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Parenting and teaching styles in relation to student characteristics and self-regulated learning

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Parents and teachers play a key role in developing students' self-regulated learning (SRL), which is closely linked to academic achievement and acts as a protective factor for students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Research has shown that authoritative parenting style, parental responsiveness, emotional warmth, behavioural control, and autonomy support are associated with better academic performance. In addition, studies have shown that the quality of the teacher-student relationship plays an important role in the development of SRL. However, there is limited research on the relationship between school and home environmental factors, student characteristics, and SRL, especially in primary school. The present study examined the relationship between parenting styles, teaching styles, student characteristics, and SRL. The sample included 328 ninth-grade students in Slovenian primary schools. SRL, parenting styles, and teaching styles were assessed using student self-reports. Using latent profile analysis, three subtypes of parenting styles (discipline-oriented parenting, democratic parenting, and responsive parenting) and three subtypes of teaching styles (autonomy-supportive teaching, diverse teaching, and directive teaching) were identified. Results indicate that students who perceive autonomy-supportive teaching and responsive parenting styles exhibit higher levels of SRL. Autonomy-supportive teaching was positively associated with student achievement. This study highlights the importance of an authoritative parenting and teaching style for the development of SRL in primary school.
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Vol.:(0123456789)
European Journal of Psychology of Education
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-023-00742-0
1 3
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent
characteristics andself‑regulated learning
UrškaŽerak1 · MojcaJuriševič1 · SonjaPečjak2
Received: 27 February 2023 / Revised: 24 August 2023 / Accepted: 30 August 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract
Parents and teachers play a key role in developing students’ self-regulated learning
(SRL), which is closely linked to academic achievement and acts as a protective factor
for students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Research has shown that authorita-
tive parenting style, parental responsiveness, emotional warmth, behavioural control, and
autonomy support are associated with better academic performance. In addition, studies
have shown that the quality of the teacher-student relationship plays an important role in
the development of SRL. However, there is limited research on the relationship between
school and home environmental factors, student characteristics, and SRL, especially in
primary school. The present study examined the relationship between parenting styles,
teaching styles, student characteristics, and SRL. The sample included 328 ninth-grade
students in Slovenian primary schools. SRL, parenting styles, and teaching styles were
assessed using student self-reports. Using latent profile analysis, three subtypes of par-
enting styles (discipline-oriented parenting, democratic parenting, and responsive par-
enting) and three subtypes of teaching styles (autonomy-supportive teaching, diverse
teaching, and directive teaching) were identified. Results indicate that students who per-
ceive autonomy-supportive teaching and responsive parenting styles exhibit higher levels
of SRL. Autonomy-supportive teaching was positively associated with student achieve-
ment. This study highlights the importance of an authoritative parenting and teaching
style for the development of SRL in primary school.
Keywords Parenting style· Teaching style· Self-regulated learning· Primary education·
Autonomy support· Latent profile analysis
* Urška Žerak
urska.zerak@pef.uni-lj.si
1 Department ofEducation Studies, Faculty ofEducation, University ofLjubljana, Kardeljeva
ploščad 16, 1000Ljubljana, Slovenia
2 Department ofPsychology, Faculty ofArts, University ofLjubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
U.Žerak et al.
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Introduction
The ability of students to self-regulate is increasingly important nowadays, especially
after the pandemic, which has profoundly changed the modern way of life. The pan-
demic has highlighted the importance of students gaining autonomy and taking control
of their own learning (Trias etal., 2021), especially for students from vulnerable groups
who need continuous attention and support to ensure equal access to education (Jeriček
Klanšček etal., 2021). SRL is a fundamental process in learning and academic achieve-
ment (Dermitzaki & Kallia, 2021). It acts as an indirect factor between individual stu-
dent characteristics and learning performance (Dent & Koenka, 2015). Interactions with
parents and teachers provide an important interpersonal context for the development of
SRL (Pino-Pasternak & Whitebread, 2010).
Self‑regulated learning andeducational inequality
SRL can be defined as the ability of learners to regulate their attention, emotions, and
behaviour in order to respond optimally to external and internal demands of the environ-
ment (Boekaerts & Corno, 2005; Pintrich, 2005; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2008). It is a
complex and multifaceted construct that includes cognitive (e.g., memorization, elabora-
tion, comprehension strategies), metacognitive (e.g., planning, goal setting, monitoring)
and motivational (e.g., goal orientation, self-efficacy) aspects of learning (Zimmerman,
2013). The metacognitive aspect refers to the student’s planning, goal setting, organisa-
tion, monitoring and self-assessment of the learning process, while the cognitive compo-
nent involves the use of various learning strategies and tactics to memorise material. The
use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies is influenced by the motivational compo-
nent, which includes beliefs about one’s effectiveness, interest in a task, attributions, and
strategies to regulate motivation and emotions (Wolters, 2003). Panadero (2017) asserts
that SRL is an umbrella construct within which all variables that influence learning are
comprehensively examined (e.g., self-efficacy, metacognition, volition, cognitive learning
strategies). It is a dynamic and circular process that involves feedback loops, meaning that
students, who are self-regulated learners, set goals and metacognitively monitor their pro-
gress toward achieving those goals. Students are active and respond to their monitoring,
as well as external feedback, in ways that they believe will help them achieve a goal, such
as putting more effort into learning or changing their learning strategy (Schunk & Greene,
2018). In the present study, the theoretical framework of SRL is represented by Ziegler
and Stoeger’s (2005) seven-stage cyclical model, which is very similar to Zimmerman’s
cyclical model (Zimmerman, 2005). In this model, learning begins with the student’s self-
assessment of his or her own learning, followed by goal setting, strategic selection of an
effective learning strategy, and strategy implementation; then comes monitoring and pos-
sible adjustment of the strategy, and finally, outcome assessment (Ziegler etal., 2012).
Students’ use of SRL learning strategies is context-dependent and varies by subject
area (Pintrich, 2005). Although empirical studies have not yet systematically exam-
ined the influence of individual subject areas on students’ use of cognitive, metacog-
nitive, and motivational learning strategies, research indicates the domain specific-
ity of SRL (Alexander etal., 2011). Vandevelde etal. (2015) showed that SRL is a
dynamic process that differs for students within individual subject areas or tasks, and
even between subject areas. Subjects differ in terms of content structure, typical tasks,
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
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and appropriateness of use of learning strategies, all of which impact SRL (Schunk &
Greene, 2018).
