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University of Baghdad
College of Nursing
Effect of Social Media Use on Body
Image among Adolescents
A Thesis Submitted
By
Samah Nghaimesh Sultan
To
Department of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing
Collage of Nursing – University of Baghdad
In
Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master
in Nursing Sciences
Supervised by
Assist prof. Dr. Iman Husseian Alwan, PhD
April 2023 A.D Ramadan 1444 A.H
)
Supervisor Certification
I certify that this thesis, entitled (Effect of Social Media Use on Body
Image among Adolescents) which written by (Samah Nghamesh Sultan), was
prepared under my supervision at The College of Nursing/ University of
Baghdad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master in
Nursing Sciences with a specialty of (Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing).
Signature
Assist prof. Dr. Iman Husseian Alwan, PhD.
College of Nursing\University of Baghdad
Date: / / 2023
Certification
We, the members of the examining committee, certify that after reading
this thesis entitled (Effect of Social Media Use on Body Image among
Adolescents), which is submitted by (Samah Nghaimesh Sultan) from the
Department of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing, and we have examined the
student in its contents, and what is related to it, and we have decided that it is
qualified for pursuing the degree of Master in Nursing Sciences with a
specialty of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing and estimate of ( Excellent ).
Signature Signature
Assist. Prof. Dr Assist. Prof. Dr
Aseel Ghazi Mahmmod Kawther Salman Dawood
Member Member
Date / /2023 Date / /2023
Signature
Chairman
Assist. Prof. Dr. Qahtan Qasim Mohammed
Date: / / 2023
The Council of the Department of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing has approved
the examining committee decision
Signature
prof. Dr. Wissam Jabbar Qassim, PhD.
Dean of College of Nursing/ University of Baghdad
Date: / / 2023
Approval Certification
After reviewing the thesis titled (Effect of Social Media Use on Body
Image among Adolescents ), we certify that it fulfills all the requirements of
the degree of Master in Nursing Sciences.
Assist. Prof. Qahtan Qasim Mohammed, PhD.
Head of Department
College of Nursing\University of Baghdad
Date: / / 2023
Associate Dean for Academic Affairs
.
Assist. Prof. Zahid Jassim Mohammed, PhD.
College of Nursing\University of Baghdad
Date: / / 2023
To my loving father, who has always been my source of inspiration and
motivation throughout my academic journey. His unwavering support and
encouragement have helped me achieve this milestone
To my dear mother, who has been my pillar of strength, thank you for
your constant love, guidance, and patience. Your sacrifices and selflessness have
been instrumental in shaping who I am today
To my beloved husband, who has been my partner in every aspect of my
life, thank you for your unconditional love, understanding, and encouragement.
You have been my rock and have always believed in me (Ali)
To my wonderful children, who have brought immense joy and meaning
to my life, thank you for your love and support. You have been my constant
source of inspiration and motivation to pursue my dreams (Hassan, Hussein)
To my brothers and sisters, who have always been my pillars of strength,
thank you for your love, guidance, and support throughout my life. Your
encouragement and belief in me have been instrumental in my success
To my dear friend, who has been a constant support and a sounding board
throughout my research journey, thank you for your unwavering support and
encouragement.
Samah
2023
Dedication
I
At the first, I would like to thank my God, the source of all wisdom,
knowledge ,and understanding. Thank you for blessing me with the mind,
creativity, and perseverance to complete this work. Your guidance,
inspiratio,n and strength have been my constant companions throughout my
academic journey.
I would like to express my sincere appreciation for my supervisor's
assistance. Dr.Iman Hussaien Alwan for her positive response, generous
sharing of her scientific knowledge and continuous encouragement and
support, all those who have supported and helped me through my journey to
finish this study.
Thanks are extended for College of Nursing / University of Baghdad,
starting from the Dean Prof. Dr.Wisam Qasim Jabar, and the chairman of
Psychiatric Nursing Department , Dr. Qahtan Qasim Mohammed, and all
the members of the department, for their support through this thesis and for
the library staff in the College of Nursing for their cooperation. Finally,
thanks and respect toall the student who agree to participate in the present
study
Acknowledgments
II
Abstract
The universal and widespread use of social media platforms has
revolutionized communication and connectivity, especially among
adolescents and this widespread and globalization use of social media
platform can affect the mental, psychological and physical health of the
adolescents. This study aim to assess the effect of social media use on body
image perception among femal adolescents.
A descriptive correlational design conducted in Baghdad city at high
school female of Directorate of Education Rusafa second and third from
November 2022 to April 2023. A probability sample of (560) females
students from 20 schools selected The instrument of the study was designed
by using questionnaire which included informations aboute students a Socio-
demographic characteristics, Social Media Engagement Scale for adolescents
(SMES-A), and Body Image Perception Scale.
The study results showed that (52%) of high femal students had
moderate levels of social media use and (74.5%) had normal assessment of
body image with a significant correlation between the two. However, there is
significant difference was found between age, grade, monthly income and,
social media use .and a significant difference was found between monthly
income and body image .
The study concludes that the social media use had negative effect on
body image and this possible negative effects of social media use on body
image perception related to how much time female students spends on social
media platforms, the more time spent on social social media platform, the
greater the negative impact of social media use platform on the body image
perception among female students. The researcher recommendes that the
ministry of education to support the school to holding courses for students on
effect of social media use and activating the role of media censorship on
content that published on social media platforms.
III
List
Titles
Page No.
1
Acknowledgments
I
2
Abstract
II
3
List of Contents
III
3
List of Tables
V
4
List of Figures
VI
5
List of Appendices
VI
6
List of abbreviations and symbols
VII
List
Chapter One: Introduction
1-8
1.1
Background
1.2
Importance of the Study
3
1.3
Statement of the Problem
4
1.4
The Objective of the Study
6
1.5
Hypothesis
7
1.
Definition of term
7-8
List
Chapter Two: Literatures Review
9- 23
2.1
Social media
9
2.2
Theoretical framework
9
2.2.1
Social cognitive theory
9
2.2.2
The social comparison theory
10
2.3
Body image
11
2.3.1
The concept of body image
12
2.3.2
The acquisition of body image constructs
12
2.3.3
Positive body image
13
2.3.4
Negative body image
14
2.3.5
Body image and adolescents
15
2.4
Social media and body image
16
2.5
Previous study
18-23
List
Chapter Three: Methodology
24-32
3.1
Study Design
24
3.2
Administrative arrangement
24
3.3
Setting of the study
24
List of contents
IV
3.4
Sample of the study
25
3.5
Instrument of the study
26
.6
Validity of the questionnaire
27
3.7
Pilot study
28
3.8
Ethical considerations
30
3.9
Data collection methods
30
3.10
Statistics analysis
31-32
List
Chapter Four Results of the Study
33- 43
List
Chapter Five : Discussions of The Study
45- 56
5.1
Discussion of The socio-demographic
characteristic
45-50
5.2
Discussion of the level of Social Media
engagement among High School Female
Students
51
5.3
Discussion of distribution of body-image
Asessment
51
5.4
Disscussion of Differences in Social Media Uses
and Body image perception between the
Groups of Age
53
5.6
Disscussion of Differences in Social Media Uses
and Body image perception between the Groups of Grade
54
5.7
Disscussion of Differences in Social Media
Uses and Body image perception between
the Groups of Monthly Income
55
5.8
Discussion of liner regression among the student
variable in predict the body image
55-56
List
Chapter Six : Conclusions and
Recommendations
57- 58
6.1
Conclusions
57
6.2
Recommendations
58
References
59- 83
Appendices
Abstract in Arabic
V
List
Titles
Page No.
3.1
Reliability of the Studied Questionnaire
(n=25)
29
4.1
Distribution of study sample by their socio-
demographic variable
33
4.2
Distribution of social media use.
34
4.3
Overall social media use among high school
female students
35
4.4
Distribution of body -image Assessment
36
4.5
Overall body-image use assessment among
high school female students
38
4.6
Statistical differences in social media use
and body image with respect students’
characteristics.
39
4.6.1
Statistical differences in social media use
and body image between the group of age
40
4.6.2
Statistical differences in social media use
and body image between the group of grade
41
4.6.3
Statistical differences in social media use
and body image between the group of
monthly income
67
4.7
Liner Regression among the study variable
in predicting the body image
43
LIST OF TABLES
VI
List of Figures
Titles
Items
Ethical Considerations
A
Agreement of Ministry of Planning Administrative Arrangements
B
Questionnaire of the study
C
List of Experts
D
The Statistician Acknowledgment
E
List
Figure Titles
Page No.
3-1
Distribution of Study Sample by their Selected
School
25
4- 1
Overall social media use
36
4-2
Overall body image assessment
39
4-3
Social media use between groups of age
40
4-4
Social media use between group of grade
41
4-5
Social media use between group of monthly
income
42
4-6
Body -image between group of monthly
income
43
LIST OF THE APPENDICES
VII
No.
Items
Meaning
1
%
Percentage
<
Less than
2
>
More than
3
SMU
Social media use
4
SCT
Social cognitive theory
5
HBSC
Healtrh Beheavior in The School-age
Children
6
SMES-A
Social Media Engagement Scale for
Adolescents
7
M
Mean
8
S.D
Standard Deviation
10
WHO
World Health Organization
11
ANOVA
Analysis of Variance
12
SPSS
Statistical Package of social sciences
13
P
Probability Value
14
Freq
Frequency
15
N.S
Not Significant
16
Sig
Significant
List of Abbreviation
Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter one:Introduction 1
1 Chapter One
2 Introduction
1.1 Background
Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives, with billions
of people using various social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram,
Twitter, TikTok, and many others to connect, share information, and entertain
themselves. While social media has many benefits, such as staying connected
with friends and family, it has also been associated with various negative
effects, including its impact on body image (Huang, Peng, and Ahn, 2021).
Social media platforms are filled with images of people with what seems
to be the "perfect" body, often manipulated through editing and filters. These
images create unrealistic beauty standards and can lead to individuals feeling
insecure about their bodies. Social media use has been linked to body
dissatisfaction, negative body image, and disordered eating behaviors
(Olanrewaju et al., 2020).
Social media platforms are often criticized for not doing enough to
regulate and remove harmful content, such as images promoting extreme
weight loss or unhealthy body standards. As a result, many people have
become advocates for body positivity, encouraging people to love their
bodies regardless of their shape or size (Appel et al., 2020).
Social media's impact on body image is a complex issue, with both
positive and negative effects. While social media has the potential to promote
body positivity and self-love, it can also perpetuate unrealistic beauty
standards and contribute to body dissatisfaction (Baker, Ferszt, and Breines,
2019).
Chapter one:Introduction 2
Adolescence is an important period of development, with the main
physical, social, cognitive, and emotional changes and identity formation
occurring. Adolescence is also a time when young people begin to use social
media, Internet platforms that enable social interaction by creating individual
online profiles and sharing photos, videos, and other media on sites or apps
such as Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook (Vall-Roqué et al., 2021).Social
media has been found to have both positive and negative effects on the lives
of Adolescence. Positive aspects of social media use include increased peer
contact and support, and learning opportunities (Mahon & Hevey, 2021).
Research has largely reported negative effects from Adolescent use of
social media, which contributes to mental health difficulties including
increased depression, anxiety, self-harming behaviors, decreased social and
emotional well-being, low self-esteem, and negative body image(Hogue &
Mills, 2019).
For girls, the combination of reaching puberty, changing their bodies, the
importance of peer approval, and the formation of romantic relationships can
increase stress exposure to a negative body image.There is a growing body of
research suggesting that there is a relationship between body dissatisfaction
and time spent on social media in adolescents, Social media use is associated
with increased body dissatisfaction, several studies have found that spending
more time on social media is linked to higher levels of body dissatisfaction
in adolescents. This may be because social media often presents unrealistic
beauty standards that can be difficult to achieve, leading to feelings of
inadequacy and dissatisfaction with one's appearance Sukamto, Hamidah
and Fajrianthi, 2019.
