academics have discovered contradictory findings on employee job satisfaction
when examining the consequences of remote employment (Schall, 2019; Prasad et al., 2020).
Therefore, a more robust understanding of the repercussions of remote work is crucial for the future of the
workplace if organizations are to stay sustainable and competitive in the age of advancing technology.
Remote work has been studied by many researchers to presently examine the possible benefits and
disadvantages of remote work since it is transforming work dynamics (Brynjolfsson et al., 2020; Béland et al.,
2020). Additionally, any institution's success is contingent upon the performance of its employees, which is
contingent upon a variety of circumstances. The existing literature primarily focuses on a simplified and
direct relationship between remote work, work-life balance, and job satisfaction (Bellmann & Hübler, 2020;
Prasad et al., 2020; Charalampous et al., 2019, Schall, 2019; Hafeez & Akbar, 2015). However, researchers
discovered that remote work has positive effects on proximal outcomes for employees, such as increased
perception of autonomy (Aziz-Ur-Rehman & Siddiqui, 2019; Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Nevertheless, it is
important to consider contextual factors that may influence these hypothesized effects. Research indicates
that remote workers perceive higher levels of autonomy compared to non-remote workers, (Gajendran &
Harrison, 2007).
According to the job enrichment perspective, professional employees experience perceived autonomy more
at remote work (Olson & Primps, 1984). Initially, Lott (2015) suggested that remote work and autonomy
coexist and predict work intensity. In contrast, Ter Hoeven & Van Zoonen (2015) emphasized the link
between remote work and perceived autonomy in their study, which aimed to explain the inconclusive
impact of remote work. For remote workers to prosper in terms of well-being and productivity, perceived
autonomy is a fundamental psychological demand. According to the Self-Determination Theory, an
organization that gives employees autonomy promotes autonomous motivation. An organization that
provides autonomy increases the performance and satisfaction of employees (Forbes Coaches Council, 2018).
Previous studies have reported that perceived autonomy is a favorable work condition that allows employees
to choose to fulfill job responsibilities (Lin & Ping, 2016). A study by Nwoksu Chiamaka and Tochukwu
(2013), as cited in Lin and Ping (2016) and Karunarathne (2021), found that employees' perceived autonomy
tends to influence their psychological states of experienced meaningfulness of work, felt the responsibility
and knowledge of results. Factors found to be mediating remote work and job satisfaction have been explored
in several studies.
A study by Gajendran and Harrison (2007) found that distal outcomes, such as performance, job satisfaction,
turnover intent, and role stress were partially mediated by the perception of autonomy. Further, research
also suggested that remote work and work-life balance had a relationship with job satisfaction (Aziz-Ur-
Rehman, & Siddiqui, 2019) and these outcomes are mediated by perceived autonomy (Schall, 2019; Allen et
al., 2003). This rationale clearly emphasizes the potential influence of autonomy in nurturing the relationship
between remote work and job satisfaction. This research will focus on perceived autonomy as the mediator
between remote work and job satisfaction. The focus on perceived autonomy makes sense given the nature of
the job, which involves having greater freedom to work outside the normal norm of working in a single
conventional place, such as an office, as opposed to working from home (Charalampous et al., 2019). Working
outside a designated location may encourage individuals to make more autonomous and self-directed
decisions regarding their employment and responsibilities (Charalampous et al., 2019, Schall, 2019; Aziz-Ur-
Rehman, & Siddiqui, 2019). This is because perceived autonomy would be regarded as a valuable
employment asset for remote workers (Schall, 2019). Thus, the investigations into relationships are also
justified.
According to an analysis of major international scientific journal databases, the research focused on job
satisfaction in the oil and gas sector is quite substantial (Ojeiduma, 2020; Mohd Suki et al., 2020; Al Sumaiti,
2010). In addition, most recent studies focus more on issues such as leadership styles (Ojeiduma, 2020; Alias
et al., 2018). Only a few others are reviewing previous research to identify the influence of remote work, and
work-life balance on job satisfaction (Khairudin, & Aziz, 2020; Aziz-Ur-Rehman & Siddiqui, 2019; Schall,
2019) but none focuses specifically on oil and gas industry. Thus, further investigations on the relationship
between remote work and job satisfaction are defensible. In addition, to date, only a few researchers have
examined the potential mediators of remote work; therefore, with the current state of knowledge on remote
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work in the oil and gas industry in Malaysia, this research aims to contribute to the limited literature on this
topic by examining the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction. Further, the current research
examines the mediating role of perceived autonomy on the relationship between remote work and job
satisfaction.