The ability to self-regulate learning is one of the most important protective factors for
low socio-economic status (SES) students who have learning difficulties (Azevedo etal.,
2023). Research showed that students from low-SES backgrounds have less developed SRL
strategies (Pappas etal., 2003; Trias etal., 2021; Vandevelde etal., 2017) and tend to have
lower academic achievement than their peers (Boonk etal., 2018). In Slovenia, higher SES
students with more books at home showed better reading achievement than their lower SES
peers (Klemenčič & Mirazchiyski, 2023). In addition, an international report from PISA
showed that the percentage of Slovenian students from the lowest quartile of SES who
achieved at least Level 2 in reading was 21% lower than the percentage from the highest
quartile, which is slightly lower than the OECD average of 29% (OECD, 2021). However,
the paradigm of inclusive education in Slovenia enables different groups of students (with
migrant backgrounds, with low-SES backgrounds, with special needs) to receive special
individual support and targeted services (e.g., additional special support, assistive devices)
in schools (Kavkler etal., 2015; Skubic Ermenc, 2020).
The social context ofself‑regulated learning
According to the social cognitive theory of SRL, parents and teachers provide an important
model for students because they provide them with the support they need to imitate and
apply self-regulation skills. At the same time, their presence serves as an external rein-
forcer for the student’s behaviour (Martinez-Pons, 2002; Zimmerman, 2013). The devel-
opment of students’ SRL is not innate but the result of an interaction between students’
maturational processes and their education (de Ruig etal., 2023; Moos & Ringdal, 2012;
Paris & Newman, 1990). In addition to school experiences, students’ learning experiences
in the family context play a very important role in the development of their learning skills
and strategies (Dermitzaki & Kallia, 2021). SRL is not a trait. Although individual differ-
ences in SRL have been reported (Cadima etal., 2016; Denton etal., 2015; Li etal., 2018;
Peeters etal., 2016), research has shown that all students, regardless of intellectual and aca-
demic ability, can improve their SRL, which contributes to higher academic achievement
(Dent & Koenka, 2015). Despite awareness of the importance of SRL, some students still
struggle to effectively regulate their learning (Kron-Sperl etal., 2008; Trias etal., 2021).
Therefore, researchers emphasise the need to systematically develop and promote SRL in
the initial period of education (van der Stel & Veenman, 2010; Vandevelde etal., 2017).
Learning environments that promote SRL are influenced by several factors: teachers
beliefs about the importance of SRL, their competence to promote and guide the pro-
cess of SRL, and their predominant teaching style (Lombaerts etal., 2009). Teachers can
promote students’ SRL in the following ways: by engaging students in more complex,
open-ended activities in which they have the opportunity to select tasks and determine
their level of difficulty; by providing students with appropriate instrumental support; and
by encouraging peer support for learning; by creating situations in which students can
observe the use of specific learning strategies (Paris & Paris, 2001); by encouraging stu-
dents to consciously use cognitive, metacognitive and motivational learning strategies,
and to reflect on their use; by providing appropriate feedback that encourages students to
focus on their own learning progress (Askell-Williams etal., 2012); and by encouraging
students to attribute success to the use of appropriate learning strategies rather than to
ability or luck (Pintrich, 2005).
U.Žerak et al.
1 3
The development of SRL is influenced by parental characteristics (e.g., parental capac-
ity for self-regulation, temperament, emotional expression, mental health), parenting (e.g.,
parental involvement, parenting styles, parental sensitivity), the parent–child relationship
(attachment styles), family structure, and the family environment (Baker, 2018), and the
frequency and quality of self-regulation that the family environment requires of the child
(Dermitzaki & Kallia, 2021). The influence of the family context and the role of parents in
the development of a child’s self-regulation varies depending on the age of the child. As
children develop, they become more independent of their parents in regulating their own
behaviour and emotions (Eisenberg etal., 2010). Co-regulation of learning between parents
and children gradually transforms into self-regulation through internalisation processes
(Erdmann & Hertel, 2019) .
Parenting styles
Parenting styles represent a relatively stable form of child rearing and include a range of
parenting approaches, goals, and patterns of behaviour toward the child in various situ-
ations. Parenting styles include the quality of the interaction between the child and the
parents, parental attitudes toward the child, and parental behaviour, as well as the emo-
tional atmosphere in the family (Steinberg, 2001). Through emotional attachment to par-
ents, children internalise their parents’ values and learn how to form optimal relationships
with other adults (Gregory & Weinstein, 2004). A positive relationship with parents pro-
vides a form of social support that enhances students’ ability to self-regulate (Balaguer
etal., 2021). Baumrind’s (1971, 2013) classification of parenting styles, which is the most
widely used and researched, includes two basic dimensions: demandingness and respon-
siveness. Demandingness includes parenting behaviours in which parents exhibit control,
maturity demands, and monitoring, whereas responsiveness (i.e., affection) includes par-
enting behaviours in which parents show emotional warmth, acceptance, and involvement.
Authoritative parents are characterised by high levels of both demandingness and affection,
authoritarian parents by high levels of demandingness and low levels of affection, and per-
missive parents by too high levels of affection and low levels of demandingness (Maccoby
& Martin, 1983).
Previous studies have shown that authoritative parenting is related to high student aca-
demic achievement and positive developmental outcomes such as independence, the ability
to self-regulate, establishing appropriate social interaction with peers, the tendency to mas-
ter the environment and learn new things, and flexibility in the school environment, both
cross-sectionally (Baumrind, 1991; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Gagnon etal., 2013; Grol-
nick & Ryan, 1989; Steinberg, 2001) and longitudinally (Baumrind etal., 2010; Steinberg
etal., 1992). In a meta-analytic study, Pinquart (2016) showed that authoritative parenting
style, parental responsiveness, emotional warmth, behavioural control, and autonomy-pro-
moting parenting behaviours were associated with better academic achievement in students.
Contemporary research has demonstrated associations between parenting practises and
various components of SRL (Pino-Pasternak & Whitebread, 2010; Spera, 2005; Thomas
etal., 2019). Lee etal. (2012) found that SRL is an important mediator between students’
perceptions of parenting styles and their academic achievement. Similarly, Alnafea and
Curtis (2017) reported that authoritative parenting style is positively associated with stu-
dent self-efficacy, use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and effective time man-
agement. Similarly, Amani etal. (2020) showed that an authoritative parenting style was
positively associated with adolescents’ academic achievement through increased SRL. In
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
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addition, emotional support from the father was found to foster students’ self-monitoring
and metacognitive talk in the classroom (Stright etal., 2001). Kallia and Dermitzaki (2017)
reported that mother’s autonomy-supportive behaviour was positively associated with chil-
dren’s actual use of cognitive strategies, planning, and monitoring skills during a problem-
solving task. Recently, Du etal. (2021) reported that emotional warmth and democratic
discipline from parents promote SRL in adolescent students.
