Biobased Material Computation and Digital Fabrication for Bacterial Cellulose-Based Biofabrics

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Biobased Material Computation and Digital Fabrication
for Bacterial Cellulose-Based Biofabrics
Gozde Damla Turhan1, Selen Çiçek2,3, Filiz Özbengi Uslu4
1,2,4Izmir University of Economics, 3Istanbul Technical University
1,2,4{gozde.turhan|selen.cicek|filiz.ozbengi}@ieu.edu.tr, 3cicekse20@itu.edu.tr
The collaboration with biological organisms, biomaterial computation, and digital
fabrication offers new possibilities for reconsidering the relationship between human and
non-human living forms. These organisms allow for the creation of materials, design and
manufacturing processes, and end products to become more closely aligned with natural
systems and processes, as they are derived from renewable resources and have a lower
environmental impact than synthetic materials. In this research, by focusing on nature
and non-human living organisms, biobased material computation and digital fabrication
were explored to develop biofabrics. This research offers a fully biodegradable process
with zero waste and unlimited supply, enhanced with the resources provided by nature,
including nature's design and manufacturing methods. To create this sustainable, circular
cycle, one of the most abundant materials in the world, the purest form of cellulose, is
produced by bacteria such as Acetobacter Xylinus (A. xylinus). In collaboration with A.
xylinus, bacterial cellulose-based biofabrics were grown and harvested. The methodology
was divided into four main stages: Digital fabrication of a customized fashion dummy
which involves 3D modeling, laser-cutting, and assembly of a fashion dummy; a
stochastic scaffold design for the bacterial cellulose biofilm layer; biobased material
formulation for developing a biofabric; and bio-assembly. The outcome has been
exhibited at Good Design İzmir 7, a national curated exhibition among the invited guests’
section, and had a chance to meet a larger audience to raise awareness. As a result, it
was seen that incorporating biobased materials into the digital fabrication process has
the potential to not only improve the performance and sustainability of materials but also
to encourage designers to reconsider the relationship between humans and ecology.
Future studies can include the scalability of such systems for broader design realms, such
as biobased architectural solutions for buildings, especially lightweight structures, as
well as industrial design products such as packaging.
Keywords: Material based Computation, Biobased Materials, Digital Fabrication,
Biofabrics, Bacterial Cellulose
INTRODUCTION
Material computation has emerged as a cutting-
edge field that seeks to bridge the gap between the
digital and physical worlds (Oxman and Rosenberg,
2007). It involves using algorithms and
computational tools to design and fabricate
complex structures and materials, blurring the lines
between material science, engineering, and
computer science (Menges, 2012). With a focus on
exploring novel materials and their properties,
material computation has the potential to
revolutionize various industries, from construction
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and architecture to biomedical engineering and
beyond (Stepney, 2008).
One key area of current research in material-
based computation is the biobased materials, such
as plant-based or microbial polymers and
biocomposites, at various scales (Zhou et al., 2021).
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in
exploring the use of biobased materials in material
computation and fabrication (Choi et al., 2022;
Turhan, Varinlioglu and Bengisu, 2023). Biobased
materials, which are derived from natural sources,
have the potential to offer a more sustainable and
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional
synthetic materials (Yadav and Agarwal, 2021). By
leveraging the unique properties of biobased
materials, researchers in the field of material
computation have been working to develop new
fabrication techniques and applications (Shreepad
and Ravi, 2015; Xie et al., 2019; Sayem, Shahariar and
Haider, 2020; Turhan, Varinlioglu, and Bengisu,
2021). The transition from digital design to physical
prototyping is one of the critical challenges in
biomaterial computation due to the challenging
properties of biologically active materials that
require various controlled parameters for growth,
manufacturing and maintenance (Provin et al.,
2021). Therefore, digital fabrication plays a crucial
role through a set of techniques that use digital
design data to control the manufacturing process,
allowing for the creation of complex and intricate
forms with high accuracy and precision (Kamath,
2013). Researchers can explore new frontiers in
developing novel materials and structures by
combining biobased material computation with
digital fabrication.
In this paper, the intersection of material
computation, biobased materials, and digital
fabrication is explored through a case study in the
realm of fashion design that demonstrates the
potential scalability of this approach in the design
and fabrication of various products, including
industrial design and architecture. We also discuss
the challenges and opportunities presented by this
interdisciplinary field and propose future directions
for research. Overall, this study highlights the
potential of biobased material computation and
digital fabrication in developing sustainable and
innovative materials for various design applications
by reconsidering the collaboration with biological
entities.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The Anthropocene, defined as the geological epoch
in which human activity has become the dominant
force shaping the planet, has brought about a
multitude of environmental challenges (Corlett,
2015). Climate change, resource depletion, and
pollution are a few issues facing society today (Arora,
2018). As a result, there is an urgent need to develop
sustainable and biodegradable materials for design
applications. The concept of sustainability, which
encompasses environmental, social, and economic
dimensions, has been increasingly important in
recent years. Sustainable materials are those that are
produced and used in a way that minimizes negative
environmental and social impacts while also
ensuring long-term economic viability (Olivetti and
Cullen, 2018). the cradle-to-cradle design approach
calls for the development of regenerative products
and systems that can be reused indefinitely
(Sherratt, 2013). Similarly, the circular economy,
which emphasizes the reuse and upcycling of
materials, has gained popularity as a way to address
the challenges of the Anthropocene (Sikdar, 2019).