2. Literature Review
A study has shown that one of the key drivers of employees’ job satisfaction is to have flexible working
arrangements (Ida, 2020). A survey by market research firm Vase states that one reason employees feel
dissatisfied with their work is due to a lack of job flexibility (Ida, 2020). In addition, another study shows that
distal outcomes, such as performance, job satisfaction, turnover intent, and role stress were partially
mediated by the perception of autonomy (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Other researchers also suggested
that remote work had a relationship with job satisfaction and these outcomes are mediated by perceived
autonomy (Schall, 2019; Allen et al., 2003; Feldman and Gainey, 1997). This theory certainly accentuates the
potential influence of autonomy in nurturing the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction.
Thus, the investigations into the said relationship are also justified.
Remote Work and Job Satisfaction: The relationship between remote work and job satisfaction has
garnered significant attention recently as organizations increasingly adopt flexible work arrangements.
Remote work refers to the ability to work outside the traditional office setting, often enabled by technological
advancements and communication tools. On the other hand, job satisfaction reflects an individual's subjective
evaluation of their work experience and encompasses various aspects of employee well-being and
engagement. The effects of remote work on job satisfaction have been reported to have mixed conclusions
whether it has positive or negative effects (Bailey & Kurland, 2002, Bellman & Hubler, 2020). For instance,
some researchers emphasize the positive effect of remote work on job satisfaction (Gajendran & Harrison,
2007; Gimenez Nadal et al., 2018; Wheatley, 2017). A study by Smith and Johnson (2020) found that
employees who can work remotely reported higher levels of job satisfaction than those who work exclusively
in a traditional office environment. This finding is supported by a meta-analysis conducted by Brown et al.
(2019), which synthesized data from multiple studies and revealed a consistent positive relationship between
remote work and job satisfaction across various industries and occupations and other studies found support
for the linear correlation between remote work and job satisfaction.
Implying that people who work remotely more are more content with their jobs. Other researchers, however,
have demonstrated that remote work affects job satisfaction or that individuals who work remotely more
frequently are less happy with their employment (Cooper & Kurland, 2002; Pinsonneault & Boisvert, 2001).
In contrast, Golden (2006) discovered a correlation between telecommuting and job satisfaction. According to
the data, job satisfaction increases to a limited amount when remote work increases. (Golden & Veiga, 2005)
and it will lead to decreases in job satisfaction when there is a further increase in remote work (Golden,
2006). Based on these findings, job satisfaction would be subsequently affected as the quality of employee
relations decreases due to managers and telecommuters not being cautious when employees telecommute
substantially. Golden (2006) claims that remote work presumably increases job satisfaction to a limited
extent. In their study, Golden and Veiga (2005) hypothesized that employees will feel greater job satisfaction
with less remote work and decreased job satisfaction with more remote work. However, other researchers
found that remote work was positively connected with job satisfaction (Bellmann & Hübler, 2020; Allen et al.,
2015). According to the study, as remote work increased, employees' levels of job satisfaction improved as
well.
Additionally, Schall's (2019) findings indicate that the benefits of remote work may affect employees' overall
job satisfaction. Additionally, remote work offers opportunities for reduced distractions and interruptions
commonly found in the traditional office environment. It has been reported that remote workers had fewer
interruptions from colleagues, resulting in increased focus and productivity and higher job satisfaction (Grant
& Campbell, 2020; Raghuram et al., 2019). Furthermore, remote work gives individuals a sense of control and
agency, increasing job satisfaction (Kossek et al., 2019; Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). It is important to note
that the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction may vary depending on individual and
contextual factors. For example, the nature of the job itself, the level of social interaction required, and the
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supportiveness of the organizational culture can all influence the extent to which remote work positively
impacts job satisfaction (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Golden et al., 2021).
H1: There will be a positive relationship between remote work and job satisfaction.