Teaching styles
Teachers play an important role in creating learning environments that support students’
basic needs for autonomy, competence, and connectedness (Deci & Ryan, 2008) and allow
students to regulate their own learning. Teaching style influences students’ academic
achievement, social behaviour, educational beliefs, and aspirations (Ansari etal., 2020;
Kiuru etal., 2012; Walker, 2008). Researchers have argued that teaching style in elemen-
tary school is similar to parenting style (e.g., Pianta etal., 1997; Walker, 2008; Torff &
Kimmons, 2021). Teaching style, like parenting style, consists of attitudes, behaviours,
and nonverbal communication that characterise the teacher–child relationship (Kiuru
etal., 2012). A considerable amount of research on teaching styles is based on Baumrind’s
(1971, 2013) theoretical framework for parenting styles, which includes a mix of teachers’
responsiveness (i.e., warmth, caring) and demandingness (i.e., requirements, control) (e.g.,
Ertesvag, 2011; Torff & Kimmons, 2021).
Theory and research suggest that an authoritative teaching style, characterised by high
levels of responsiveness and demandingness, is associated with higher student academic
achievement (Dever & Karabenick, 2011; Walker, 2008). There is some evidence that an
autonomy-supportive teaching style (Reeve, 2009; Reeve & Cheon, 2021), which incorpo-
rates certain instructional behaviours (e.g., providing explanatory rationales) and supports
students’ motivational development and ability to self-regulate autonomously, positively
impacts younger students’ self-regulation skills in biology (Whitebread & Grau Card-
enas, 2012). Research suggests that teachers’ autonomy support and structure is positively
related to students’ SRL learning strategies (de Ruig etal., 2023; Sierens etal., 2009; Van-
steenkiste etal., 2012). Moreover, in a longitudinal study, Schuitema etal. (2016) reported
that students’ perceptions of teacher autonomy support had positive effects on delay of
gratification and the use of metacognitive strategies. Similarly, Zee and de Bree (2017)
found that students’ perceptions of the quality of the student–teacher relationship and
closeness were directly related to two areas of self-regulation (i.e., task orientation and
metacognition). Theory and research suggest that there is a relationship between authorita-
tive teaching and a number of positive outcomes, including academic achievement and stu-
dent engagement (Kiuru etal., 2012; Vansteenkiste etal., 2012; Yin etal., 2009; Walker,
2008). Teachers who possess SRL skills and have warm and supportive relationships with
their students are effective role models for elementary students to regulate their learning
(de Ruig etal., 2023).
The present study
SRL is related to student learning competence, positive peer and teacher relationships,
and student satisfaction with school (Lee et al., 2012). Students whose self-regula-
tory skills are less developed often have difficulty connecting with peers and building
relationships with teachers and are less successful in school (Piotrowski etal., 2013;
U.Žerak et al.
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Vandevelde etal., 2017). Teachers and parents represent an important factor in the stu-
dent’s social context (de Ruig etal., 2023; Dermitzaki & Kallia, 2021; Thomas et al.,
2019); therefore, careful examination of family and school environmental factors that
may contribute to the development of self-regulation is critical. The student character-
istics that influence SRL (e.g., Cadima etal., 2016; Denton etal., 2015; Li etal., 2018;
Peeters etal., 2016) have been relatively well researched, but much less is known about
the influence of parents and teachers on the development of students’ SRL skills, par-
ticularly in primary school.
Consistent with the considerations outlined above, the present study had two aims.
The first aim was to identify the latent profiles of parenting and teaching styles based
on students’ perceived dimensions: emotional warmth, autonomy support, permissive,
punitive, and democratic discipline. The second aim was to examine the differences
between students’ demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, number of books at home,
maternal education, GPA) and students’ SRL approach in the different profiles of par-
enting and teaching styles according to the results of the latent profile analysis.
Based on the research problem and previous studies (e.g., Amani etal., 2020; de
Ruig etal., 2023; Kiuru et al., 2012; Reeve & Cheon, 2021), the following research
question and hypotheses were formulated:
RQ: What are the differences between the identified parenting and teaching style pro-
files in terms of student demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, number of books at
home, maternal education, GPA)?
H1: Parenting style profiles with high levels of emotional warmth, autonomy support,
and democratic discipline are associated with higher levels of SRL.
H2: Teaching style profiles with high levels of emotional warmth, autonomy support,
and democratic discipline are associated with higher levels of SRL.
Method
Participants
The sample obtained by quota sampling consisted of 328 ninth graders (aged
13–15 years) from 25 Slovenian primary schools. Girls (n = 171) and boys (n = 157)
were almost equally represented in the sample. Schools were distributed across all 12
Slovenian regions and varied in size, with 15 schools located in rural areas and 10 in
urban areas. In Slovenia, primary education comprises nine years of compulsory school-
ing attended by students aged 6 to 15. The Slovenian education system uses a five-point
grading scale, with 1 being the lowest possible (negative grade) and all other grades
being positive, with 5 the best possible grade (ZOsn, 1996). Students attend a par-
ticular school based on geographic criteria and are placed in classes without regard to
their gender, ethnicity, achievement level, or SES. Table1 provides a description of the
sample by academic achievement in the previous school year and two SES variables
– number of books and mother’s education – as these variables are most used in current
research (see Bornstein & Bradley, 2012). Both SES indicators were measured on a six-
point scale. In the present study, girls reported a significantly better GPA in the previous
school year compared to boys (F(1,326) = 22.74, p < 0.001).
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
1 3
Instruments
Questionnaire forself‑regulated learning – 7 (FSL‑7)
Designed by Ziegler etal. (2010), FSL-7 measures SRL based on Ziegler and Stoeger’s
(2005) seven-step cyclical model of SRL. The questionnaire consists of seven items for
each of the three learning scenarios (studying for school, preparing for a knowledge test,
missed learning material). For each item, the students choose the one that best describes
their approach to learning: external, impulsive and SRL (Ziegler etal., 2012). Each item
refers to one of the seven steps of SRL: self-assessment, goal setting, strategic plan-
ning, implementation of the planned strategy, monitoring of implementation, adaptation
of selected learning strategies, and evaluation of results (Ziegler & Stoeger, 2005). An
example of learning for school scenario items (step two: setting goals) is: My teacher or
parents tell me what to learn. (external); I don’t set a specific goal when I study. I just
start learning. (impulsive); I set a goal and define exactly what I want to learn. (SRL).