Social comparison plays important role in adolescents life, Adolescents
often use social media to compare themselves to others, and this can
contribute to feelings of inadequacy and body dissatisfaction. Research has
Chapter one:Introduction 3
found that the more time adolescents spend comparing themselves to others
on social media, the more likely they are to experience negative body image
(Boursier et al., 2020).
Specific types of social media use may be more harmful, some studies
have found that certain types of social media use, such as posting selfies or
following fitspiration accounts, are more strongly associated with body
dissatisfaction than others. This may be because these types of content are
more likely to emphasize appearance and can be more triggering for
individuals who are already struggling with body image issues (Franchina &
Coco, 2018).
Body dissatisfaction can lead to more social media use, while social
media use can contribute to body dissatisfaction, the reverse may also be true.
Adolescents who are dissatisfied with their bodies may be more likely to
spend time on social media seeking validation or comparing themselves to
others(Gordon et al., 2021). these findings suggest that there is a complex
relationship between body dissatisfaction and social media use in
adolescents. While social media can have many benefits, it is important for
parents and caregivers to be aware of the potential negative effects and to
help adolescents develop healthy habits around social media use(Fioravanti
et al., 2022)
1.2 Importance of Study
dolescence is a period of significant physical, emotional, and
psychological development. Social media platforms often showcase idealized
and unrealistic body standards, leading to negative body image perceptions
among adolescents. This can result in low self-esteem, body dissatisfaction,
eating disorders, and mental health issues. Understanding these effects helps
Chapter one:Introduction 4
healthcare professionals, including nurses to identify and address body image
concerns and enhancing adolescents mental health.
Nurses play a vital role in assessing and promoting the overall health and
well-being of adolescents. By studying the effects of SMU on body image
and deep understanding of the relationship between SMU and body image ,
nurses can better understand the factors contributing to body dissatisfaction
and related concerns. This knowledge enables them to provide targeted
assessments, interventions, and support to adolescents struggling with body
image issues.
1.3.Problems statement
The problem statement for a study on the effect of social media use on
body image among adolescents could be framed as follows.
Despite the many benefits of social media, there is growing concerned
about the impact of social media use on adolescent body image (Jiotsa et al.,
2021). Adolescents are a vulnerable population, and body dissatisfaction can
lead to a range of negative outcomes, including eating disorders, depression,
and low self-esteem. While there is evidence to suggest that social media use
is associated with negative body image among adolescents, the precise nature
of this relationship is not well understood (Franchina & Coco, 2018). it is
important to gain a deeper understanding of the factors that contribute to this
relationship, including the types of social media use that are most strongly
associated with negative body image, the role of social comparison, and the
potential moderating effects of age, gender, and other demographic factors
(Mahon & Hevey, 2021).
The study aims to fill this gap in the literature by exploring the
relationship between social media use and body image among adolescents
and identifying the key factors that contribute to this relationship (Boursier et
al., 2020).
Chapter one:Introduction 5
The Problem: Social media has become an integral part of our lives,
especially for adolescents. With the increased use of social media platforms
like Instagram, Facebook, Snapchat, and TikTok, there has been a growing
concern about its impact on body image (Sukamto et al., 2019a). Adolescents
are at a critical stage of development, and they are highly susceptible to social
influence. Social media platforms provide a constant stream of images and
messages that promote unrealistic beauty standards and thinness. Adolescents
who spend more time on social media are more likely to compare themselves
to others and feel dissatisfied with their bodies (Cataldo et al., 2021)
The problem’s scope: According to the Iraqi News Agency, when the
Iraqi Ministry of Interior counted the number of users of social networking
sites during the year 2022, it found that the number of users of social
networking sites was 48 million and 400 thousand in 2022, while in 2021 the
number of users was about 25 million, which means that the increase rate
reached 13.4 . (Wae, 2023).
The consequences of the problems: The consequences of the effect of
social media on body image in adolescents can be significant and far-
reaching. Here are some of the main consequences, Eating disorders, Low
self-esteem, Negative body image, Poor body image behaviors, Social
comparison, and Cyberbullying (Klier et al., 2022).
Proposed solution: to address the problem, several solution have been
proposed. these include:
Healthy diet can play a significant role in supporting a positive body
image, promotes a balanced approach to eating, focusing on nourishing the
body rather than restrictive behaviors. It emphasizes the consumption of a
variety of nutritious foods, which can help individuals feel more satisfied and
less likely to engage in negative body image-related behaviors.
Chapter one:Introduction 6
Consuming a balanced diet ensures that the body receives essential
nutrients for optimal functioning, when the body is adequately nourished, it
can maintain energy levels, support healthy skin, hair, and nails, and enhance
overall well-being. This can contribute to a positive body image by fostering
a sense of vitality and confidence.
A healthy diet encourages self-acceptance and appreciation of one's body,
rather than focusing on appearance or weight, it emphasizes the importance
of overall health and well-being, by nourishing the body with nutritious
foods, individuals can develop a positive relationship with their bodies and
appreciate the amazing things their bodies can do. (Gordon et al., 2021).
Engaging in physical activity can promote positive body image and self-
esteem and reduce the negative effects of social media on body image (Jiotsa
et al., 2021). Providing mental health support for adolescents who experience
negative body image issues may benefit from mental health support,
including therapy and counseling (Franchina & Coco, 2018). Encouraging
social support from friends and family can help adolescents build resilience
and cope with negative body image messages on social media (Mahon &
Hevey, 2021).
1.4 Objectives of the Study
. To assess the use of social media and body image among high school
female students.
2. To investigate the differences in the use of social media and body image
with respect to groups of age, grade, and monthly income.
3. To identify if the device used, most common content of social media, most
common platform, time spent on social media, and social media can
predict their body image.
Chapter one:Introduction 7
4. To assess effect of social media use on body image among high school
female students.
1.5. Hypothesis
1.5.1.Alternative hypothesis:
Increased social media use is associated with higher level of body
dissatisfactions among adolescents,indicating negative effect o social media
use on body image.
1.6.Definition of terms
1.6.1Social media use
A.Theoretical definition:
Social media use refers to the act of engaging with social media
platforms and participating in various activities offered by these platforms.
This includes activities such as creating and sharing content, commenting on
posts, liking or reacting to content, following or subscribing to accounts, and
engaging in online discussions or conversations (Cambridge Business
English Dictionary,2022).
B. Operational definition:
Social media" is operationally defined as the content shared by
individuals on popular platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat,
Instagram, and others. Social media engagement will be measured using a
three-level Likert scale, capturing the level of active participation and
interaction with social media platforms..
1.6.2. Body image
A. Theoretical definition:
Chapter one:Introduction 8
Body image refers to a person's thoughts, perceptions, and attitudes
about their physical appearance, including their weight, shape, size, and other
physical characteristics (Cameron et al., 2019).
B. Operational definition:
An operational definition of body image refers to specific criteria or
measures that can be used to assess an individual's perceptions and attitudes
toward their physical appearance, measured by the Likert Scale of Body
Satisfaction scales (Rounsefell et al., 2020).
1.6.3. Adolescents
A. Theoretical definition:
transition period from childhood to adulthood and characterize by
physical growth, psychological change and also represent expanding role into
social an environment choice.
B. Operational definition:
The period of human development that starts with puberty
(approximately 10 to 12 years of age ) and ends with physiological and
neuorobiological maturity, show in neouscientific research to extend to at
least age 20 years, with scientificant brain developmemt in the late adolescent
stage of 18 to 20 years (American Psychological Association [ APA],2023).
Chapter Two
Literatuer Review
Chapter Two: Literature Review 9
Chapter Two
Literatuer Review
2.1 Social Media
2.1.1 Historical Background
Social media has evolved significantly since the early days of the
internet. Here are a few key developments in the history of social media, in
(1970 ) Internet forums and chat rooms allow users to communicate with each
other in real-time.(1997) Blogging platforms like LiveJournal and Xanga
allow users to share their thoughts and experiences online in the form of a
personal diary or journal (Gupta et al., 2022).
In (2002) Social networking sites like MySpace and LinkedIn are
launched, allowing users to create profiles and connect with other users who
have similar interests or backgrounds, in (2004) Facebook is founded as a
way for students at Harvard University to connect with each other. It quickly
expands to include people from all over the world, in (2005) YouTube is
launched as a video-sharing website, in (2006) Twitter is founded as a
microblogging platform.
In (2007) the iPhone is introduced bringing social media to mobile
devices and making it more accessible to people around the world, in (2010)
Instagram is launched as a photo-sharing platform, In (2013) The rise of
"selfie culture" is facilitated by the widespread adoption of front-facing
cameras on smartphones, in (2016) Live video streaming becomes popular
with the launch of platforms like Periscope and Facebook Live, in (2020)
Social media usage increases significantly due to the COVID-19 pandemic,
as people rely on these platforms to stay connected while physical distancing
measures are in place (Aichner et al., 2021).
Chapter Two: Literature Review 10
As social media has evolved, it has also become an important tool for
businesses to connect with customers and promote their products and
services. It has also played a role in shaping political discourse and has been
used to organize social movements and protests (Zhuravskaya, Petrova, and
Enikolopov, 2020).
2.1.2. Overview of Social Media
Social media refers to websites and applications that allow users to
create and share content or to participate in social networking. Examples of
social media include Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn. These
platforms can be used for a variety of purposes, such as staying in touch with
friends and family, sharing news and information, and connecting with like-
minded individuals(Nasional, 2023).
The first recognizable form of social media can be traced back to the
1970s with internet forums, but the concept of social media, as we know it
today, took off in the late 2000s with the launch of platforms such as
Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter (Dumas & Desroches, 2019).
Facebook was founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg and a group of his
classmates at Harvard University. It was originally designed as a way for
students to connect and share information. In the following years, Facebook
expanded to include people from all over the world and became one of the
most popular social media platforms (Stevenson, 2017).
YouTube was launched in 2005 by three former PayPal employees:
Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim. It was initially intended to be a
video-sharing website where users could upload and share their videos.
Today, it is a major platform for sharing and discovering all kinds of video
content, including music videos, movie trailers, and educational videos
(Bhalchandra Balkrishna & Deshmukh, 2017).
Chapter Two: Literature Review 11
Twitter was founded in 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Biz Stone, and Evan
Williams. It is a microblogging platform that allows users to send and receive
short messages, known as "tweets," of up to 280 characters. Twitter has
become a popular platform for people to share their thoughts and opinions,
follow their favorite celebrities and organizations, and get real-time updates
on news and events (Baker et al., 2019).
Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives, impacting
the way we communicate, share information, and consume media. Here are
some of how social media is important in our lives, Communication. Social
media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and WhatsApp have
made communication easier and more accessible. People can now connect
instantly, regardless of their location (Kainz, 2018).
Information sharing, social media is a powerful tool for sharing
information and ideas. It has given a platform for people to express their
opinions and share news, which has led to increased transparency and
awareness (Soubra et al., 2022).
Business promotion, social media has become an essential tool for
businesses to promote their products and services. Companies can now reach
a wider audience through social media advertising and engagement
(Nasional, 2023).
Entertainment, social media has become a major source of
entertainment, with users consuming a variety of content like videos, images,
and memes Community building,Social media has enabled people to connect
with others who share similar interests, creating online communities where
people can engage in discussions and share ideas (Bakeer, 2018).
Education, social media has revolutionized the way we learn and
access information. Students can now collaborate and share resources
Chapter Two: Literature Review 12
through social media platforms, making learning more accessible and
interactive. social media has become an important part of our lives, providing
us with opportunities to connect, learn, and engage with the world around us
(Bell, 2018).
2.1.3. Social Media and Adolescents
Social media is a popular and influential part of many adolescents'
lives, and it can have both positive and negative effects on their development.
On the positive side, social media can provide a platform for adolescents to
express themselves, connect with others who have similar interests, and
access a wealth of information and resources. It can also be a useful tool for
staying in touch with friends and family and for staying up to date on current
events (Monks et al, 2021).
Kaplan, and Mazurek (2018) stated that there are also potential
negative effects of social media on adolescents. These can include
Cyberbullying: Adolescents may be bullied or harassed online, which
can have serious consequences for their mental health and well-being.