Therefore, the cure for the effects of the
Anthropocene is circularity.
Circular Economy
Circularity refers to creating a closed-loop system to
extend and preserve the value of products and
materials for as long as possible (Megevand et al.,
2022). As stated through the sustainable
development goals (SDG), the United Nations (UN)
has highlighted the circular economy as a critical
component of sustainable development. The Target
12 of the SDGs focuses on sustainable consumption
and production, with a particular emphasis on the
circular economy as a way of accomplishing this
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objective. The circular economy seeks to reduce
waste and pollution by extending the life of products
and materials as much as possible, hence lowering
the environmental effect of production and
consumption. The United Nations has
acknowledged the necessity of implementing
circular economy concepts in all sectors of society,
including industry, government, and civil society
(UN, 2015).
On the other hand, circular design is a key
component of the circular economy as it aims to
create products that are designed for durability and
longevity, design for recyclability, and design for
assembly or zero-waste by adopting 5R (rethink,
reduce, reuse, repair, and recycle) to increase the
value of the products (Tserng, Chou and Chang,
2021). While it can be challenging for a designer to
develop a process that integrates ethics and
aesthetics, the material choices, design approaches,
production processes, and manufacturing
conditions also affect the development of
potentially sustainable products and systems.
Bio-Design
In the design field, there has been an increase in the
number of bio-terms, such as biomimicry,
biomorphism, and biophilia, in recent years
(Chayaamor-Heil, 2023). Overall, each approach
embraces the inspiration from nature to create
sustainable materials and systems at different scales.
By mimicking the structure and properties of natural
materials or incorporating these materials into
design applications, superior performance while
being environmentally friendly can be achieved
(Zhang, McAdams and Grunlan, 2016). However, as
with any approach, some limitations and
deficiencies must also be considered. One of the
main criticisms is that they are often undertaken as
an approach to form generation or creation of
harmonious relationships with nature, rather than
considering the process and outcome as a whole
(Marshall and Lozeva, 2009). As a result, there is an
urgent need to reconsider and develop materials
that fully capture the sustainability and efficiency of
natural systems.
Most of these bio-terms can overlook important
aspects of material selection in terms of the life cycle
analysis such as the environmental impact of raw
materials, their assembly and disposal. Therefore, it
is crucial to consider emerging approaches that
focus on materiality by borrowing methods and
tools from materials science and engineering as a
holistic and systems-oriented approach by
incorporating the methods and tools of digital
fabrication and computation. It can potentially offer
researchers and designers to develop materials that
are biodegradable, self-efficient, sustainable, and
environmentally friendly and that address the
environmental challenges of the Anthropocene.
Biobased material computation and digital
fabrication involve the use of various computational
methods in order to benefit from biobased materials
more efficiently. Material ecology is closely related to
material computation and can interact with each
other in a symbiotic way. In the literature on bio-
based design and computation, the potentials of this
kind of approach are discussed widely, to create
innovative materials and structures. By the
integration of the digital fabrication technologies,
additive and subtractive approaches and methods
such as laser cutting and 3D printing it is possible to
accelerate research and practice in the bio-design
field (Turhan et al., 2022).
There is an accelerated landscape of such
biobased materials employed in different
engineering and design fields. The examples include
bioplastics which are composed of renewable
biomass sources, such as cornstarch, sugarcane, and
potato starch, used in various applications such as
packaging, disposable cutlery, and 3D printing. The
biocomposites have been also made from natural
fibers such as hemp, flax, and bamboo, combined
with a biopolymer matrix including PLA. There are
bioceramics that have been derived from natural
sources such as bones and teeth to be used in
medical implants such as dental implants, artificial
joints, and bone grafts. Biopolymers produced from
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renewable biomass sources such as cellulose, chitin,
and lignin have been employed in various
applications, including food packaging, textiles, and
biomedical equipment.