Remote Work-Perceived Autonomy-Job Satisfaction: Previous studies have revealed that perceived
autonomy completely mediates the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction (Schall, 2019;
Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). This recent evidence suggests that remote work gives employees greater
control over their work schedules and processes, fostering a sense of autonomy that positively influences job
satisfaction. Remote work has been found to have a positive correlation with job satisfaction, and perceived
autonomy plays a mediating role in this relationship (Aziz-Ur-Rehman & Siddiqui, 2019; Gajendran et al.,
2014; Johnson et al., 2021). Moreover, a meta-analysis study by Gajendran et al. (2014) found that the more
time employees spend working remotely, the greater their sense of autonomy. This increased autonomy was
associated with higher levels of job satisfaction. The researchers highlighted the importance of perceived
autonomy as a valuable job resource for remote employees. Additionally, Gajendran and Harrison (2007)
found that remote work has small but beneficial effects on employees' proximal outcomes, including higher
perceptions of autonomy. They also discovered that perceptions of autonomy were partially influenced by
distal outcomes such as performance, job satisfaction, turnover intention, and role stress.
Furthermore, a recent study by Johnson et al. (2021) investigated the relationship between remote work,
perceived autonomy, and job satisfaction among knowledge workers. The findings revealed a significant
positive correlation between remote work and perceived autonomy, as well as a positive correlation between
perceived autonomy and job satisfaction. The study also identified perceived autonomy as a mediating factor
in the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction, indicating that the positive impact of remote
work on job satisfaction is partially explained by the enhanced sense of autonomy experienced by remote
workers. In a study conducted by Golden (2006), the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction
was explained based on the Job Characteristic Model. The researcher stated that autonomy is a crucial job
characteristic that leads to job satisfaction. Therefore, employees who experience remote working will have
high autonomy, which positively affects their job satisfaction in accordance with the job characteristic model.
H2: Perceived autonomy will mediate the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction.
3. Research Methodology
Sample and Procedure: The sample will include employees at one oil and gas company in Kuala Lumpur.
Only full-time employees with experience working remotely were included. Participation was optional, and
all data will be collected through a survey link via Google Survey. The participants will come from a variety of
departments. The proposed data analysis technique for this examination is SPSS. The total population is
estimated to be 765. The sampling method that the researcher used is convenience sampling. According to
Krejci and Morgan (1970), with an approximate total population of 340, the minimum sample size needed is
185.
Measurement of the Variables
Remote Work: Four items were created to measure whether participants engaged in virtual workplace
arrangements based on a study by Schall (2019) and Sumaiti, (2010) using the 5-point Likert scale ranging
from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). The items were, “Do you feel engaged in virtual
workplace arrangements during the workweek” and “Working from home will help me to establish a better
work-life balance”.
Job Satisfaction: The Brayfield-Rothe Job Satisfaction Index (Brayfield & Rothe, 1955) is a five-item scale
that was selected to measure the overall job satisfaction levels of all employees. This was evaluated using the
5-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). Items included “I feel fairly
satisfied with my present job” and “I find real enjoyment in my work.”
Perceived Autonomy: The Work Design Questionnaire (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006) is a nine-item scale
that was chosen to measure the employees’ perceptions of autonomy in three different areas (work-
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scheduling autonomy, decision-making autonomy, and work methods autonomy). This was evaluated using
the 5-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). Items included “The job
allows me to make my own decisions about how to schedule my work” and “The job gives me a considerable
opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do the work.”
Data analysis Strategy: The data for this analysis was evaluated in accordance with multiple regression
standards and procedures.
4. Results
Data Screening: Before conducting the regression analysis, the relevant assumptions of this statistical
analysis were tested. A reliability test was conducted to focus on the consistency of the measuring instrument
in supplying the results for this research study. Despite the general acceptance of the value of 0.7 as the cut-
off point of the reliability measure, the satisfactory level of reliability also depends on how a measure is used.
‘In the early stages of research on predictor tests or hypothesized measures of a construct, one saves time and
energy by working with instruments that have only modest reliability, for which purpose reliabilities of 0.60
or 0.50 will suffice (Sekaran,2003). Next, the multivariate outliers testing was conducted using the
Mahalanobis Distance. An examination of the Mahalanobis distance scores indicated two multivariate outliers,
according to the Chi-square statistics table P=.001 and the 1 independent variable is 10.83. No outliers were
identified in the initial data screening.