Lack of privacy: Adolescents may not always understand the
importance of protecting their personal information online and may be at risk
of having their privacy violated.
Comparison: Seeing others' carefully curated and often unrealistic
online personas can lead adolescents to compare themselves to others and feel
inadequate.
Social isolation: Spending too much time on social media can lead to
reduced face-to-face social interactions and a feeling of disconnection from
the real world.
Chapter Two: Literature Review 13
Sleep disturbance: The blue light emitted by screens can disrupt
adolescents' sleep patterns and lead to problems such as fatigue and difficulty
concentrating (Kaplan, and Mazurek, 2018).
2.1.4. celebrities
Celebrities are individuals who have gained public recognition and
fame, typically due to their talents, careers, or notable accomplishments. They
can be actors, musicians, athletes, politicians, and more. Some of the most
celebrities today include Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson, Rihanna, Kylie
Jenner, Cristiano Ronaldo, and Taylor Swift, among others. The list of
celebrities is constantly changing as new people rise to prominence and others
fade from the spotlight (Stevenson, 2017).
It is undeniable that social media celebrities have gained a large fan
base of followers, who are keen to watch all of their videos or what they write
on various platforms. Rather, their influence reached a wide range, which led
to them being considered an influential category more than just being famous
or celebrities (Mahon & Hevey, 2021).
Celebrities can have a significant impact on the lives of adolescents,
especially in terms of their appearance and body image. Adolescents often
look to celebrities as role models and may strive to emulate their appearance
and style. This can lead to pressure to conform to unrealistic and often
unhealthy beauty standards. For example, many celebrities are known for
their extremely thin or muscular bodies, which can result in adolescents
feeling pressure to lose weight or build muscle to achieve a similar
appearance (Harris & Griffiths, 2023).
In addition, the media often portrays celebrities as having perfect
bodies and flawless appearances, which can contribute to body dissatisfaction
and low self-esteem in adolescents. Adolescents who compare themselves to
these unrealistic images of beauty can feel inadequate and develop negative
Chapter Two: Literature Review 14
thoughts and behaviors towards their own bodies. This can result in
disordered eating patterns, body shaming, and other harmful practices (Gupta
et al., 2022).
Adolescents need to understand that the images they see of celebrities
in the media are often highly edited and do not reflect reality. They should
focus on their own health and well-being, rather than trying to conform to
societal beauty standards. It's also important for parents, teachers, and other
adults to encourage adolescents to embrace their individuality and to help
them develop a positive self-image (Bakeer, 2018).
The recent development in the world of the Internet, especially social
networks, and the increasing public demand for them, called on companies
and institutions to use social networking sites in order to advertise their
services and products, and we notice today an abundance of advertisements
that are published on these sites, These companies are looking for new ways,
trying to move away from the classic ways in the advertising industry in terms
of its forms, the diversity of its means, and the amount of spending on it, to
attract the public’s attention towards their products, and the most prominent
of these methods is the use of famous personalities who have a large audience
and are widely followed on websites (Hilkens et al., 2021).
Social communication in order to include it in advertisements, and
these celebrities are chosen in order to add an artistic and creative touch to
the advertisement thanks to their expertise and their handling of the camera
as well as their wide audience, so advertising companies enter into a struggle
among themselves to attract a famous, influential and likable personality
With the public, this influence is due to the successes achieved by the famous
personality on the practical level, whether he is an artist or a sports star who
has grabbed the limelight in the stadiums recently. Therefore, institutions and
companies realize the importance of stars and famous people in the success
Chapter Two: Literature Review 15
of their products and brands, and that this method of promoting their products
will achieve success amidst the crowded advertisements that exist today
(Valkenburg, 2022).
2.2 Theoretical Framework
Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) and social comparison theory
(Suls &Wheeler, 2012) are used as foundational frameworks to examine the
roles social media images play in body image abnormalities
2.2.1. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
The theoretical underpinning for this study was Social Cognitive
Theory (SCT). SCT is a psychological theory that emphasizes the role of
observational learning in shaping behavior and attitudes. The theory was first
proposed by psychologist Albert Bandura in the 1980s, who suggested that
people learn by observing the behavior of others, and that this type of learning
can occur through various forms of media, including television, film, and,
more recently, social media (Anderson & Jiang, 2018).
According to SCT, people learn by observing others and then imitating
their behavior, which is known as modeling. This process of modeling
involves three key components: attention, retention, and motor reproduction.
Attention refers to the extent to which an individual is paying attention to the
modeled behavior, retention refers to the extent to which the individual is able
to remember the modeled behavior, and motor reproduction refers to the
extent to which the individual is able to physically imitate the modeled
behavior. (Anderson & Jiang, 2018)
SCT also suggests that people's behavior is influenced by their beliefs
and expectations about their abilities, known as self-efficacy. The theory
posits that individuals with high self-efficacy believe that they have
canomplish a task, and will be more likely to engage in that behavior, while
Chapter Two: Literature Review 16
those with low self-efficacy believe that they do not have the ability to
accomplish a task, and will be less likely to engage in that behavior (Nasional,
2023).
In terms of social media, SCT suggests that exposure to images of thin
and idealized bodies on social media may lead adolescents to internalize these
ideals and engage in behaviors such as dieting and disordered eating in an
attempt to achieve the same body type, this is known as social learning. Also,
SCT suggests that the more an adolescent is exposed to images of ideal bodies
on social media, the more they will develop a negative body image, and lower
self-efficacy (Baker et al., 2019).
2.2.2 The Social Comparison Theory
The social comparison theory was Created by Leon Festinger in 1954,
social comparison theory suggests that individuals evaluate themselves by
comparing their abilities, opinions, and attributes to those of others, according
to this theory, people engage in social comparison as a way to gain accurate
self-evaluations and determine their social standing or personal worth (Chua
& Chang, 2016).
This model includes two types of comparisons, Including upward
social comparison and downward social comparison. The first type is upward
social comparison occurs when people compare themselves to others they
assume they are better than they are.These comparisons often lead to attempts
to be more like that person. to achieve similar results. In contrast, downward
social comparison occurs when comparisons are made with people who are
believed to be in lower or less competent positions or Inferior (Vartanian and
Day, 2013).
When making comparisons using social media, ascending social
comparisons are common because the images that are presented through these
Chapter Two: Literature Review 17
platforms often include unrealistic standards of beauty and body size (Hussin,
2021).
2.3 Body Image
Body image is the way that a person perceives, thinks about, and feels
about their own body. It can be influenced by a variety of factors, including
cultural and societal messages, personal experiences, and relationships. A
person's body image can affect their self-esteem, confidence, and overall
mental and emotional well-being. A healthy body image is when a person
feels comfortable and confident in their own body and can appreciate their
natural shape and size. An unhealthy body image is when a person has
negative thoughts and feelings about their body, and my feel self-conscious
or dissatisfied with their appearance (Appel et al 2020).
Body image can be particularly sensitive for adolescents, who may be
more vulnerable to societal pressure to conform to certain standards of
beauty. Individuals need to develop a positive body image by learning to
appreciate and respect their bodies for what they can do, rather than focusing
on their appearance. It is also important for parents and other adults to model
healthy body image and self-acceptance for adolescents (Hosseini, and
Padhy, 2019).
2.3.1. The Concept of Body Image
The concept of body image has been explored by psychologists and
other scholars for many years, but the term "body image" itself has a
somewhat unclear history. One possibility is that the term "body image" was
first used by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Paul Schilder in his
1935 book "The Image and Appearance of the Human Body." In this book,
Schilder discusses the psychological and emotional significance of the body
Chapter Two: Literature Review 18
and the role of the mind in shaping our perception of our bodies (Grunewald
et al., 2021).
Another possibility is that the term "body image" was coined by the
American psychologist John Money in the 1950s or 1960s. Money wrote
extensively about gender identity, sexuality, and body image, and he is
known for his work on the psychological and social aspects of body image
(Grunewald et al., 2021).
It is also possible that the term "body image" has been in use for even
longer, but the origins of the term are difficult to trace. Regardless of its
precise origins, the concept of body image has become an important topic of
study in the fields of psychology, sociology, and other disciplines (Dalhoff et
al., 2019).
2.3.2. The Acquisition of Body Image Constructs
Body image development occurs early in a child's life, usually between
the ages of 4 and 6, around the time of preschool , showed that girls ages 4
to 6 more often engage in social comparison and show signs of overweight
bias, which can sow the seeds for early experiences with body dissatisfaction
(Al Vianita et al., 2020). If this type of disposition is acquired, girls in primary
school from 6 to 12 years of age are at risk of experiencing social, cultural,
psychological, and physiological problems associated with negative body
image. By the time a child enters adolescence, body image perceptions are
well-established and closely linked to issues of self-evaluation and self-
esteem.
During this developmental period, adolescents are exposed to a variety
of messages, from cultural norms to societal expectations regarding levels of
attractiveness, size, shape, and appearance. This is also a time when media
Chapter Two: Literature Review 19
exposure is heightened, so the individual is more likely to be affected by
visual imagery and auditory messages (Harris & Griffiths, 2023)
Valkenburg explained that it is common for positive perceptions of
body image to weaken with age, as it becomes more difficult to maintain
muscle definition and a youthful appearance. She noted that most people
consistently gain weight each decade, from their teenage years through their
fifties, typically at a rate of "10 pounds (4.6 kg) per decade" (Valkenburg,
2022)
The elasticity of human skin changes with age, and most people begin
to notice wrinkles, thinning hair, and discoloration of hair that usually turns
gray.These changes are expected and routine for All human beings, and
although these transitional transitions can be problematic for many people,
most notably for women (Jiotsa et al., 2021)
A qualitative study by Dalhoff found that while Women of all ages
struggle with body image acceptance Participants in their 50s and 60s were
more likely to accept their bodies and resist the influence caused by societal
pressures (Dalhoff et al., 2019) .
2.3.3. Positive Body Image
Positive body image refers to an individual's acceptance and
appreciation of their own body, regardless of their shape, size, or appearance.
Developing a positive body image during adolescence is important as it can
contribute to overall mental and physical well-being(Manzano-Sánchez et al.,
2022).
Several strategies can promote positive body image among
adolescents. Such as, Encourage positive self-talk. Encourage adolescents to
practice positive self-talk by focusing on their strengths and what they like
about themselves rather than their flaws (Al Vianita et al., 2020).
Chapter Two: Literature Review 20
Promote healthy habits by encourage adolescents to adopt healthy
habits such as regular physical activity, a balanced diet, and adequate sleep
this can help them feel better about themselves and their bodies, challenge
beauty standard by encourage adolescents to question societal beauty
standards and the unrealistic expectations that are often promoted through
media and advertising (Koulanova et al., 2021).
Focus on internal qualities by encourage adolescents to focus on
internal qualities such as kindness, intelligence, and humor, rather than solely
on their appearance. Foster a supportive environment. Encourage a
supportive environment where adolescents can feel comfortable and
accepted, regardless of their appearance (Jankauskiene & Baceviciene, 2019).
Seek help if needed when an adolescents are struggling with negative
body image or self-esteem, encourage them to seek the help of a mental health
professional. By promoting a positive body image culture and providing
resources for healthy habits, adolescents can develop a positive relationship
with their bodies and feel confident and comfortable in their own skin
(Choukas-Bradley et al., 2022).
2.3.4. Negative body image
Negative body image is a common issue among adolescents,
particularly during puberty when their bodies are changing rapidly. Negative
body image refers to an individual's subjective evaluation of their own body
and appearance, which is often influenced by societal beauty standards and
ideals (Shriver et al., 2021).
Adolescents who experience negative body image may have distorted
perceptions of their body shape or size, and may engage in behaviors such as
comparing themselves to others, avoiding social situations, or engaging in
unhealthy eating habits tohange their appearance. Negative body image can
Chapter Two: Literature Review 21
lead to low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression, and can negatively impact
an individual's overall well-being (Grunewald et al., 2021).