Collaboration
with Acetobacter Xylinum
This paper approaches biobased material
computation and digital fabrication in the case of
textile and fashion design by collaborating with
Acetobacter Xylinum (A. Xylinum) for biodegradable
products. A. Xylinum is a gram-negative, aerobic,
and rod-shaped bacterium that is found in
environments with high levels of oxygen including
vinegar, kombucha, or other fermented foods
(Skinner and Cannon, 2000). It is commonly used in
industrial and biomedical applications for its ability
to produce cellulose by a sophisticated process that
involves the secretion of cellulose synthase
complexes, which catalyze the polymerization of
glucose into long chains of cellulose (McManus et al.,
2016). These chains are then extruded from the cell
and joined together to form a highly ordered and
crystalline structure (Vasconcelos et al., 2017). A.
Xylinum generates high-quality cellulose with
particular features such as high crystallinity, purity,
and tensile strength (Sheykhnazari et al., 2011) that
make it a promising material for use in various
design applications such as the production of
biodegradable and sustainable fabrics, especially
development of bio-composites with the integration
of other natural fibers including hemp, flax, and
bamboo (Naeem et al., 2020).
METHODOLOGY
The methodology was divided into four main stages:
Digital fabrication of a customized fashion dummy; a
stochastic scaffold design for the bacterial cellulose
layer; biobased material formulation; and bio-
assembly. (Figure 1) The first stage of the
methodology involved the use of digital fabrication
to create a customized fashion dummy. This dummy
served as a template for the subsequent phases of
the bio-fabrication process through a precise and
accurate representation of the desired shape and
size of the human body, allowing for further
interventions that may not be achievable using
traditional fabricated counterparts.
The second stage of the methodology involves
the design of a stochastic scaffold for the bacterial
cellulose layer. The scaffold provides a support
structure for the bacterial cellulose to grow on and
allows for the creation of a three-dimensional
structure. The use of a stochastic design allowed for
the creation of a random pattern, which enhanced
the aesthetic appeal of the final product.
The third stage of the methodology involves the
formulation of a biobased material that was used to
create the bacterial cellulose layer. The material
composition was carefully considered to ensure that
the additives were compatible with the bacterial
cellulose and would allow for optimal growth.
Biobased materials were preferred over synthetic
materials as they are more sustainable and
environmentally friendly.
The final stage of the methodology involves the
bio-assembly of the customized fashion dummy, the
stochastic scaffold, and the bacterial cellulose layer.
The scaffold and the bacterial cellulose layer were
carefully assembled onto the fashion dummy to
create the final product.
The process of fabricating a customized fashion
dummy is crucial for developing and testing new
materials and designs in the fashion industry.
Traditional methods of creating dummies have
limitations, such as size constraints and difficulty in
replicating human body shapes accurately. More
importantly, creating a customized scaffold on a
conventional ready-made dummy is challenging
due to restrictions caused by material that consists
of petroleum-based plastic casts. To address these
limitations, the use of 3D modeling and fabrication
technology was adopted. The purpose of 3D
modeling in our study was to create a precise and
customized fashion dummy that would not only
replicate the shape and size of a real human body,
but also allow us to manipulate it for a customized
scaffold construction. A 3D dummy was modeled
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and imported into Slicer software. The software
gives the layout with optimum nesting conditions of
cut-out pieces when the fabrication type is selected.
Laser cutting was used to accurately cut the
dummy parts from durable, flexible and lightweight
cardboard leftovers collected from an institution.
Finally, the assembly process involved fitting the cut-
out parts together to create a fully functional fashion
dummy. (Figure 2) The result was a customized
fashion dummy that could be used to test and
develop biobased materials for the fashion industry.
Stochastic Scaffold Design for the
Fiber-Reinforced Scaffold
In this study, the surface of the customized fashion
dummy was used as the base to create a point cloud
(Figure 3). Once the point cloud was generated on
Grasshopper, Rhinoceros 3D, a stochastic approach
was used to select anchor points in a random
manner. The resulting points were then connected
using jute strings, forming the base for the web
application that would act as the scaffold for the
bacterial cellulose biofilm layer. Therefore, the
scaffold mimicked the irregular and unpredictable
nature of natural structures while still providing the
necessary support for the bacterial cellulose biofilm
Figure 1
Methodology
Figure 2
3D modelling, laser
cutting and
assembly stages of
the customizable
fashion dummy
Figure 3
Computational
stochastic scaffold
design for the fiber
reinforcement
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layer. Additionally, the use of Grasshopper
Rhinoceros 3D allowed for a high degree of precision
and accuracy in the creation of the scaffold, ensuring
that it met the exact specifications required for the
study.
Material Formulation
for Biofabric Production
The nature of BC was first explored through several
observations within the early explorations, including
the texture analysis with a digital microscope with
500x amplification (Figure 4) and different material
compositions consisting of pure BC;
BC+pectine+beet root powder; BC
+jute+pectine;BC+jute+spinach powder+pectine
(Figure 5). The culture used in fermentation and
production was Acetobacter Xylinum (A. xylinum).