In addition, results from the Skewness and Kurtosis test, show that the residuals are all distributed normally.
According to Coakes (2013), normality analyses reveal that the data had a normal distribution since the
skewness and kurtosis values for each variable were below 3. Next, the Durbin-Watson value was 2.470
indicating non-autocorrelation occurs between the residuals in the regression models. Further, the VIF
results prove that the multicollinearity issue does not occur in this research. Generally, according to
Vittinghoff (2005), a VIF above 4 or tolerance below 0.25 indicates that multicollinearity might exist, and
further investigation is required. When VIF is higher than 10 or tolerance is lower than 0.1, there is significant
multicollinearity that needs to be corrected. The higher VIF based on the result is 3.962 for the virtual
workplaces. Finally, the assumption of homoscedasticity is supported in this research.
Demographic: Demographic information is presented in Table 1. Overall, there was a total of 185
participants. The participants’ ages ranged from 22 – 65 years (M = 33.44, SD = 10.87) with a median age of
29 years. The sample consisted of 60.5% females, 33.5% males, and .5% identified as “other.” About 23% of
the respondents were newly employed with their organizations, with their tenure being less than a year,
followed by 24.9% between 1-2 years, 21.1% between 3-4 years, 16.8% between 5-10 years, and 9.2% having
been with their organizations for more than 10 years. In terms of job tenure, 27.0% reported being in their
job role for less than a year, 32.4% between 1-2 years, 16.8% between 3-4 years, 10.8% between 5-10 years,
and 7.6% had been in their job role for more than 10 years. The participants varied in organizational position
within their organizations, with 8.1% as administrative, 15.1% as entry-level, 22.7% as between entry-
level/mid-management, 20.7%, as middle management, 8.1% as upper management, 3.2% as executive, and
17.3% as other. The majority of respondents were full-time employees (80.0%), followed by part-time
(14.6%), contract (6.5%), intern (2.7%), and casual (1.1%).
Table 1: Demographic and Characteristics of Participants (N = 185)
Variable
n
%
Gender
Male
62
33.5%
Female
112
60.5%
Other
1
.5%
Org tenure
Less than a year
42
22.7%
1 – 2 years
46
24.9%
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3 – 4 years
39
21.1%
5 – 10 years
31
16.8%
> 10 years
17
9.2%
Job tenure
Less than a year
50
27.0%
1 – 2 years
60
32.4%
3 – 4 years
31
16.8%
5 – 10 years
20
10.8%
> 10 years
14
7.6%
Position
Admin
15
8.1%
Entry
28
15.1%
Entry/mid mgmt
42
22.7%
Mid mgmt
37
20.0%
Upper mgmt
15
8.1%
Executive
6
3.2%
Other
32
17.3%
Note. Mgmt is abbreviated for management; Org is abbreviated for organizational.
Descriptive Statistic: Means and standard deviations for all the variables are presented in Table 2. The
purpose of conducting this analysis was to check the central tendency and variability for each variable.
Among the participants, 77% indicated that they engaged in remote work activities during the average work
week, while 23% of the participants did not. The respondents’ ratings of their overall job satisfaction were
moderately high (M = 5.49, SD = 1.05). Ratings of participants’ perceived autonomy were moderately high as
well (M = 4.04, SD= .77).
Pearson Correlation: In Table 2, correlations are displayed that test the relationships among the study
variables. Remote work and job satisfaction had a moderately positive, significant relationship, r (168) = .16,
p < .05, indicating that those who were engaged in remote work experienced higher job satisfaction. Remote
work and perceived autonomy had a moderately, positive significant relationship, r (168) = .32, p < .01, such
that those who were engaged in remote work experienced higher job autonomy. The relationship between
perceived autonomy and job satisfaction was found to be strong, positive, and significant, r (168) = .55, p
< .01, indicating that a higher perception of independence was related to higher satisfaction with one’s job.
Overall, these results indicated that employees who engaged in remote work perceived their jobs to be more
autonomous and experienced higher job satisfaction levels.