Several factors can contribute to negative body image among
adolescents, including social media and advertising that promote unrealistic
beauty standards, peer pressure to conform to a certain appearance, and
negative comments or criticism from family members or peers (Grunewald
et al., 2021).
To address negative body image among adolescents, it is important to
promote a positive body image culture and educate individuals on the
importance of self-acceptance and healthy body habits. This can include
encouraging positive self-talk, promoting a diverse range of body types in
media and advertising, and providing resources for healthy eating and
exercise habits. Additionally, seeking the help of a mental health professional
can be beneficial for those struggling with negative body image (Valkenburg,
2022).
2.3.5. Body Image perception and Adolescents
Body image is an important aspect of adolescents' development and
can have a significant impact on their mental and emotional well-being.
Adolescence is a time of significant physical and hormonal changes, and
adolescents may be more self-conscious about their appearance and more
vulnerable to societal pressure to conform to certain standards of beauty
(Grogan,2021).
Research has shown that adolescents with a healthy body image tend
to have higher self-esteem, are more confident, and have better mental and
emotional health overall. On the other hand, adolescents with an unhealthy
body image may be at risk for developing negative self-perceptions and low
self-esteem, as well as mental health problems such as depression, anxiety,
and eating disorders (Tylka,2018).
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
There are several factors that can influence adolescents' body image,
including:
1. Social media and other forms of media, which may present an unrealistic
and often unhealthy standard of beauty
2. Peers and family members, who can either support or undermine
adolescents' body image
3. Personal experiences, such as bullying or trauma
4. Physical changes, such as puberty or weight gain (Wang et all,2018) .
It is important for adolescents to develop a positive body image by
learning to appreciate and respect their bodies for what they can do, rather
than focusing on their appearance. It is also important for parents and other
adults to model healthy body image and self-acceptance for adolescents and
to provide support and guidance as they navigate the challenges of growing
up (Wang et all,2018) .
2.4. Impact of Social mediause on Body image perception
Social media can have both positive and negative effects on body
image. On the one hand, social media can provide a platform for people to
share their experiences and connect with others who have similar interests,
which can be supportive and empowering. It can also be a useful tool for
staying up to date on current events and accessing a wealth of information
and resources (Aichner et al 2021). social media can also contribute to
negative body image by presenting an unrealistic and often unhealthy
standard of beauty. Seeing others' carefully curated and often filtered photos
can lead people to compare themselves to others and feel inadequate. Social
media can also be a breeding ground for cyberbullying and other forms of
online harassment, which can have serious consequences for people's mental
health and well-being (Anderson, and Jiang, 2018).
Chapter Two: Literature Review 23
It is important for individuals to be aware of the potential negative
effects of social media on body image and to use these platforms responsibly.
This may include setting healthy boundaries for social media use, seeking out
a diverse range of media sources, and being mindful of the impact that social
media can have on self-perception. It is also important for parents and other
adults to educate young people about the potential risks of social media and
to model healthy body image and self-acceptance (Smith, and Anderson,
2018).
There have been many studies conducted on the effects of social media
use on body image among adolescents. Some of these studies have found that
social media use is associated with negative body image and lower self-
esteem, particularly for adolescents who compare themselves to others online
or who are exposed to thin or idealized images of beauty. Other studies have
found that social media use is not directly related to body image, but that it
may be a contributing factor to negative body image if it leads to increased
comparison to others or if it is used to spread unrealistic standards of beauty
(Auxier, and Anderson,2021) .
It is important to note that the relationship between social media use
and body image is complex and may be influenced by a variety of factors,
including individual differences, the specific platforms and types of content
that adolescents are exposed to, and the context in which social media is used
(Evans, Bratton, and McKee, 2021).
Social media can have both positive and negative effects on body image
among adolescents, and it is important for adolescents to use social media
responsibly and in moderation. It is also important for parents and other adults
to educate adolescents about the potential risks of social media and to provide
support and guidance as they navigate these challenges (Fuchs, 2021).
Chapter Two: Literature Review 24
2.4 Previous Study
2.5.1.A Study titled International Perspectives on Social Media Use
among Adolescents
Conducted in 42 countries . Data Of the 190,089 respondents aged 11,
13 and 15 from 42 countries participating in Healthy Behavior in The School-
age Children (HBSC) study was analysed. With a slight difference across the
country, 78% of adolescents inThe sample was classified as active or heavy
users.The first objective of the current study was to create a classification of
social media users based on A combination of both severity of social media
use (SMU) and problematic SMU, distinguishing between inactive, active,
intense, and problematic media users.
The results show that the largest group formed from Active social
media users (46%), while inactive social media users f Problem users were
the least prevalent (15% and 7%, respectively), the researcher concluded that
despite notable differences in SMU across countries, associations Between
the SMU group and mental and social well-being, the essence The use was
statistically significant in multilevel regression models After accounting for
this variance across countries, media users experienced the lowest levels of
mental and social well-being (excluding friend support). However, as
expected, it is inactive Users also report lower levels of life satisfaction and
peer support of active users. Substance use was higher among the problematic
Social media users and the least prevalent among inactive social media users
(Meyran et al.,2022).
2.5.2.A study titled Engagement with Social Media Content Results in
Lower Appearance Satisfaction
This research was funded by the Austrian Science Fund FWF. They
using An experience sampling methods to identify the association among
social media use and body satisfaction. Fifty participants from Central Europe
completed a 14-day experience sampling phase in which they reported their
Chapter Two: Literature Review 25
appearance satisfaction at two random time-points each day, as well as
following active engagement with social media content, using a wrist-worn
wearable and a physical analogue scale. The result show that engaging with
social media in the form of photo- and video-based content was associated
with lower state appearance satisfaction ( Stefan et al., 2022).
2.5.3.A Study title as Social Media Use and Postpartum Body Image
Dissatisfaction: The Role of Appearance-Related Social Comparisons
and Thin-Ideal Internalization
Cross-sectional online-survey, the samples of study are Two-hundred-
fifty-two new mothers. The study show that social media usage frequency is
linked to body image dissatisfaction and eating disorder psychopathology
during the postpartum period and the association between social media usage
and postpartum body image dissatisfaction is mediated by appearance-related
social comparisons within social media and thin ideal internalization
(Michaela et al.,2021) .
2.5.4. A Study title as Iraq Youth Trends Towards Celebrity
Advertisements on Social media
The research aims to know the attitudes of young people towards
advertisements in which famous personalities appear on websites. The
researcher used the survey method, which aims to record, analyze and
interpret the phenomenon. After collecting the necessary and sufficient data
about it, the researcher also used the questionnaire tool in his study. The study
result showe that the Instagram ranked first in terms of the most popular sites
through which ads are followed celebrities.
The main reason that drives the public to follow the advertisements of
celebrities on social networking sites is to obtain More information and data
about products, and The most popular celebrities whose ads are followed on
social networking sites are fashion and fashion celebrities (Muhammed,
2020).
Chapter Two: Literature Review 26
2.5.5.A Study title as The Effect of Fashionista on Female Body Image
The study conducted in Iraq and aimed to see the relationship between
the eengagement social platform and the body image that females make about
their physical formation, The (204) respondents from the followers of
"fashionista/ fashionist".
The survey approach was used over the intentional sample method to
obtain research data through the electronic questionnaire. The questionnaire
contained closed questions and phrases according to the Likert scale. The
sample of the research mostly ranges between 18-28 years of age, having a
university education, and are not married and economically sufficen , the
results show the women have more interested in following " fashion " from
", fashionista " and they have desire to performing plastic surgery because
they have a desire to change their appearance to look like celebrities and
supermodels ( Ismael J.,2020) .
2.5.6. A Study titled The Effects ofActive Social Media Engagement with
Peers on Body Image in Young Women
Researchers conducted a non-experimental study in Canada, to see the
impact of active users of social networking sites on body image in young
women. The research communit consistedng of "females", and the sample
included (118) university students, the sample was selected by random
sampling, and the result showed that the effective use of social networking
sites hurtsn the body image of young women, especially dealing with their
peers (Jacqueline et al., 2019)
Study title as The Effect of ‘Instagram Vs Reality’ Images on Women’s
Social Comparison and Body Image
Conducted in flinder university and this study aimed to experimentally
investigate the effect of such images on body image. Participants were 305
women between the ages of 18 and 30 who were randomly assigned to view
Chapter Two: Literature Review 27
one of three sets of Instagram photos: "Instagram versus reality" photos, the
"ideal" side alone, or the "real" side alone. The result found that exposure to
paired idealized photorealistic images, as well as real photos, resulted in
decreased body dissatisfaction (Marika And Isabella.,2019) .
A Study title as A Qualitative Study Exploring Female College Students’
Instagram Use and Body Imag
A qualitative descriptive approach was used. Six face-to-face focus
groups with a total of 27 participants between the ages of 18 and 22.
Participants put a lot of effort into what they posted, were careful to choose
the best photos of themselves, and placed great importance on receiving likes
and comments.Young women report spending significant amounts of time on
Instagram watching and following others (eg, peers, celebrities, and models),
which allows for constant exposure to unrealistic, altered images. They also
post their photos, often to show off their best selves. They place a great deal
of value on receiving feedback from followers. These findings provide insight
into how photo-related activities affected participants' opinions of
themselves.The finding shows that women who engage in relevant
comparisons on Instagram may be more likely to feel dissatisfied with their
appearance, body size, and shape (Nicole et al.,2019).
A Study title as social Media, Body Image and Food Choices in Healthy
Young Adults
A systematic search of six databases of published 2005-2019
observational literature, or studies reporting on social media engagement
(posting, liking, commenting) or exposure to image-related content in healthy
adults. The outcomes were body image (satisfaction or dissatisfaction) and
food choices (healthy eating, dieting/restriction, overeating/binge eating).
Thirty studies (n = 11,125 participants) were identified. A quantitative
analysis (n = 26) that identified social media sharing or exposure to image-
Chapter Two: Literature Review 28
related content was associated with a higher level of body dissatisfaction,
dieting/food restriction, overeating, and healthy food choices. Qualitative
analysis (n = 4) identified five themes: (1) social media encourages
comparison among users, (2) comparisons increase feelings about the body,
(3) young people adjust their appearance to portray a perceived ideal, (4)
young adults perceive the influence of Social media on body image and food
choices, (5) external validation via social media is being followed.
The result shows that social media sharing or exposure to image-
related content may negatively affect body image and food choices some
healthy young men. They recommended that health professionals designing
social media campaigns for young people should consider content associated
with images, so as not to exacerbate body dissatisfaction (Kim et al.,2019).
2.5.7. A Study title as The Influence of Social Media Use on Body Image
Concerns
Conducted in Italy, purpose of the current study aim to examining the
impact of social media on body image concerns, particularly among
adolescents. The study findings document the importance of social media
ideals—particularly skinny ideals for girls and muscular ideals for boys—in
shaping adolescents' body perceptions. They recommended that the effects of
stress from social media on body image concerns in men need to be further
investigated in both clinical and community samples (Vittoria and
Gianluca.,2018)
2.5.11. A Study titled The Effects of Social Media on Body Image Constructs
Among Active Women
A study conduct in california Southern University the aim of this
study to determine the impact of social media use on body image constructs
and to discover approaches that will help to lower the likelihood of eating-
disordered behavior occurrence. The research ascertained interesting
Chapter Two: Literature Review 29
personal perspectives and experiences regarding body image, based on
phenomenological one-on-one interviews with thirteen (13) active women
participants between the ages of 18 and 49. Various types of reactions were
displayed, which were dependent upon the types of social media imagery that
participants viewed. Close links with previous research in the field were
demonstrated and new considerations for work that can be addressed in the
future were introduced as well. Results from the current research aligned
with the social comparison theoretical framework that served as the
foundation for the study. Because social media users frequently engage in
social comparison activities when viewing imagery on social media platforms
(Marlo. 2018).
Chapter Three
Methodology
Chapter Three: Methodology 24
Chapter Three
Methodology
3.1. Study Design
A descriptive correlational desigin used to achieve the purpose of the
current study, which was to determine the effect of social media use on body
image among adolescents.The study was conducted for the period of
November/2022 to April 2023 .