The questionnaire was used in an adapted version to determine the SRL approach in
learning biology. The overall score was calculated by counting the frequency with
which the student chose an SRL learning approach and dividing it by the number of
items answered. For example, a student who chose the SRL learning approach in 11
of the 28 items would be given a score of 0.52. Therefore, the minimum score was 0
and the maximum score was 1. Sontag and Stoeger (2015) report the following internal
consistency coefficient: 0.83 (pre-test), 0.90 (post-test) and 0.94 (follow-up test). Pre-
liminarily, we confirmed an acceptable fit of the model to the predicted factor structure
Table 1 Students according to
academic performance and SES
variables (N = 328)
2.7% students did not report about their mother’s education
n %
GPA
2 9 2.7
3 70 21.3
4 134 40.9
5 115 35.1
Number of books
0–10 54 16.5
11–25 68 20.7
26–100 102 31.1
101–200 54 16.5
201–500 36 11.0
> 500 14 4.3
Mother’s education
Primary school 11 3.4
Vocational school or vocational high school 135 41.2
Grammar school 9 2.7
Diploma from a post-secondary or higher educa-
tion professional programme
86 26.2
University degree 59 18.0
Master’s degree or PhD 19 5.8
U.Žerak et al.
1 3
(χ2(1887) = 11332.04; RMSEA = 0.08; SRMR = 0.09; CFI = 0.92; TLI = 0.92) and good
reliability of the SRL approach (α = 0.87).
Parenting styles
The Parenting Behaviours and Dimensions Questionnaire (PBDQ, Reid et al., 2015)
was used to measure parenting styles. For the purpose of the research, an adapted ver-
sion of students’ perceptions about parenting behaviours was created. The scale consisted
of 27 items on a 5-point scale (1 = never to 5 = always), distributed in five dimensions:
emotional warmth (6 items, e.g., My parents tell me how proud they are of me.), puni-
tive discipline (5 items, e.g., My parents lose their patience when I do something to upset
them.), autonomy support (5 items, e.g., My parents encourage me to try things for myself
before asking for help.), permissive discipline (5 items, e.g., My parents do things for me
when I refuse to do them.), and democratic discipline (5 items, e.g., My parents give me
reasons for why I am not allowed to do something.). Preliminarily, an adequate fit of the
model to the predicted factor structure was confirmed (χ2(289) = 686.68; RMSEA = 0.05;
SRMR = 0.06; CFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.97). The reliability of the scales was adequate:
αemotional warmth = 0.82, αautonomy support = 0.63, αpermissive discipline = 0.60, αpunitive discipline = 0.70,
αdemocratic discipline = 0.75. Maternal and paternal parenting styles were measured together,
taking into account the study by Balaguer etal. (2021), which indicated that parenting
styles can be validly measured together based on students’ perceptions.
Teaching styles
The Teacher’s Interaction Styles scale (Žerak, 2019) was constructed based on a revised
Slovenian version of the PBDQ (Reid et al., 2015) questionnaire by changing the con-
text from home to school. The scale consisted of 27 items on a 5-point scale (1 = never to
5 = always), which are distributed into five dimensions: emotional warmth (6 items, e.g.,
My teacher tells me how proud he/she is of me.), punitive discipline (5 items, e.g., My
teacher loses his/her patience when I do something to upset him/her.), autonomy support
(5 items, e.g., My teacher encourages me to try things for myself before asking for help.),
permissive discipline (5 items, e.g., My teacher does things for me when I refuse to do
them.) and democratic discipline (5 items, e.g., My teacher gives me reasons for why I
am not allowed to do something.). Participants assessed their respective biology teacher’s
teaching style. Preliminarily, an adequate fit of the model to the predicted factor structure
was confirmed (χ2(289) = 725.96; RMSEA = 0.06; SRMR = 0.07; CFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.97).
The reliability of the scales was adequate: αemotional warmth = 0.84, αautonomy support = 0.73,
αpermissive discipline = 0.64, αpunitive discipline = 0.64, αdemocratic discipline = 0.77.
Research design anddata analyses
The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Arts, University of Lju-
bljana. Before the administration of the questionnaires, parent consent was obtained and
only students whose parents provided signed informed consent participated in the study.
The questionnaires were executed in paper–pencil form. Participants who did not complete
all of the questionnaires were excluded from further analyses.
Statistical analyses were performed in R (R Core Team, 2019) and Mplus version 8.3
(Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2019). The Mplus software was used because it provides an
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
1 3
easy-to-use interface and several output options that support the LPA analysis process
(Asparouhov & Muthén, 2021), and the R software was used because of its adaptability,
flexibility, and free availability. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted in R with
the lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012). Latent profile analysis (LPA) using the MLR estima-
tor was applied to identify unobserved subgroups of participants according to their self-
perception of parenting styles and teaching styles. The plausibility of one to four latent
profile models was examined. The optimal model was selected based on the conceptual
interpretability of the profiles, as well as on a review of several statistical indices: Akaike’s
Information Criterion (AIC), Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), Sample-Size Adjusted
Bayesian Information Criterion (SABIC), the Lo-Mendell-Rubin Adjusted Likelihood
Ratio Test (aLMRT), and the Bootstrap Likelihood Ratio Test (BLRT). For AIC, BIC and
SABIC, lower values indicate better model fit, while significant aLMRT and BLRT results
indicate a higher number of subtypes. Additionally, entropy (values > 0.80 and marginal
value 0.70) and average posterior probabilities values (values > 0.70) were also consid-
ered (Masyn, 2013). Finally, as a practical criterion, the percentage of individuals in the
smallest class was considered (> 5%). The LPAs were carried out separately for parenting
styles and teaching styles.
Once the optimal latent profile model was identified, the Bolck-Croon-Hagenaars
approach (BCH) was performed to examine the differences in demographic variables (i.e.,
gender, average grade, number of books, maternal education) and SRL across the latent
profiles. The BCH approach is recommended for continuous variables because it uses
observation weights that reflect the measurement error of the latent class variable and
accounts for individual uncertainty in profile classification (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2021).
Results
The descriptive statistics and correlations between the variables of the study are shown in
Table2. The correlations between SRL and the dimensions of teaching styles, and between
SRL and the dimensions of parenting styles, are low to moderate. Table2 shows that there
are strong positive correlations between teacher’s autonomy support, emotional warmth
and democratic discipline, and between parents’ autonomy support, emotional warmth and
democratic discipline. All correlations are in the expected direction, indicating the validity
of the constructs measured.