The production of BC biofilm (Figure 6) took place
within 1 L. of water, added with 4 gr. of green tea that
was infused for 10 minutes at 100°C. 100 gr. of
sucrose and 30 ml. of fermented liquid were added
for acidification. After adding 90 gr. of BC biofilm
piece, the culture was cultivated at 20 ± 2 °C and 65
± 5% moisture in static conditions for 34 days. After
34 days of cultivation, the biofilm on the surface of
the container was removed. The pretreatment of the
biofilm was skipped to let the bacterial growth
continue. The grown biofilm was sliced apart into
pieces. 15 gr. of it was kept as inoculum in the
subsequent fermentations for another 34 days. The
procedure was adapted from the research
conducted by De Filippis et al. (2018) and
Sederaviciüte, Domskiene and Baltina (2019). The
remaining 75 gr. of the biofilm was used to develop
biofabrics together with the 30 ml. fermented liquid
and 20 gr. pectine.
Bio-assembly Process
Bio-assembly refers to the process of assembling
biological components, such as cells or tissues, into
a functional structure in the medical fields. In the
case of bacterial cellulose-based biofabrics, bio-
assembly involves the arrangement and attachment
of the bacterial cellulose layer onto a pre-defined
scaffold or template. After the scaffold was
constructed on the customized dummy with needles
and jute fibers, the mixture was applied (Figure 7).
The scaffold provided a support structure for the
bacterial cellulose to grow on and allowed for the
creation of a three-dimensional structure.
Figure 4
Texture analysis
with a digital
microscope with
500x amplification
Figure 5
Examples from
composite
explorations
Figure 6
Biobased material
formulation
Figure 7
Bio-assembly of
dummy, scaffold
and biobased
material application
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The bio-assembly process must be carefully
controlled to ensure that the bacterial cellulose
grows in the desired pattern and adheres securely to
the scaffold. The goal of this approach was to create
complex and functional materials using biological
components and advanced manufacturing
techniques. Since the mixture contains living
organisms due to the removal of the sterilization
stage, it was anticipated that the biofabric would
grow when proper environmental conditions were
provided. Therefore, the bio-assembly process also
involved the use of environmental controls, such as
a dual temperature controller ZFX-ST3012 to make
sure that the average value falls around 20 ± 2 °C and
a humidity controller XH-W3005 with a dehumidifier
and humidity probe to ensure that the value falls
around 65 ± 5%, to promote optimal growth of the
bacterial cellulose. The mixture containing the
ingredients of the growth medium was sprayed onto
the fabric at three-day-long intervals while keeping
the prototype in a heat- and humidity-regulated
setup.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Working with bacterial cellulose, a biobased
material, poses challenges in close maintenance.
These include the risk of microbial contamination,
the need to meet specific nutrient requirements, pH
and temperature control, ensuring proper oxygen
supply, maintaining sterility and hygiene, scaling up
production, and the time and cost involved. Despite
these challenges, bacterial cellulose offers
advantages such as high purity and unique
properties, making it attractive for various
applications. Overcoming maintenance challenges
can lead to innovative and sustainable materials with
diverse uses.
The outcomes of the present study were
showcased as a fashion collection, along with two
additional outputs (Figure 8), at a nationally curated
exhibition. They were presented within the invited
guests' section for 11 days. Since the growth of the
biofabrics continued, changes in the color and
pattern were quite visible, adding another
dimension, “time” to the design.
This exhibition provided an opportunity for the
research outcomes to be disseminated to a wider
audience, thereby increasing awareness of the
potential of biobased material computation and
digital fabrication for sustainable material
production. The exhibition platform served as an
effective means to promote the significance of the
research, highlighting the importance of
interdisciplinary approaches in creating innovative
and sustainable materials. The presentation of the
research outcomes in this manner facilitated
engagement with a broader community, promoting
public understanding and appreciation of the
potential of biobased material computation and
digital fabrication in addressing the challenges of
sustainable material production against the
irreversible effects of the Anthropocene.
The field of biobased material computation and
digital fabrication represents a rapidly growing and
interdisciplinary area of research that offers
numerous challenges and scalable opportunities for
the development of sustainable and innovative
materials for especially architectural construction. By
reconsidering the collaboration with biological
entities, this field has the potential to transform the
Figure 8
Biofabric collection
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way we design, produce, and consume building
materials, offering new avenues for sustainable and
environmentally friendly material production. (Fig
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Good Design Izmir 2022 team
for inviting us to the national curated exhibition with
the theme “vital“. We extend our appreciation to the
DMakerLab specialist Argun TANRIVERDİ for his
technical support in our self-curation process and
Asst. Prof. Dr. Duygu Ebru ÖNGEN CORSİNİ for her
mind-opening talks and relentless energy during the
project.
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