3.2. Administrative Arrangements
Before collecting the study data, the following official clearances were
sought from appropriate authorities:
1. Approval from the University of Baghdad/ College of Nursing Council
for the study (Appendix A).
2. Official permissions were also obtained from the Ministry of Planning
Central Statistical Organization (CSO) (Appendix B).
3. Official permission have been obtained from General Education in
Baghdad (Appendix C) in order to formally access to the Rusafa
Education Directorate.
4. The official permission was obtained from General Education in
Baghdad Rusafa second and third (Appendix C)
5. In addition, the consent of the high school female students to participate
in the study, after explaining the objectives and usefulness of the study
to them and assuring that all information provided will be confidential
and for scientific and research purposes (autonomy and privacy).
3.3. Setting of the Study
The study was carried out in Baghdad city at high school female of
General Education in Baghdad Rusafa second and third that includes 97
Chapter Three: Methodology 25
high schools female. A total of 20 high schools were selected for the purpose
of the study by probability sampling approach (systematic sample) by
determin the length of class by dividing 97 by 20, the result equals
approximately 5.second, choose a random nuber from 1-5 ,after which
schools are selected based on the number until the number is complete. The
study was conducted in selected high schools as shown in Figure (3-1).
Figure 3-1: Distribution of Study Sample (total female students) by
their Selected School
3.4. Sample of the Study
The study sample included in present study a high school female
students which approximately 10 % from the total population of selected high
schools with a total of 560 is selected according to probability sampling
approach (simple random sample). These sample is distributed into 20 high
schools according General Education in Baghdad Rusafa second and third,
168
450
668
273
550
245
222
240
151
183
273
204
550
246
276
362
132
104
121
280
Chapter Three: Methodology 26
as shown in figure (3-1). The study sample is selected according to the
following criteria include:
3.4.1 1nclisions criteria:
1. High schools female students with age range 16-20
2. High schools female students who use social media platform on regular
basis
3.4.2 Exclusion Criteria:
1. Limited or no social media use
2. Pre-existing body image concerns or disorders
3. Incomplete responces
3.5 Study Instruments
The questionnaire is one of the means to help collect data that
contribute to achieving the results expected by the study, so the researcher
designed this questionnaire, which aims to clarify the study objectives and
significance by obtaining answers to the study’s questions (Appendix D).
This questionnaire consists of three part include the followings.
Part I: This section composed of socio-demographic characteristics and
factor-related to social media use, that include (high school female student
age, grade, monthly income, most common device used, contain of social
media, platform of social media and time spend on device daily).
Part II: This section deals with social media uses (Social Media Engagement
Scale for Adolescents (SMES-A), developed by Ni et al. (2020). A total of
(11) items measured on 3-level type of Likert Scale (1=Always, 2= Sometime
and 3=Never). Accordingly, points can be taken range from 11-33. The
higher average defined as low effect, the scale translet to Arabic language by
languist.
Chapter Three: Methodology 27
Part III: This section deals with body-image, constructed and developed
according to the previous studies and literature review. A total of (48) items
measured on 5-level type of Likert Scale (1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree,
3=Undecided, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly Agree). Accordingly, points can be
taken range from 48-240. The higher average defined as positive body-image
Al-Kafafi & Al-Naial .
The researcher adhered to the rules of writing the questionnaire due to
the importance of the type of information that the researcher is keen to be
sufficient and comprehensive for all aspects of the problem and to be valid
and reliable. Vague and complex questions were avoided. The type of
questions were a closed type requiring an answer with reference to what is
relevant.
3.6 Validity of the Questionnaire
The term validity indicates how does the collected information covers
the real examination’s area. Measuring what the instrument intended to
measure is basically the meaning of validity. The four main kinds of validity
include: (face, content, construct, and criterion) validity (Taherdoost, 2016).
The study protocol and the study instrument underwent series of
revisions and modifications and was achieved by 11 experts from different
scientific branches (Appendix F), each of those experts had greater than ten
years of experience in their field of specialty. The researcher proposed each
expert member to review the study instrument for content, simplicity,
relevance, style, and suitability. Each expert revised the instrument in terms
of the scientific content, sequence of information and its competence to
perform the purpose of collecting the sample. So, the modification made to
the instrument according to experts’ recommendation.
Chapter Three: Methodology 28
The face validity of the study tool was conducted after the tool translated
into Arabic, which assessed by specialists in diverse departments of nursing.
Experts were invited to provide their thoughts and ideas on each study
questionnaire item in terms of linguistic relevance, relationship to the
dimensions of the study variables allocated to it, and applicability to the study
community's setting.
Content validity is determined through the use of panel of (11) experts.
They are (6) faculty member from the College of Nursing/ University of
Baghdad, (1) faculty member from the College of Nursing/ University of
Babylon, (2) faculty member from the College of Nursing/ University of
Kufa, (1) faculty member from the College of Nursing/ University of
University of Al Mosul and (1) faculty member from the Kut Institute/ Middle
Technical University (Appendix F).
The experts responses indicated that minor changes should be done to
some items and it's were made according to their suggestions , then the final
draft was completed to be ready for conducting the study.
3.7 Pilot Study
This preliminary study was carried out to determine the study tool's
stability , credibility, clarity and efficiency, as well as the standard time
required to collect data for each subject, which can be estimated during the
interview procedures, and to identify any difficulties that may arise.The pilot
study aimed to achieve the following objectives.
1. Adequacy of research tools development and testing
2. Evaluation of the instrument's viability.
3. Identifying any logistical issues that may arise as a result of the
proposed methods.
Chapter Three: Methodology 29
4. Assessment of proposed data analysis approaches for the detection of
potential issues.
5. The respondants time estimate during data collecting.
3.7.1 Results of pilot study
1. The questionnaire is reliable.
2. The time required for answering the questionnaire ranged from (15-
20) minutes.
3. The instrument items were clarify and understood the phenomenon
underlying of the study (Table 3-1).
3.8 Reliability of the Questionnaire:
Cronbach’s alpha was used to check that questionnaire was reliable
.Using statistical softwear for social sciences (IBM SPSS,version 28.0), the
alpha correlation coefficient was used to determine the instrument’s
reliability. Cronbach α value ranged from 0.70 and higher, which indicating
a high degree of reliability.
Table 0-1:Reliability of the Studied Questionnaire (n=25) Reliability
Statistics
Variables
N of
Items
Cronbach's
Alpha
Ass.
Social media
11
.76
Acceptable
Body-image
48
.87
Acceptable
This table is statistically formed to show the reliability coefficient for
the study instrument. The calculated result shows that the questionnaire is
reliable measure to study the phenomenon of social media uses and body-
image on the same population at any time in the future.
3.9 Ethical Considerations
Chapter Three: Methodology 30
Before starting gathering the data from the sample who are
participating in the study, the researcher given a brief explanation about the
scientific background of the research and the purpose of conducting the
current studt . High school student were verbally informed about the study
aims and were asked to participate and this participation were voluntary.
After they consented to take part in the study, they were given an anonymous
questionnaire to complete in order to protect the participants' privacy.
3.10 Data Collection
Data were collected from march11th to march 30th. The questionnaire
has been distributed for study participants. After obtaining the approval of the
General Education in Baghdad Rusafa second and third , then verifying the
validity and reliability of the questionnaire.
The researcher distributed study questionnaire to the participants
(High school female students), explained the instructions, answered their
questions regarding the form, urged them to participate and thanked them for
the cooperation. The self-report techniques was used on individual bases, and
each report (15-20) minutes after taking the important steps that must be
included in the study design. The following steps taken before data collection
and include the following:
1. Deciding which information will be gathered via the questionnaire in
accordance with the research questions.
2. Choose the questionnaire's approach and structure.
3. Establishing the kind of criteria that dictates the kind of questionnaire
response.
4. Giving the questionnaire to the supervisor so that he can share his thoughts
and views on how the questionnaire was developed and how it should be
changed in light of those observations.
Chapter Three: Methodology 31
5. Presenting the questionnaire to a diverse panel of experts to get their
feedback on how it should be developed and how to include their
suggestions.
6. Distributing the questionnaire to a group of 50 female students in order to
verify its reliability.
7. Finalizing the questionnaire, printing it, going over it, and using it to collect
data.
3.11 Statistics Analysis
The data collected from the study sample was statistically analyzed
by the researcher using the SPSS-20 programs in order to arrive at the results,
establish the relationships between the variables, and produce the research's
concluding findings based on a series of statistical tests.
3.11.1 Descriptive approach
Descriptive statistics use a range of mathematical and statistical
methods to statistically describe a dataset using tables and charts. Descriptive
statistics are used to present and describe data that needs to be sorted,
summarized, and classified while also making it simpler for the recipient to
identify and understand the information's core concepts. the study done
utilizing:
A. Statistics charts Averages of the M.S. scores and the overall average
score are given in terms of number (No.) and percentage (%).
B. Test for standard deviation.
C. It uses the Cronbach alpha correlational coefficient to determine the
research tool's internal consistency.
3.11.2 Inferential approach
1. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Chapter Three: Methodology 32
Useful for achieving means equality (variance test when the mean
parameter varies).
2. Simple Liner Regression
To predicted study variables.
Chapter Four
Results Of The Study
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 33
Chapter Four
Results of the Study
The finding of data analysis systematically in figures and tables, which
are corresponded with the objectives of the study as follows:
Table 4-1: Distribution of Study Sample by their Sociodemographic
Variables (SDVs) N= 560
Elements
Classification
No.
%
Age/years
16 years old
280
50.0
17 years old
198
35.4
18 years old
52
9.3
19 years old
24
4.2
20 years old
6
1.1
16.71 ± 0.88
Grade
Fourth
213
38.0
Fifth
221
39.5
Sixth
126
22.5
Monthly Income
Enough
221
39.5
Somehow enough
246
43.9
Not enough
93
16.6
Most used Device
Mobile phone
421
75.2
IPAD
56
10.0
Laptop
83
14.8
Most common content of social
media
Entertaining
401
71.6
Health and
Beauty
59
10.5
Sports
11
2.0
Cook
22
3.9
General
information
33
5.9
Celebrity lives
34
6.1
Most used platform
Facebook
79
14.1
Instagram
134
23.9
YouTube
246
43.9
Tiktok
101
18.0
Time spent on device use
<1 hour
78
13.9
1 to less than 3
hours
133
23.8
3 to less than 5
hours
189
33.8
5 to less than7
hours
90
16.1
More than 7 hours
70
12.5
No.= Number: %= Percentage
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 34
Finding show participants age, the mean age is 16.71 (SD=0.88), the
age 16 years old were recorded the highest percentage (50%) and only small
percentage were 20 years old aged (1.1%).
In regards with the grade, the fifth grade were predominated (39.5%),
followed by those who are fourth (38%) and those who are small percent are
sixth (22.5%).
Socioeconomic status associated findings, more than half of
participants from somehow enough (43.9%), followed by those who are
enough (39.5%) and those who are not enough (16.6%).
In terms of digital device, the majority of (75.2%) of high school
female students were used Mobile phone and followed by small percentage
of Laptop (14.8) and IPAD (10.5%).
In regards with the most common content of social media, the most
common were Entertaining (71.6%) and lowest were Sports (2%).
Platform related findings, the most common platform were YouTube
(43.9%) and the lowest were Facebook (14.1%).
Time spent on device use in week days associated findings, participants
expressed 3 to less than 5 hours in day (33.8%) and lowest were more than
7 hours (12.5%).
Table 4-2 Distribution of Social Media Uses
List
Social Media Items
Responses
No.
%
M.s
Ass.