Parenting styles andteaching styles profile identification
Table3 shows the fit indices of the models with increasing number of profiles. The
fit indices of the LPAs for the parenting styles – considering the BLRT index, which
was found to outperform other likelihood ratio tests (e.g., Nylund etal., 2007), would
suggest a four-profile solution, but considering the theoretical interpretability and
informativeness of the different profile solutions and the fact that the smallest class
of four-profile solutions contains < 5% of the sample, we opted for the three-profile
solution (Table3). The average individual posterior probabilities for assignment to
a particular latent class in the three-profile model were 0.90, 0.87, 0.90, indicating
a sufficiently clear classification for class interpretation (Masyn, 2013). The pat-
terns of parenting styles that characterise the three profiles are shown in Fig.1. The
most numerous profile comprises 50% of the participants and can be described as
U.Žerak et al.
1 3
Table 2 Descriptive statistics and correlations between study variables (N = 328)
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01
Variable M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. SRL 0.54
(0.26)
1.00
2. Teacher’s emotional warmth 2.74
(0.89)
0.19** 1.00
3. Teacher’s autonomy support 3.23
(0.89)
0.23** 0.74** 1.00
4. Teacher’s permissive discipline 1.93
(0.56)
−0.16** 0.27** 0.11* 1.00
5. Teacher’s punitive discipline 2.49
(0.79)
−0.25** −0.21** 0.17** 0.10 1.00
6. Teacher’s democratic discipline 3.07
(0.88)
0.15** 0.64** 0.71** 0.10 −0.01 1.00
7. Parents’ emotional warmth 4.05
(0.70)
0.30** 0.26** 0.21** −0.08 −0.01 0.21** 1.00
8. Parents’ autonomy support 3.77
(0.67)
0.27** 0.26** 0.34** −0.01 −0.07 0.32** 0.53** 1.00
9. Parents’ permissive discipline 2.29
(0.58)
−0.04 0.03 0.02 0.33** 0.09 0.01 0.05 0.01 1.00
10. Parents’ punitive discipline 2.62
(0.78)
−0.13 −0.02 −0.02 0.18** 0.23** 0.02 −0.25** −0.16** 0.08 1.00
11. Parents’ democratic discipline 3.77
(0.76)
0.29** 0.22** 0.29** −0.08 −0.01 0.42** 0.56** 0.54** −0.04 0.01 1.00
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
1 3
Table 3 Summary of fit statistics for latent profile analysis for parenting styles and teaching styles
LL Log-likelihood; # FP Number of free parameters; AIC Akaike information criterion; BIC Bayesian information criterion; SABIC Sample-adjusted BIC; aLMRT Adjusted
Lo-Mendel-Rubin likelihood ratio test; BLRT Bootstrap likelihood ratio test
Model LL #FP AIC BIC SABIC Entropy aLMRT p(aLMRT) BLRT p(BLRT) Smallest
profile (%)
Parenting styles
1 profile −1751.12 10 3522.24 3560.17 3528.45
2 profiles −1635.17 16 3302.35 3363.04 3312.29 0.76 225.40 < 0.001 231.89 < 0.001 30.8
3 profiles −1602.76 22 3249.52 3332.96 3263.18 0.75 63.02 0.19 64.84 < 0.001 7.6
4 profiles −1582.65 28 3221.29 3327.49 3238.68 0.76 39.10 0.33 40.23 < 0.001 1.2
Teaching styles
1 profile −1959.98 10 3939.96 3977.89 3946.17
2 profiles −1802.35 16 3636.70 3697.39 3646.64 0.75 306.44 0.02 315.26 < 0.001 41.5
3 profiles −1713.05 22 3470.09 3553.54 3483.76 0.81 173.62 0.004 178.61 < 0.001 14.0
4 profiles −1674.52 28 3405.03 3511.24 3422.42 0.83 74.90 0.14 77.06 < 0.001 7.0
U.Žerak et al.
1 3
responsive parenting. It is characterised by high levels of parents’ emotional warmth,
autonomy support, and democratic discipline, and low levels of punitive and per-
missive discipline. The second profile includes 42.4% of the participants and can be
described as democratic parenting. Compared to responsive parenting, the scores for
parents’ emotional warmth, autonomy support and democratic discipline are lower,
but still in the upper range of the scale, with slightly higher scores for parents’ puni-
tive discipline and the same score for parents’ permissive discipline. The third profile
includes 7.6% of participants and was labelled discipline-oriented parenting. Com-
pared to the other two profiles, it is characterised by higher levels of parents’ punitive
discipline and lower levels of permissive discipline, as well as lower levels of demo-
cratic discipline, autonomy support, and emotional warmth by parents.
For teaching style, the LPA results (Table3), considering the BLRT index, suggest
the four-profiles solution, but further investigation of the fit indices and the theoreti-
cal interpretability and meaningfulness of the different profile solutions supported the
decision to retain the three-profile solution, which also has an appropriate class mem-
bership and entropy value. The average individual posterior probabilities for assign-
ment to a particular latent class in the three-profile model were 0.94, 0.91, 0.89, indi-
cating a sufficiently clear classification for class interpretation (Masyn, 2013). The
patterns of teaching styles are shown in Fig.2. The most numerous profile includes
49% of the participants and can be described as diverse teaching. It is characterised
by a medium rating of teacher autonomy support, emotional warmth, democratic and
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Emotional warmth Autonomy supportPermissive discipline Punitive discipline Democratic discipline
Discipline-oriented parenting (7.6%) Democratic parenting (42.4%)Responsive parenting (50%)
Fig. 1 Profiles of parenting styles
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
1 3
punitive discipline, and a slightly lower rating of teacher permissive discipline. The
second profile includes 37% of the participants and can be described as autonomy-
supportive teaching. It is characterised by high levels of autonomy support, democratic
discipline, and emotional warmth. Compared to diverse teaching, the level of punitive
and permissive discipline is lower. The last profile includes 14% of the participants and
was described as directive teaching. It is characterised by low levels of permissive dis-
cipline and emotional warmth, and low levels of autonomy support and democratic dis-
cipline. The level of punitive discipline is highest in this profile, although still slightly
lower compared to the diverse teaching profile and slightly higher compared to the
autonomy-supportive teaching profile.