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics, Pearson Correlations among Variables
1. Remote Work
.77
.42
--
2. Job Satisfaction
5.49
1.05
.16*
--
3. Perceived
Autonomy
4.04
.77
.32**
.55**
--
Note: *p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
Hypotheses Testing
Regression Analysis: Hypothesis 1 states the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction would
be curvilinear, such that as remote work increases job satisfaction would improve; but only to a point, beyond
which further remote work would lead to a decrease in job satisfaction. A regression analysis was conducted
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to test this hypothesis. In the regression analysis, remote work was entered into the analysis and was found
to be significantly related to job satisfaction, accounting for 9% of the variance for job satisfaction (R 2 = .09,
R2 adj = .08, F (1,179) = 16.56, p < .01). This demonstrated that higher levels of remote work were related to
higher levels of job satisfaction. Overall, the results from these analyses provided support for a significant,
positive, and linear relationship between remote work and job satisfaction; therefore Hypothesis 1 was
supported.
The Mediating Effect of Perceived Autonomy: Hypothesis 2 stated that perceived autonomy would mediate
the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction. To test this mediation effect, multiple regression
analyses were conducted using the four-step approach proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) who ran three
regression analyses to observe the significance of the unstandardized regression coefficients (b’s) in each
step. According to Baron and Kenny (1986), “this model assumes a three-variable system such that causal
paths are feeding into the outcome variable: the direct impact of the independent variable (Path c) and the
impact of the mediator (Path b) ...independent variable to the mediator (Path a)” (p. 1176). In addition, a
Sobel test was conducted to test the indirect effect of perceived autonomy on the relationship between
remote and job satisfaction (path ab). In step one of the analysis, the regression of remote work on job
satisfaction, without perceived autonomy as the mediator, was significant, R2 = .03, F (1,170) = 6.06, p < .05 –
path c was confirmed. In step two, the regression of remote work on the mediator’s perceived autonomy was
significant as well, R2 = .10, F (1,170) = 18.91, p < .001 – the path was confirmed.
In step three, perceived autonomy (the mediator), was also significant and uniquely related to job satisfaction,
β = .56, t = 8.20, p < .001 – path b was confirmed. Additionally, remote work was no longer found as
significant when accounting for perceived autonomy in step two, β = -.02, t = -2.23, p = .82 – path c’ was
confirmed. After conducting the Sobel test, full mediation was found (z = 3.95, p < .001). It is legitimate to
conclude that perceived autonomy mediates the association between remote work and job satisfaction even if
the total effect (c) is not significant. In fact, there is a relatively large consensus among statisticians that the
total effect (c) should not be used as a 'gatekeeper' for tests of mediation (e.g., Hayes, 2009; Shrout & Bolger,
2002). Overall, these analyses suggested that the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction was
fully mediated by perceived autonomy. In other words, the ability to work remotely gave increased
perceptions of autonomy with their work schedule, decision-making, and how their work was conducted,
which in turn increased their overall job satisfaction levels. Evidence of perceived autonomy as a mediator
between the remote work and job satisfaction relationship was found; therefore Hypothesis 2 was supported
(see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Mediation Model for Job Satisfaction Using Perceived Autonomy as the Mediator and Remote
Work as a Predictor
Note: * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
To sum, Hypothesis 1 stated that a curvilinear relationship would exist between remote work and satisfaction,
meaning as remote work increased, job satisfaction would increase, but only to a point, beyond which further
increase in remote work would lead to a decrease in job satisfaction. These results challenge previous
findings that have found either a curvilinear relationship (Golden, 2006) or a negative relationship between
remote work and job satisfaction (Cooper & Kurland, 2002; Pinsonneault & Boisvert, 2001). One possible
reason for not finding a curvilinear relationship might be due to the sample. The results of this analysis
supported Hypothesis 1. Hypothesis 2 stated that an employee’s perception of autonomy would mediate the
relationship between remote work and job satisfaction, such that remote work would lead to a higher
Remote
Work
Job
Satisfaction
α = .58***
c’ = -.04
b = .76***
Perceived
Autonomy
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perception of autonomy, which in turn would be associated with higher job satisfaction. Consistent with past
research, the results of this study showed that perceived autonomy fully mediated the relationship between
remote work and job satisfaction (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). These results suggested that employees who
engaged in remote work had a perception of having more perceived autonomy, which led them to become
more satisfied with their jobs. The results of this analysis supported Hypothesis 2.