1
Using social media is my daily habit
Always
257
45.9
1.62
High
Sometime
259
46.3
Never
44
7.9
2
I browse social media whenever I have time
Always
305
54.5
1.54
High
Sometime
210
37.5
Never
45
8.0
3
Even if it’s late, I’ll take a look at social media
Always
303
54.1
1.68
Moderate
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 35
before sleep
Sometime
134
23.9
Never
123
22.0
4
I often use social media to relax in habit
Always
178
31.8
1.92
Moderate
Sometime
247
44.1
Never
135
24.1
5
I get fulfilled from the attention and comments
of others on social media
Always
123
22.0
2.12
Moderate
Sometime
247
44.1
Never
190
33.9
6
The support and encouragement of others
on social media is very important to me
Always
224
40.0
1.90
Moderate
Sometime
167
29.8
Never
169
30.2
7
Using social media, I am satisfied with
the relationship between myself and my friends
Always
247
44.1
1.68
Moderate
Sometime
246
43.9
Never
67
12.0
8
Compared to the real world, social media
makes me feel more comfortable
Always
180
32.1
2.00
Moderate
Sometime
200
35.7
Never
180
32.1
9
I feel bored when I can’t use social media
Always
245
43.8
1.76
Moderate
Sometime
204
36.4
Never
111
19.8
10
Compared to the real world, I am happier
when I socialize on social media
Always
200
35.7
1.95
Moderate
Sometime
189
33.8
Never
171
30.5
11
I feel anxious when I can’t use social media
Always
155
27.7
2.08
Moderate
Sometime
203
36.3
Never
202
36.1
Level of Assessment [High=1-1.66; Moderate=1.67-2.33; Low=2.34-3]
In terms of statistical mean, this table demonstrated that the high school
female students expressed a moderate social media uses (M=1.67-2.33) at
all studied items of the scale except, the items number (1 and 2) the
responses were high as indicated by low mean scores (M≤1.66).
Table 4-3: Overall Social Media Uses among High School Female
Students
Scales
Min.
Max.
M
SD
Score
No.
%
Social Media
Effect (11Q)
12
31
20.25
4.31
High (11-18.33)
190
33.9
Moderate (18.34-25.66)
291
52.0
Low (25.67-33)
79
14.1
Total
560
100.0
Min.: Minimum; Max.: Maximum, M: Mean for total score, SD=Standard
Deviation for total score
The results showed that (52%) of the high school female students
expressed a moderate effects of social media uses (Mean=20.25; SD=4.31).
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 36
Figure 4-1: Overall Social Media Uses
Table 4-4: Distribution of Body-image Assessment
List
Body-image Items
Stron
gly
Disagr
ee
Dis
ag-
ree
Und
e-
cide
d
Agre
e
Stro
n-
gly
Agre
e
M.s
Ass.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
1
I am satisfied with my appearance
as it is now
20
34
53
33
420
4.4
3
Positive
2
I take care of my appearance
before I leave the house
20
33
77
87
343
4.2
5
Positive
3
Other people's negative comments
bother me about some parts of my
body
188
102
76
31
163
2.7
8
Neutral
4
Better buy tight clothes
249
111
111
33
56
2.1
7
Neutral
5
I care about fashion
74
66
108
56
256
3.6
3
Neutral
6
I do sports to lose my weight
98
109
134
111
108
3.0
4
Neutral
7
My hair color matches my
skin tone
43
33
33
121
330
4.1
8
Positive
8
I like the quality of my hair
31
44
118
55
312
4.0
2
Positive
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
High
Moderate
Low
33.9
52
14.1
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 37
9
I am satisfied with the shape of
my eyebrows
54
56
108
99
243
3.7
5
Positive
10
I am bothered by the abundance
of hair in some parts of my body
122
46
117
98
177
3.2
9
Neutral
11
The length of my torso is
disproportionate to the length of
my legs
375
22
65
64
34
1.8
6
Negativ
e
12
I see that my fingers are in line
with my palm
9
22
32
89
408
4.5
4
Positive
13
I see that plastic surgery
increases self-confidence
185
131
100
88
56
2.4
6
Neutral
14
I oppose plastic surgery
165
55
110
66
164
3.0
2
Neutral
15
I see that tattoos on some
parts of the body make my
appearance more attractive
326
89
79
44
22
1.8
3
Negativ
e
16
I hide some imperfections in
my face with makeup
140
144
108
45
123
2.7
6
Neutral
17
Having hair on my face bothers
me
122
56
64
86
232
3.4
5
Neutral
18
It bothers me to look at myself
in the mirror
310
22
77
42
109
2.3
2
Neutral
19
I am satisfied with my height
43
32
86
120
279
4.0
0
Positive
20
I wish I could change some of my
facial features
176
64
122
54
144
2.8
7
Neutral
21
My nose fits my face
119
34
108
66
233
3.4
6
Neutral
22
I feel satisfied with the size of
my eyes
31
33
11
77
408
4.4
3
Positive
23
I like the shape of my neck
20
45
66
88
341
4.2
2
Positive
24
Feel good about the shape of my
buttocks
53
22
154
142
189
3.7
0
Positive
25
I see that my waist is suitable
for my body shape
64
44
78
76
298
3.8
9
Positive
26
Tattoos enhance my beauty
303
55
46
78
78
2.2
4
Negativ
e
27
I am reluctant to use injection
materials such as Botox in the
body
264
12
55
22
207
2.8
1
Neutral
28
I like the color of my eyes
53
11
67
83
346
4.1
8
Positive
29
I see that the shape of my chin is
suitable for my face
54
0
56
99
351
4.2
4
Positive
30
I like the look of my forehead
87
23
55
77
318
3.9
2
Positive
31
I like the color of my eyes
64
22
34
72
368
4.1
8
Positive
32
I prefer to use slimming drugs
instead of sports to lose weight
371
0
56
22
111
2.1
1
Negativ
e
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 38
33
I want to change the shape of my
eyebrows through tattoos
360
23
66
45
66
1.9
9
Negativ
e
34
I would like to have a tattoo on
my shoulder
282
11
57
77
133
2.5
9
Neutral
35
I am satisfied with the shape
of my ears
62
22
66
33
377
4.1
4
Positive
36
I see that my teeth are
symmetrical
75
12
79
56
338
4.0
2
Positive
37
Eating fast food makes me
gain weight
117
56
112
53
222
3.3
7
Neutral
38
I want to improve my physical
appearance
86
57
67
140
210
3.5
9
Neutral
39
I prefer wearing contact lenses
rather than the color of my eyes
262
44
88
54
112
2.4
8
Neutral
40
My nose needs plastic surgery
248
44
22
90
156
2.7
5
Neutral
41
My facial skin is clear
129
43
120
110
158
3.2
2
Neutral
42
I am convinced with my mouth
41
56
33
89
341
4.1
3
Positive
43
Avoid foods rich in fatty
substances
183
65
124
11
177
2.8
8
Neutral
44
I am satisfied with the size of my
shoulders
106
33
56
67
298
3.7
5
Positive
45
My stomach is bothering me
187
54
99
99
121
2.8
4
Neutral
46
Tattoos cause some skin diseases
173
22
102
44
219
3.2
0
Neutral
47
Plastic surgery is important to
make a person look more
beautiful
239
55
87
45
134
2.6
1
Neutral
48
I wish I looked like a celebrity,
model or athlete
191
34
68
33
234
3.1
5
Neutral
Level of Assessment [High=1-2.33; Moderate=2.34-3.66; Low=3.67=5]
In terms of statistical mean, this table demonstrated that the high school
female students expressed a neutral body image at all studied items of the
scale except, the items number (1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 12, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28,
29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 42 and 44) the responses were positive and items number
(11, 15, 32 and 33) the responses were negative.
Table 4-2 : Level of Body-image Assessment among High School
Female Students
Scales
Min.
Max.
M
SD
Score
No.
%
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 39
Body-image
(48Q)
48
198
168.7
22.88
Negative (48-112)
9
1.6
Neutral (112.1-176)
417
74.5
Positive (167.1-240)
134
23.9
Total
560
100.0
Min.: Minimum; Max.: Maximum, M: Mean for total score, SD=Standard Deviation for
total score
The results showed that (74.5%) of the high school female students
expressed a neutral assessment of body-image (Mean=158.7; SD=22.88).
Figure 4-2 Overall Body-image Assessment
Table 4-3: Statistical Differences in Social Media Uses and Body with
respect Students Characteristics
Table 4-6-1.Statistical Differences in Social Media Uses and Body Image between
the Groups of Age
Age
Source of variance
Sum of Squares
d.f
Mean
Square
F-statistic
Sig.
Social Media
Between Groups
1.803
4
.451
2.967
.019
Within Groups
84.321
555
.152
Total
86.124
559
Body-image
Between Groups
1.182
4
.295
1.303
.268
Within Groups
125.865
555
.227
Total
127.046
559
0
20
40
60
80
Negative
Neutral
Positive
1.6
74.5
23.9
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 40
The analysis of variance showed that there were statistically significant
differences in social media uses (F=2.967; p=.000), and no statistical
differences in body-image (F=1.303; p=.268) between high school female
students with respect to their age.
The least use of social media was among the 19-year-old age groups,
unlike the 17-year-old age group and under (Fig. 4-3).
Figure 4-3: Social Media Uses between Groups of Age
Table 4-6-2.Statistical Differences in Social Media Uses and Body Image between
the Groups of Grade
Grade
Source of
variance
Sum of
Squares
d.f
Mean Square
F-
statistic
Sig.
Social Media
Between Groups
2.974
2
1.487
9.961
.000
Within Groups
83.150
557
.149
Total
86.124
559
Body-image
Between Groups
.443
2
.222
.975
.378
Within Groups
126.603
557
.227
Total
127.046
559
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 41
The analysis of variance showed that there were statistically
significant differences in social media uses (F=9.961; p=.000), and no
statistical differences in body-image (F=.975; p=.378) between high school
female students with respect to their grade.
The use of social communication is more for female students in the
sixth stage compared to the other fifth and fourth stages (Fig. 4-4)
Figure 4-4Social Media Uses between Groups of Grade
Table 4-6-3.Statistical Differences in Social Media Uses and Body
between the Groups of Monthly Income
Monthly
Income
Source of
variance
Sum of Squares
d.f
Mean Square
F-
statistic
Sig.
Social Media
Between Groups
4.817
2
2.409
16.501
.000
Within Groups
81.307
557
.146
Total
86.124
559
Body-image
Between Groups
22.471
2
11.235
59.843
.000
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 42
Within Groups
104.575
557
.188
Total
127.046
559
The analysis of variance showed that there were statistically significant
differences in social media uses (F=16.501; p=.000) and body-image
(F=59.843; p=.378) between high school female students with respect to
their monthly income.
The use of social media is significant among those who are enough
income as compared with those who somehow income (Fig. 4-5).
Figure 4-5Social Media Uses between Groups of Monthly Income
The body image perception is significant lower among those who are
not enough income and significant higher among those who are enough
(Fig. 4-6).
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 43
Fig. 4-6.Body-image between Groups of Monthly Income
Table 4-4 Liner Regression among the Study Variables in Predict the
Body-image
Variables
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
t
Sig.
B
Std. Error
Beta
Most used Device
.053
.028
.086
1.910
.057
Common content
.020
.010
.084
2.058
.040
Most used platform
.037
.020
.076
1.873
.062
Time spent on device
-.064-
.016
-.171-
-4.126-
.000
Dependent Variable: Body-image
Simple linear regression test indicates that the common content
(β=.084; p= .040), time spent on device use (β=-.171; p= .000) are predicted
body-image among high school female students.
Chapter Four: Results of the Study 44
Table 4-5 Liner Regression among the Social Media Use in Predict the
Body-image
Variables
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
t
Sig.
B
Std. Error
Beta
Social-media
-.152-
.032
-.222-
-4.782-
.000
Dependent Variable: Body-image
social media (β=-.222; p= .000) are predicted body-image among
high school female students.