Parenting andteaching styles, student demographic characteristics andSRL
To examine the differences between the latent profiles of parenting and teaching styles,
the BCH approach was used (Table4). Regarding gender and parenting styles, the results
showed that there were no statistically significant differences between the profiles, although
slightly more girls perceived their parents as responsive. On the other hand, for gender
and teaching style profiles, the results showed that there were statistically significant dif-
ferences between the profiles; there were more boys who perceived the biology teacher’s
teaching style as diverse and more girls who perceived the biology teacher’s teaching style
as autonomy supportive. In addition, results showed that there are statistically significant
differences between parenting profiles and the number of books students have at home.
Students who perceive their parents as responsive report having more books at home than
students who perceive their parents as discipline-oriented. Moreover, there are statistically
significant differences between teaching profiles and maternal education. Students who
perceive their biology teacher as autonomy-supportive report higher levels of maternal
education compared to students who perceive their biology teacher as directive. In addi-
tion, there are statistically significant differences between teaching profiles in terms of
student GPA. Students who perceive their biology teacher as autonomy-supportive have a
higher GPA than students who perceive their biology teacher’s teaching style as directive
or diverse (Table4).
1
1.
5
2
2.
5
3
3.
5
4
4.
5
5
Emotional warmth Autonomy supportPermissive discipline Punitive discipline Democratic discipline
Directive teaching (14%) Diverse teaching (49%) Autonomy-supportive teaching (37%)
Fig. 2 Profiles of teaching styles
U.Žerak et al.
1 3
Statistically significant differences were found when looking at differences between the
SRL and parenting style profiles. Students with a responsive parenting profile reported the
highest SRL level, followed by students with a democratic parenting profile and students
with a discipline-oriented parenting style. The differences in SRL scores between students
in the discipline-oriented parenting profile and those in the responsive parenting profile
and between students in the democratic parenting profile and those in the responsive par-
enting profile were statistically significant (Table4).
In addition, there were statistically significant differences between the teaching style
profiles and the SRL. Students in the autonomy-supportive teaching profile had the highest
SRL scores, followed by students in the diverse teaching profile and students in the directive
teaching profile. The differences in SRL scores between students in the directive teaching
profile and those in the autonomy-supportive teaching profile and between students in the
diverse and autonomy-supportive teaching profiles were statistically significant (Table4).
Discussion
The present study attempts to identify the latent profiles of parenting and teaching
styles and to examine the differences in student characteristics and SRL between
the different profiles. Using the LPA, three subtypes of parenting were identified:
Table 4 Means and standard errors of auxiliary variables and test of mean differences across parenting and
teaching styles
0 = female, 1 = male; DEM Democratic; DIS Discipline-oriented; RES Responsive; DIR Directive, DIV
Diverse, AUS Autonomy-supportive; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001
Gender Number of books Maternal education GPA SRL
M (SE)
Democratic parenting 0.55 (0.05) 2.88 (0.14) 3.06 (0.15) 3.99 (0.08) 0.50 (0.03)
Discipline-oriented
parenting
0.52 (0.11) 2.39 (0.31) 2.95 (0.29) 4.01 (0.17) 0.37 (0.06)
Responsive parenting 0.41 (0.04) 3.16 (0.12) 3.43 (0.13) 4.18 (0.07) 0.61 (0.02)
Overall test (Wald χ2) 3.58 6.35* 4.27 2.90 21.10***
Pairwise tests (Wald χ2)
DEM vs DIS 0.05 1.82 0.10 0.01 3.54
DEM vs RES 3.28 1.93 2.83 2.45 9.35**
DIS vs RES 0.76 5.37* 2.41 0.95 15.37***
M (SE)
Directive teaching 0.52 (0.08) 2.70 (0.23) 2.85 (0.22) 3.86 (0.12) 0.48 (0.04)
Diverse teaching 0.55 (0.04) 2.93 (0.12) 3.17 (0.14) 3.97 (0.07) 0.51 (0.02)
Autonomy-supportive
teaching
0.37 (0.05) 3.15 (0.14) 3.47 (0.15) 4.33 (0.09) 0.61 (0.03)
Overall test (Wald χ2) 6.48* 3.05 5.67* 13.52** 10.86**
Pairwise tests (Wald χ2)
DIR vs DIV 0.08 0.72 1.47 0.49 0.19
DIR vs AUS 2.65 2.81 5.49* 10.03** 7.19**
DIV vs AUS 5.94* 1.22 1.81 9.23** 8.08**
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
1 3
responsive parenting, democratic parenting, and discipline-oriented parenting.
Results show that students who perceived their parents as responsive (half of the
sample) reported about higher number of books at home than students in the disci-
pline-oriented profile, which may indicate that parents of low-SES students are more
likely to use discipline-oriented parenting practices. This is consistent with previous
research (e.g., Areepattamannil, 2010) suggesting that parents from high-SES back-
grounds are more likely to have an authoritative parenting style. In terms of SRL,
students who perceived their parents as responsive, with the highest expression of
emotional warmth, democratic discipline, and autonomy support, also scored highest
on SRL. This is consistent with the findings of previous studies (Alnafea & Curtis,
2017; Amani etal., 2020; Du etal., 2021; Huang & Prochner, 2003; Kallia & Der-
mitzaki, 2017; Pinquart, 2016; Pino-Pasternak & Whitebread, 2010; Stright et al.,
2001), suggesting that positive parenting characterised by democratic discipline,
emotional warmth, autonomy-supportive behaviours and understanding of the child’s
needs positively impacts students’ SRL and academic achievement. Supporting
autonomy allows children to gradually take responsibility for schoolwork and is posi-
tively related to the metacognitive aspects of SRL (Pino-Pasternak & Whitebread,
2010). Responsive parents exhibit positive behaviours toward the child (e.g., warmth,
responsiveness), consider their child’s perspective, provide contingent support and
opportunities for the child to act within certain guidelines, and offer meaningful
rationales for why the child needs to do a particular activity (Kallia & Dermitzaki,
2017; Sanders etal., 2019), allowing the child to develop SRL behaviours. On the
other hand, students who perceived their parents as discipline-oriented and had the
highest punitive discipline scores had the lowest SRL scores, reflecting Pinquart’s
(2016) meta-analysis showing that an authoritarian parenting style and parental con-
trol are related to lower achievement. An authoritarian parenting style (i.e., verbal
hostility, punishment, excessive parental control) negatively impacts students’ SRL
(Huang & Prochner, 2003) and mental health (Baumrind etal., 2010).