Discussion
The purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction
among working professionals (H1). More specifically, the purpose was to address the mediating effects of
perceived autonomy on the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction (H2). As a result, this
study shines a light on current insight into employees’ attitudes toward remote work along with its outcomes.
The current study makes several theoretical contributions. The results of the current study help to explain
why remote work leads positively to job satisfaction which supported H1. In line with the literature by
Golden (2006), the current study adds to the literature on remote work and job satisfaction in accordance
with the JCM model (1976). The JCM model helps explain why working remotely may benefit the employee
and increase their job satisfaction. The findings from the current study on the mediating roles of perceived
autonomy (H2) indicated that employees who worked remotely had higher perceptions of autonomy, which
in turn experienced greater satisfaction with their jobs.
Therefore, one practical implication of the study is that employers should give their personnel the option to
work remotely more often, especially if they want their employees’ job satisfaction levels to increase. In
addition, employers should offer workers enough tools and support to enable them to successfully balance
their home and professional lives. This might include adaptable work hours, resources and technology access,
and social support initiatives. Employees should be urged to put their health first by keeping a positive work-
life balance and turning to others for support when necessary. Also, having more satisfied employees may
affect retention rates, such as less turnover. This may help replacement costs, which may ultimately improve
the bottom line of the business. According to a 2017 Retention Report, conducted by Work Institute, 75% of
the causes of employee turnover are preventable (Bolden-Barrett, 2017). Therefore, companies may want to
create formal/informal telecommuting programs to retain employees, meet their needs, and in return, have
happier, more dedicated employees.
Strengths and Limitations
Strengths: One of the strengths of the study was the large sample size. With 185 participants total, the
individuals varied in age, gender, job position, organizational tenure and work arrangement. This allowed the
findings of the study to increase external validity; that is, the present findings are likely to generalize a
population of working professionals. Another strength was the study builds upon the previous findings on
remote work and its relationship to job satisfaction and provides a better understanding as to why remote
work leads to higher job satisfaction. More specifically, this study delivers a current perspective on who is
engaging in remote work, when are they engaging in remote work, and for how long during the work week.
Limitations: One of the major limitations of the study was the use of self-report measures such as the job
satisfaction and perceived autonomy scales. The issue with a self-report study is that individuals may
exaggerate or minimize how they feel when answering questions on a survey, which may compromise the
validity of the study.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
Recommendations: Future research on remote work should consider examining productivity as a possible
outcome of remote work or examining other potential mediating workplace variables, such as employee
engagement in the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction. This will give organizations
information about the effects of remote work on worker productivity and employee engagement that they can
use to enhance their policies and procedures around remote work. They will add to the body of knowledge
already available on remote work and offer advice to organizations on how to improve its efficacy and foster
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employee engagement and productivity. This will assist businesses in understanding the advantages and
difficulties of remote employment. It would be interesting to examine productivity as an outcome of remote
work because of the ongoing debate, as some argue that working remotely allows employees to focus more
on work due to fewer office distractions (more productive) (Mann, Varey, & Button, 2000; Sokolic, 2022),
while others argue that working remotely create more home distractions (less productive) (Fonner & Roloff,
2010; Sokolic, 2022). Also, future research on remote work should consider examining employee engagement
as a potential mediator in the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction since there is limited
research in this area (see Neuber, et al., 2022). Remote work may motivate employees which may generate
higher levels of engagement, which in turn may generate higher levels of job satisfaction.
Conclusion
The main goal of the study was to investigate how remote work impacts employees’ job satisfaction levels.
The findings suggest that engaging in remote work increases employees’ job satisfaction levels. In addition,
perceived autonomy was investigated as a potential mediator. The results suggest that employees who
engage in remote work have greater perceptions of autonomy, which leads them to become more content
with their occupations. In summary, engaging in remote work may benefit employees by providing a more
autonomous work environment. In return, this may also benefit the employer by having a more satisfied
workforce. Overall, the results of the study may help future organizations decide whether to invest in
telecommuting programs within their businesses.
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