Chapter Five
Discussion of the Study
Results
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 45
Chapter Five
Discussion of the Study Results
5.1. Discussion of Sociodemographic Variables(SDVs)
Among the total 560 students included for the study that founded in the
high school female .The finding of data analysis show in the table(4-1)
percentage (50%) of the study sample was at the age group (16) and only
small percentage were 20 years old aged (1.1%). Because this grade students
in high female school . A study condedcted in Iraq to assess the Psychological
Adjustment “ female have the highest participation rate (55.8%) and that
the years in the most ages (18-20) years are at a rate of (56 %) “(AL-
jubouri & Alwan, 2022). previous study showed that “The mean age for
students in the study group is (16) at (41.4%) of 70 student and less than
a half of the sample(40%) was reported at age 17-years , while the lowest
number (n = 2; 2.9%) who age 20-years” (Mahdi & Khairi, 2020). Hassan
conducted a local study in Al-Diwanyah City,Iraq to study the Impact of
Using Social Media on adolescents health ,the study presented that the highest
percent of study sample were within age group(18-19) years old at 52.9% of
240 students (Karem, 2014).
In regards with the grade, the study showed that the fifth grade were
predominated (39.5%), followed by those who are fourth (38%) and those
who are small percent are sixth (22.5%)Because the sixth grade students are
busy studying and seeking to obtain high rates that qualify them to enter the
colleges they desire and achieve their success.
Vittoria and Gianluca conducted a study in University of Palermo, Italy
to study The influence of social media use on body image concerns , the study
presented that the highest percent of study sample were within eleventh grade
at 56.8% of 245students (Vittoria and Gianluca).
Figure 3.28 Path List
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 46
Regarding the monthly income,(43.9%) students are perceived
somehow enough , (39.5%) enough and those who are not enough (16.6%)
A study in Iraq by Bushra revealed that high percent of monthly income is
barely sufficient that consist (89.7%) of study sample, (8,8%) perceive
sufficient and (1.5%) insufficient (Bushra,2020).
A study conducted in iraq by suhear ,.the study result showed that
50.4%of students good standar of living, 41.1% with mild standard of living
and 8.5% with low standard of living (kalaf,.2020). A study conduct in Iraq
by Hassan to assess the impact of social media ,the study results indicate that
(57.9%) of the study, subjects come from family of moderate economic status
(Kareem,2018).
There could be several reasons for the high percentage of Iraqi families
living on a barely sufficient income. One major factor is the ongoing conflict
and political instability in the region, which has led to a lack of job
opportunities and economic growth. Additionally, many Iraqis lack access to
education and training programs that would allow them to secure higher-
paying jobs. (Specialist & Nursing, 2014)(Hussein, 2018)
Furthermore, corruption and mismanagement in government and private
sectors have hindered economic progress in Iraq, contributing to poverty and
income inequality. Lastly, factors such as inflation, rising food prices, and a
weak social safety net have also made it difficult for many Iraqi families to
make ends meet.
In terms of digital device the study result showed that , the majority of
(75.2%) of high school female students were used Mobile phone and
followed by small percentage of Laptop (14.8) and IPAD (10.5%). A study
conduct in Iraq by Hassan to assess the impact of social media ,the study
results indicate that(49.6%) of them are use the mobile( Hassan,2018). A
study conduct in Iraq by Marwa to assess the impact of smart phone , the
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 47
finding showed that (35.8%) use their own phone and (64.2%) use the parents
phone (Jassim, 2020)
A global study conducted by Jacob and colleagues to assess Social
Media Use Continues to Rise in Developing Countries, the result showed that
the Smartphone ownership has been on the rise since 2015, with especially
large increases occurring in Lebanon (80%percentage points), Jordan (76%)
and the Philippines (44%).
(Jacob.etal.,2028)
The majority of high school female students using mobile phones could
be due to several factors. Firstly, mobile phones are more affordable and
accessible compared to other digital devices such as laptops or tablets. This
makes them a popular choice for students who may not have the financial
resources to purchase more expensive devices. Secondly, mobile phones are
highly versatile and can be used for a wide range of activities, such as
communication, browsing the internet, and accessing social media. This
makes them a popular choice for students who want to stay connected with
their peers and stay up-to-date with the latest trends and news. Additionally,
mobile phones are more portable and convenient to carry around compared
to other devices, which makes them ideal for students who are always on-the-
go. Finally, the increasing availability of affordable data plans and high-speed
internet access has made it easier for students to use mobile phones as their
primary digital device. All these factors could contribute to the high
percentage of high school female students using mobile phones. (Ismail &
Hussein, 2018)
In regards with the most common content of social media, the study
showed that the most common were Entertaining (71.6%) and lowest were
Sports (2%)A study conducted in Iraq showed that The most followed
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 48
content by teenagers on social networking sites are fashion and fashion
celebrities (Muhammed, 2020).
Platform related findings, the most common platform were YouTube
(43.9%) and the lowest were Facebook (14.1%). A study conducted in
University of Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia by Monique and colleagues the
study presented that highest percent of study sample (71%) use Facebook(the
most popular and frequently used social media application among
adolescents), (52%) of adolescents used Instagram, and almost half (41%)
used Snapchat. Most adolescents (71%) even reported using more than one
social media application.(Monique .etal.2019)
YouTube is a valuable platform for educational purposes. High school
female students may use YouTube to find educational content, such as
tutorials, study tips, and explanations of complex topics. YouTube offers a
variety of educational channels and videos that cater to different learning
styles and subjects, youtub are easily accessible on various devices, such as
smartphones, tablets, and computers. High school female students can access
YouTube anytime and anywhere, making it a convenient platform for
entertainment, learning, and socializing (Researcher)
A study of (Muhammed, 2020) showed that the Instagram ranked first
in terms of the most popular sites through which ads are followedcelebrities.
Facebook, the world's largest social networking platform, had 2.4 billion
users in 2019. Other social media platforms, including YouTube and
WhatsApp, also had more than 1 billion users each, and those numbers are
huge - in 2019, There were 7.7 billion people around the world, with at least
3.5 billion online. This means that social media platforms have been used by
one in three people worldwide and more than two-thirds of all internet users
Relating to the Time spent on device use in week days ,the study
showed that the majority of study sample expressed 3 to less than 5 hours in
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 49
day (33.8%) and lowest were more than 7 hours (12.5%). A Qualitative Study
Exploring Female College Students' Instagram Use and Body Image,
descriptive approach was used. Six face-to-face focus groups with a total of
27 participants between the ages of 18 and 22. Participants put a lot of effort
into what they post, were careful to choose the best photos of themselves, and
placed great importance on receiving likes and comments. Young women
report spending significant amounts of time on Instagram watching and
following others (eg, peers, celebrities, and models). (Nicole et al.,2019)
the time spent on device use in high school female students during
weekdays may be influenced by several factors. One factor could be their
academic workload, as they may need to use devices such as laptops or tablets
for studying or completing homework assignments. Another factor could be
their social interactions, as they may use devices such as smartphones or
social media to communicate with friends or stay connected with peers.
Based on the study , it seems that the majority of high school female
students in the study spent between 3 to less than 5 hours on device use per
day during weekdays, which could suggest that they are able to balance their
academic and social lives with device use. Additionally, only a small
proportion of the sample spent more than 7 hours on device use per day during
weekdays, which could suggest that excessive device use may not be as
prevalent in this group.(the researcher)
The study demonstrated that the high school female students expressed
a moderate social media uses (M=1.67-2.33) at all studied items of the scale
except, the items number (1 and 2) the responses were high as indicated by
low mean scores (M≤1.66). see table (4-2). A global study conducted by
Jacob and colleagues to assess Social Media Use Continues to Rise in
Developing Countries, the study finding present that The Middle East is
characterized by its relatively high levels of social media use compared to
other regions. Across the five mena countries surveyed, an average of 68%
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 50
said they use social networking sites. Across the seven Latin American
countries surveyed, none of which are considered developed economies, 59%
use social media, compared to 55% in the ten European countries surveyed,
all of which were considered developed. Some large developed economies
also have relatively low levels of social media use. In particular, in Germany
(40%) and Japan (39%), about four in ten use social media - similar to the
percentages in South Africa (43%) and Tunisia (38%). Only one in five adults
in India and Tanzania use social networks, and all five sub-Saharan African
countries surveyed report social media use below the global average.
(Jacob.et.al.,2018)
A study conducted by Andrew and colleagues to assess the social
media use in America and the world, the study result showed that over the
past decade, it has always been the case for those in Higher-income families
were more likely to use social media. More than half (56%) of those in low-
income households now use social media, although growth has leveled off in
the past few years.(Anderew. et.al., 2015)
A study conducted by Meyran to assess International perspectives on
social media use among adolescents , The first objective of this study was
among 190,089 adolescents in 42 countries, to create a classification of social
media users based on a combination of social media use intensity and
problematic social media use, to differentiate between inactive, active,
intense, and problematic social media users. Results indicate that the largest
group was active social media users (46%), while inactive social media users
and problematic users were less prevalent (15% and 7%, respectively).
Despite notable differences in social media use across countries (Meryan
.et.al.,2022).
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 51
5.2. Discussion of the level of Social Media engagement among High
School Female Students
The results in the table (4-3) showed that (52%) of the high school
female students expressed a moderate effects of social media uses ,(33.9)
expressed high effects of social media , (14.1)low effects of social media .
Data Of the 190,089 respondents aged 11, 13 and 15 from 42 countries The
results show that the largest group formed from Active social media users
(46%), while inactive social media users f Problem users were the least
prevalent (15% and 7%, respectively). (Meyran et al.,2022).
A study conducted in Australia to assess social media ,the study finding
that the Social media is a growing aspect of everyday life. Between 2020 and
2021, the number of active social media users grew by 3.2% from 3.8 to 4.2
billion, with 53.6% of the world's population now actively using social media
(Tamsin .et.al.,2023).
Social media has grown exponentially over the years last decade.
According to Statista, there were 2.46 billion social media users in 2017, and
that number is expected to reach three billion by 2021. Facebook is the most
popular social media platform, with 2.07 billion monthly active users,
followed closely by Instagram (800 million active per month) users),
LinkedIn (500 million monthly actives users), Twitter (330 million monthly
active users), Pinterest (200 million active monthly users) and Snapchat (178
million active monthly users). (Statista, 2018).
5.3 Disscusion Distribution of Body-image Assessment
The results showed that (74.5%) of the high school female students
expressed a neutral assessment of body-image,(23.9) expressed positive
body image and( 1.6) expressed negative body image. In terms of statistical
mean, this table(4-4) demonstrated the high school female students
expressed a neutral body image at all studied items of the scale except, the
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 52
items number (1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 12, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35,
42 and 44) the responses were positive and items number (11, 15, 32 and
33) the responses were negative. During adolescence, there is an increased
concern about body image. The majority of young women believe that a
thin, slim, and petite body is the ideal figure. (Khalifa, 2017). Changes in
the shape of body fat gain during puberty often make young women feel
dissatisfied and cause adolescents to exercise weight control to achieve the
ideal body shape concept (Saleh & Ma΄ala, 2020).
A study conducted in Lambung Mangkurat University, South
Kalimantan,The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship
between body image and eating disorders in young women. This study used
an analytical method with a cross-sectional design of 80 female students from
SMK Borneo Lestari. Subjects were selected by stratified random sampling
technique.