In addition, LPAs suggest three subtypes of teaching styles: diverse teaching, auton-
omy-supportive teaching, and directive teaching. The results of this study are consistent
with previous research (e.g., Filippello etal., 2020; Reeve & Cheon, 2021; Wang etal.,
2016) and suggest that autonomy-supportive teaching is positively associated with stu-
dent academic achievement. Regarding gender differences in perceived teaching style our
findings are consistent with previous research suggesting that female students tend to
perceive higher levels of teacher autonomy support than male students (Brandisauskiene
etal., 2023; Filippello etal., 2020). It is worth noting that students who perceive auton-
omy-supportive teaching report the highest educational level of their mothers, which
may suggest that teachers behave differently or have lower expectations for students from
socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds (Auwarter & Arguete, 2008). In addition,
students who perceive their teacher as autonomy-supportive have the highest SRL scores
(37% of the students). Compared to the other two profiles, teachers in the autonomy-sup-
portive profile have the highest levels of emotional warmth and democratic discipline,
which are characteristics of authoritative teaching (Kiuru etal., 2012; Walker, 2008).
The findings suggest that authoritative teaching with a particular focus on promoting stu-
dent autonomy is the optimal context for developing students’ SRL. According to self-
determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2008), the essential conditions for fostering student
SRL, and thus high achievement, are relatedness, competence, and autonomy. As Reeve
(2009) points out, autonomy-supportive teaching is characterised by teacher interaction
with students that recognises, promotes, and develops students’ psychological needs and
U.Žerak et al.
1 3
supports students’ ability to self-regulate. Our findings support the claim that autonomy-
supportive teaching (Reeve & Cheon, 2021) is related to students’ ability to regulate
their own learning. The results are consistent with previous studies (Brandisauskiene
etal., 2023; Schuitema etal., 2016; Sierens etal., 2009; Vansteenkiste etal., 2012; Zee
& de Bree, 2017) showing that an autonomy-supportive teaching style is positively asso-
ciated with students’ SRL. Interestingly, students who perceived their teachers as direc-
tive reported the lowest levels of SRL and maternal education. This may be related in
part to the teacher’s controlling interaction style (Reeve & Cheon, 2021), which is char-
acterised by authoritarian behaviour with a high expression of controlling instructional
behaviour. Therefore, teachers should pay more attention to students from low-SES back-
grounds and consciously rethink their behaviour in an autonomy-promoting manner,
which could help these students overcome factors that negatively affect their academic
progress (Brandisauskiene etal., 2023; Vandevelde etal., 2017).
Parents and teachers can support students’ autonomy by clearly articulating their
expectations, providing appropriate supports based on their developmental characteris-
tics and abilities, and providing feedback that promotes students’ perceived competence
and SRL while actively involving them in decision making and respecting their opin-
ions (Pino-Pasternak & Whitebread, 2010; Reeve, 2016). However, we must consider
reciprocity and interactivity in the relationship between the student and parent, and
between the student and teacher. It is possible that the student’s behaviour at home and
in the classroom influences the behaviour of parents and teachers. Teachers adapt their
behaviour and responses to the student’s behaviour and expression of SRL. They super-
vise students with less pronounced SRL skills more in the learning process, but when
students show higher levels of SRL, teachers support them to a greater extent in terms
of autonomy (Schuitema etal., 2016). In addition, students’ perceptions of the family
environment affect their perceptions of the learning context, as confirmed by Paulson
etal. (1998), who found that students’ perceptions of the teacher’s authoritativeness in
the classroom were congruent with their perceptions of their parents’ authoritativeness.
Therefore, it is important for educational institutions to build good relationships with
students’ parents and actively involve them in their children’s education (Froiland &
Davison, 2013; Thomas etal., 2019).
The strength of the present study lies in the examination of both parenting styles and
teaching styles and their relationship to student characteristics and SRL. At the same
time, we also noted several limitations. First, SRL, parenting styles and teaching styles
were measured using student self-assessments. Self-assessment questionnaires assess
certain aspects of SRL (e.g., learning strategies), and students’ responses are based on
their level of self-awareness of SRL, so they are not entirely accurate, as it is possi-
ble that some students are not sufficiently aware of their learning process or use certain
learning strategies unconsciously (Vandevelde etal., 2015). Moreover, while researchers
(e.g., Kiuru etal., 2012; Paulson etal., 1998; Pinquart, 2016) emphasise the importance
of students’ perceptions of the home and school learning environment, these percep-
tions are not necessarily characteristic of parents’ and teachers’ actual interactions with
students. Second, because of the cross-sequential nature of the study, we cannot draw
conclusions about the compensatory and cumulative effects of parent and teacher inter-
actions on students’ SRL. Third, the study does not distinguish between parental and
maternal parenting styles. Finally, the study was conducted in the Slovenian educational
context, and to achieve better generalizability, the results would need to be replicated in
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
1 3
other educational contexts. It would be useful to use multiple methods (e.g., classroom
observations, questionnaires, interviews, thinking aloud protocols) and data sources
(teachers, students, parents) to improve understanding of the relationship between SRL
and students’ interactions with parents and teachers.
Conclusion
The results of the present study suggest that parents and teachers are an important
aspect of the social context for the development of SRL. Regarding the role of par-
ents and teachers in cultivating students’ SRL skills, emotionally supportive parents
and teachers who encourage students’ independent learning and gradually grant them
autonomy have been shown to be essential for the SRL development. The findings of
the present study contribute to theory and practise in three ways. First, they expand
our knowledge of the role of family and school environments in students’ SRL by
highlighting autonomy-supportive behaviours (Kallia & Dermitzaki, 2017; Reeve &
Cheon, 2021) as well as authoritative parenting (Baumrind, 2013) and authoritative
teaching (Kiuru etal., 2012; Walker, 2008). Second, they emphasise the importance
of coherence between the family and school environments and parent-teacher col-
laboration to provide appropriate incentives and meet students’ developmental and
learning needs. Third, they suggest that effective interventions to promote SRL in
primary school should be developed and targeted not only for the individual stu-
dent, but also for his or her social environment, particularly for at-risk students and
students from low-SES backgrounds (Trias etal., 2021; Vandevelde etal., 2017).
Findings could be incorporated into teacher professional development programmes.
Teachers can model SRL by teaching explicit instruction of SRL skills in their les-
sons and explaining the strategies they use to self-regulate their own learning and
teaching (Kallia & Dermitzaki, 2017). Therefore, they should be advised on how to
create a supportive learning environment that promotes SRL in students (de Ruig
etal., 2023; Moos & Ringdal, 2012). On the other hand, special emphasis should
be placed on parenting programmes to increase parents’ autonomy, flexibility, and
confidence in dealing with difficult situations with their children. Programmes for
parents should provide a supportive interpersonal context and empower parents to
improve their self-regulation skills (Sanders etal., 2019). It is also important to
inform parents about the importance of their active involvement in their children’s
education (Boonk etal., 2018) and provide them with specific instructions on how to
interact with their child in an authoritative manner that supports the development of
SRL skills in the home environment.