The research tools were a modified questionnaire in the form of the
Multidimensional Questionnaire of Self-Relationships with the Body
(MBSRQ-AS) and a modified questionnaire in the Eating Behavior Test
(EAT). Data analysis used Spearman's correlation test. The results showed
that the majority of respondents had a positive body image (81.9%) and had
a risk of developing mild eating disorders (56.3%). Spearman's correlation
test showed that there was no significant relationship between body image
and eating disorders in adolescent girls pn = 0.717 (α > 0.05). This shows that
the higher a person's overall body image score, the higher the overall eating
disorder score, which means that the more positive the body image, the higher
the risk of mild eating disorders.(Al Vianita et al., 2020)
A study conducted in Germany to assess Perceptive Body Image
Distortion in Adolescent ,the study results found that body size was
overestimated by about 3–21% in healthy control participants and by about
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 53
25–40% in underweight adolescents with anorexia nervosa , and the group
differences were significant beyond the effects that might be expected based
on overall smaller body sizes in the anorexia group.(Dalhoff et al., 2019)
Teenagers are affected by the markets and the advertising that helps
them making their diet unbalanced and excessively caloric, i.e. rich in refined
fats and sugars; low in fruits, vegetables, legumes, and fish; In many cases,
breakfast is omitted So, in 2018, an international study led by the World
Health Organization found that one in five adolescents (21%) surveyed were
overweight or obese [5] and more recent data on the Spanish population
showed that 34.7% of children and adolescents had excess weight, 11.8%
were obese and 19.5% were obese. The percentage is higher in men than in
women (Manzano-Sánchez et al., 2022)
A study conducted in Iraq to assess body dissatisfaction , the result
showed that Reflecting children's dissatisfaction with their bodies on the
Child Body Image Scale, (38.1%, 23.8%) of them rate their bodies (in reality)
as obese and overweight respectively.While they desired a different image,
most (61.9%) chose the model body of the same scale.(Journal & Specialties,
2019)
5.4. Disscussion of Differences in Social Media Uses and Body image
perception between the Groups of Age
The analysis of variance showed that there were statistically significant
differences in social media uses (F=2.967; p=.000), and no statistical
differences in body-image (F=1.303; p=.268) between high school female
students with respect to their age, the least use of social media was among the
19-year-old age groups, unlike the 17-year-old age group and under
Perhaps this difference in usage is due to the fact that the young ages
do not have their own phone or iPad. As for the ages of 18 to 19, phones and
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 54
social networking sites may be used for the purpose of studying, in order to
obtain high rates, because these ages are often sixth grade studentsthe
Researcher).
A study condedcted in Iraq to assess the Psychological Adjustment “
female have the highest participation rate (55.8%) and that the years in
the most ages (18-20) years are at a rate of (56 %) “(AL-jubouri &
Alwan, 2022). previous study showed that “The mean age for students in
the study group is (16) at (41.4%) of 70 student and less than a half of the
sample(40%) was reported at age 17-years , while the lowest number (n = 2;
2.9%) who age 20-years” (Mahdi & Khairi, 2020).
Hassan conducted a local study in Al-Diwanyah City,Iraq to study the
Impact of Using Social Media on adolescents health ,the study presented that
the highest percent of study sample were within age group (18-19) years old
at 52.9% of 240 students (Karem, 2014).
5.5. Disscussion of Differences in Social Media Uses and Body image
perception between the Groups of Grade
The analysis of variance showed that there were statistically significant
differences in social media uses (F=9.961; p=.000), and no statistical
differences in body-image (F=.975; p=.378) between high school female
students with respect to their grade, the use of social communication is more
for female students in the sixth stage compared to the other fifth and fourth
stages.
Vittoria and Gianluca conducted a study in University of Palermo,
Italy to study The influence of social media use on body image concerns , the
study presented that the highest percent of study sample were within eleventh
grade at 56.8% of 245students (Vittoria and Gianluca). The use of social
media is increasing among sixth preparatory students as a result of studying
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 55
and taking free private lessons from these sites, especially YouTube. There
are a huge number of free teaching platforms available to all students with
ease for all subjectsthe Researcher).
5.6. Disscussion of Differences in Social Media Uses and Body image
perception between the Groups of Monthly Income
The analysis of variance showed that there were statistically significant
differences in social media uses (F=16.501; p=.000) and body-image
(F=59.843; p=.378) between high school female students with respect to their
monthly income. The use of social media is significant among those who are
enough income as compared with those who somehow income.
A study conducted in iraq by suhear ,.the study result showed that
50.4%of students good standar of living, 41.1% with mild standard of living
and 8.5% with low standard of living (kalaf,.2020). A study conduct in Iraq
by Hassan to assess the impact of social media ,the study results indicate that
(57.9%) of the study, subjects come from family of moderate economic status
(Kareem,2018).
There could be several reasons for the high percentage of Iraqi families
living on a barely sufficient income. One major factor is the ongoing conflict
and political instability in the region, which has led to a lack of job
opportunities and economic growth. Additionally, many Iraqis lack access to
education and training programs that would allow them to secure higher-
paying jobs (The researcher).
5.7. Disscussion of Liner Regression among the Social Media Related
Factors in Predict the Body-image
Simple linear regression test indicates that the common content
(β=.084; p= .040), time spent on device use (β=-.171; p= .000) and social
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 56
media (β=-.222; p= .000) are predicted body-image among high school
female students
the results suggest that time spent on the device and social media usage
have significant negative effects on the body image , while common content
has a significant positive effect, and most used device and platform have non-
significant small positive effects.
A Study of (Jacqueline et al., 2019) and title as The Effects of Active
Social Media Engagement with Peers on Body Image in Young Women, the
result showed that the effective use of social networking sites has a negative
impact on the body image of young women, especially dealing with their
peers. Appearance based platform. A study conducted in Universitas
Airlangga the finding showed that the use of social media can affect body
image of adolescent girls.(Sukamto et al., 2019b)
The result of study agree with the study titled as A Biopsychosocial
Model of Social Media Use and Body Image Concerns, Disordered Eating,
and Muscle-Building Behaviors among Adolescents Girls and Boys that
found social media model internalization and muscular ideal, as well as
comparisons of appearance, were all positively associated with body
dissatisfaction, self-control, and muscular behavior.(MODLE and Social-
Body Image2020.Pdf, n.d.).
5.8. Liner Regression among the Social Media Use in Predict the
Body-image
The results of a linear regression analysis suggest that social media use
has a negative impact on body image among high school female students. The
beta coefficient (β) of -0.222 indicates the direction and magnitude of this
relationship. In this case, the negative sign suggests that as social media use
increases, body image tends to decrease among high school female students.
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Study Results 57
Social media contribute to negative body image by presenting an
unrealistic and often unhealthy standard of beauty. Seeing others' carefully
curated and often filtered photos can lead people to compare themselves to
others and feel inadequate. Social media can also be a breeding ground for
cyberbullying and other forms of online harassment, which can have serious
consequences for people's mental health and well-being (The researcher).
The prevalence of social media use in modern society has led to
increased imagery viewing, which can impact female body image
satisfaction levels and subsequent eating disordered behavior. Social media
imagery was examined in this study to determine the impact that it has on
body image constructs and to discover approaches that will help to lower the
likelihood of eating-disordered behavior occurrence.
The study ascertained interesting personal perspectives and
experiences regarding body image, based on phenomenological one-on-one
interviews with 13 active women participants between the ages of 18 and 49.
Results indicated that active females believe that social media imagery
affects one’s body image in both positive and negative ways, depending on
the types of imagery viewed, with "thinspirational" photos eliciting feelings
of empathy and sadness, and "fitspirational" images evoking feelings of
motivation and empowerment (Marlo.2018).
Chapter Six
Conclusion and
Recommendations
Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendation 57
Chapter Six
Conclusion and Recommendations
According to the interpretation and discussion of the findings, the
researcher concludes the following:
Conclusions:
1. Social media has become an integral part of our lives, especially for
adolescents.
2. The student expressed moderate use of social media platform and the
youtub was mainly used social media platform.
3. Most of student expressed normal assessment of body image perception.
4. The sixth grad students are more likely to use social media platform.
5. There are no significant differences in body image among high school
female concerning age and grad.
6. There are significant differences in social media use and body image
among high school female and monthly income (body image perception
is significant low among those who are not enough income)
7. The common content ,time spent on device use and social media are
predicted body-image among high school female students
8. The use of social media platform have negative effect on body image of
female adolescents.
Recommendation:
Depending on the finding of the current study, the researcher
recommended the following:
1. The research recommends the ministry of education to support the
school to holding courses for students on social media use and effect
2. The research center should be conducting more studies on the impact of
social media among adolescents
Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendation 58
3. Parents, especially mothers, still have an important role to play Monitor
and control the negative effects of social media use on adolescent girls,
4. parents should support their daughters to accept the shape of their bodies
as they are ,increase their self-confidence, and positive body image.
5. Teenage girls should be aware that images of celebrities or peers they
see on social media may have gone through a retouching process (eg, to
make a model look slimmer and not for show actual body condition ).
5. Activating the role of media censorship on the content published on
social media platforms.
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Appendices
Appendix: Ethical Considerations 84
6. Appendix A
Appendix: Ethical Considerations 85
Appendix B
-
Appendix: Ethical Considerations 86
Appendix C
Appendix: Ethical Considerations 87
Appendices C-1
Appendix: Ethical Considerations 88
Appendix C-2
Appendix: Ethical Considerations 89
Appendix C-3
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 100
Appendix D
Effect of Social Media Use on Body Image
Perception among Adolescent
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 101
Appendix D-1
3
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 102
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 103
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 104
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 105
Appendix D-2
Questionnaire of the Study (English )
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 106
Demographic data:
Gender: male female
Age:
School name: current classroom
Place of residence:
How satisfied are you with the monthly income of the family:
Enough somewhat enough not enough
The type of device used:
What is the most content you browse on social media:
What are the most used platform:
Facebook instagram youtube
tiktok twiter
The duration of use or browsing per day:
Less than an hour 2-3 hour
3-5 hour 5-7 hour more than 7 hour
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 107
Social Media Engagement Scale:
No.
Questions
strongly
disagree
disagree
Undecided
agree
strongly
agree
1
Using social media is my
daily habit.
2
I browse social media
whenever I have time.
3
Even if it’s late, I’ll take
a look at social media
before sleep.
4
I often use social media
to relax in habit.
5
I get fulfilled from the
attention and comments
of others on social media.
6
The support and
encouragement of others
on social media is very
important to me.
7
Using social media, I am
satisfied with the
relationship between
myself and my friends.
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 108
8
Compared to the real
world, social media
makes me feel more
comfortable
9
I feel bored when I can’t
use social media.
10
Compared to the real
world, I am happier when
I socialize on social
media.
11
I feel anxious when I
can’t use social media.
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 109
Body image scale:
NNO.
Items
always
Some
times
mostly
Rarely
Never
1.
I am satisfied with my appearance as it is
now
2.
I take care of myappearance before I leave
the house
3.
Other people's negative comments bother
me about some parts of my body
4.
Better buy tight clothes
5.
I care about fashion
6.
I do sports to lose my weight
7.
My hair color matches my skin tone
8.
I like the quality of my hair
9.
I am satisfied with the shape of my
eyebrows
10.
I am bothered by the abundance of hair in
some parts of my body
11.
The length of my torso is disproportionate
to the length of my legs
12.
I see that my fingers are in line with my
palm
13.
I see that plastic surgery increases self-
confidence
14.
I oppose plastic surgery
15.
I see that tattoos on some parts of the body
make my appearance more attractive
16.
I hide some imperfections in my face with
makeup
17.
Having hair on my face bothers me
18.
It bothers me to look at myself in the
mirror
19.
I am satisfied with my height
Appendix: Questionnaire of the Study 110
20.
I wish I could change some of my facial
features
21.
My nose fits my face
22.
I feel satisfied with the size of my eyes
23.
I like the shape of my neck
24.
Feel good about the shape of my buttocks
25.
I see that my waist is suitable for my body
shape
26.
Tattoos enhance my beauty
27.
I am reluctant to use injection materials
such as Botox in the body
28.
I like the color of my eyes
29.
I see that the shape of my chin is suitable
for my face
30.
I like the look of my forehead
31.
I like the color of my eyes
32.
I prefer to use slimming drugs instead of
sports to lose weight
33.
I want to change the shape of my eyebrows
through tattoos
34.
I would like to have a tattoo on my
shoulder
35.
I am satisfied with the shape of my ears
36.
I see that my teeth are symmetrical
37.
Eating fast food makes me gain weight
38.
I want to improve my physical appearance
39.
I prefer wearing contact lenses rather than
the color of my eyes
40.
My nose needs plastic surgery
41.
My facial skin is clear
42.
I am convinced with my mouth
43.
Avoid foods rich in fatty substances
44.
I am satisfied with the size of my shoulders
45.
My stomach is bothering me
46.
Tattoos cause some skin diseases
47.
Plastic surgery is important to make a
person look more beautiful
48.
I wish I looked like a celebrity, model or
athlete
Appendix 111
7.
8. Appendix E
List of Expert
9. Appendix F
Statistical Approval
Appendix 112
.
.