Future research that considers the moderating role of student characteristics (e.g., inter-
est, academic goal orientation, personality traits, self-concept) and examines the relative
contributions of parental and school practises could deepen our understanding of the fac-
tors that influence SRL in students.
Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author
upon reasonable request. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
U.Žerak et al.
1 3
Declarations
Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests or personal relation-
ships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.
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Urška Žerak, PhD, Teaching Assistant of Educational Psychology, Department of Education Studies, Uni-
versity of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia, corresponding author, urska.zerak@
pef.uni-lj.si
Current themes of research
Self-regulated learning, learning strategies, gifted student, teacher education, educational psychology.
Relevant publications
Juriševič, M., & Žerak, U. (2019). Attitudes towards gifted students and their education in the Slovenian
context. Psychology in Russia: state of the art, 12(4), 101–117. https:// doi. org/ 10. 11621/ pir. 2019. 0406
Juriševič, M., Lavrih, L. Lišić, A., Podlogar, N., & Žerak, U. (2021). Higher education students’ experience
of emergency remote teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic in relation to self-regulation and posi-
tivity. CEPS journal: Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 11, 241–261. https:// doi. org/ 10.
26529/ cepsj. 1147
Loboda, M., Bedek, N., Žerak, U., Juriševič, M., & Vogrinc, J. (2020). Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri
do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja [Attitudes of pre-service teachers towards gifted pupils and
their education]. Didactica Slovenica Pedagoška obzorja, 35(1), 3–20.
Podlogar, N., Žerak, U., & Juriševič, M. (2023). Evaluating the use of the EGIFT Program in pre-service
teacher educatio[n]. In A. Lipovec, Tekavc, J. (Eds.), Perspectives on teacher education and develop-
ment (pp. 353–366). University of Maribor, University Press. https:// doi. org/ 10. 18690/ um. pef.1. 2023.7
Žerak, U., Juriševič, M., & Pečjak, S. (2020). Differences in students’ self-regulated learning according to
their age and gender. In J. Vogirnc, & I. Devetak (Eds.), Contemporary topics in education IV, Part I
(pp. 149–164). University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education.
Žerak, U., & Masten, R. (2018). Developmental changes in intellectual ability in persons with intellectual
disability [Razvojne spremembe v intelektualnem delovanju pri osebah z motnjo v duševnem razvoju].
Horizonts of Psychology, 27, 12–19. https:// doi. org/ 10. 20419/ 2018. 27. 480
Žerak, U., & Juriševič, M. (2020). Teachers’ attitudes towards evidence-based teaching: a comparative
analysis between prospective teachers and expert teachers in primary education [Odnos učiteljev
do empirično podprtega poučevanja: primerjalna analiza stališč med prihodnjimi učitelji in učitelji
eksperti v zgodnjem osnovnošolskem izobraževanju]. Horizonts of Psychology, 29, 98–106. https://
doi. org/ 10. 20419/ 2020. 29. 517
Žerak, U., Podlogar, N., Lišić, A., Lavrih, L., Fricelj, N., & Juriševič, M. (2021). The characteristics of
self-regulated learning of university students in distance education during the COVID-19 epidemic
[Značilnosti učne samoregulacije študentov pri študiju na daljavo med epidemijo covida-19]. Sodobna
pedagogika, 72, 234–251.
Žerak, U., Podlogar, N., Magajna, Z., Juriševič, M. (2023). INSHIP: towards quality in teaching practice of
pre-service teachers. In A. Lipovec, & J. Tekavc (Eds.), Perspectives on teacher education and devel-
opment (pp. 113–135). University of Maribor, University Press. https:// doi. org/ 10. 18690/ um. pef.1.
2023.7
U.Žerak et al.
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Mojca Juriševič, PhD, Professor of Educational Psychology, Department of Education Studies, University
of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia, mojca.jurisevic@pef.uni-lj.si
Current themes of research
Motivation for learning, psychological aspects of gifted education, creativity, teacher professional
development, self-concept, psychosocial functioning.
Relevant publications
Cvetković-Lay, J., & Juriševič, M. (2020). Preschool teachersʼ assessments in early identification of crea-
tive-productive giftedness. In J. Vogrinc & I. Devetak (Eds.), Contemporary topics in education IV:
part I (pp. 11–33). Faculty of Education University of Ljubljana. http:// www. pef. uni- lj. si/ filea dmin/
Datot eke/ CRSN/ PhD/ Educa tion- IV_ Part-I. pdf
Černe, T., & Juriševič, M. (2018). The self-regulated learning of younger adolescents with and without
learning difficulties – A comparative multiple case study. Center for Educational Policy Studies Jour-
nal, 1. https:// doi. org/ 10. 26529/ cepsj. 42
Juriševič, M., & Devetak, I. (2018). Learning science through PROFILES: are there any benefits for gifted
students in elementary school? In K. Taber, S. Manadu & L. McClure (Eds.), Teaching gifted learn-
ers in STEM subjects: developing talent in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (pp.
125–144). Routledge.
Juriševič, M., & Černe, T. (2021). The interplay of motivation and cognition: challenges for science educa-
tion research and practice. In I. Devetak & S. A. Glažar (Eds.), Applying bio-measurements methodolo-
gies in science education research (pp. 33–54). Springer Nature.
Juriševič, M., Vogrinc, J., & Krek, J. (2018). Optimistic about personal future, politically disilusioned. In B.
Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, A. M. Zalewska & K. J. Kennedy (Eds.). Young people and active citizenship
in post-Soviet times: A challenge for citizenship education (pp. 173–188). Routledge.
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Routledge.
Parenting andteaching styles inrelation tostudent…
1 3
Sonja Pečjak, PhD, Professor of Educational Psychology, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Uni-
versity of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia, sonja.pecjak@ff.uni-lj.si
Current themes of research
Psychology of reading literacy, the processes of self-regulated and e-learning, students with learning
disabilities, process by career decision making in school guidance and emotional intelligence in
educational settings.
Relevant publications
Gradišek, P., Pečjak, S., RIjacev, M., Jurčec, L. (2020). Teaching as a calling and well-being of Slovenian
and Croatian teachers. Psihologijske teme, 29(2), 249–267. https:// doi. org/ 10. 31820/ pt. 29.2.3
Komidar, L., Podlesek, A., Pirc, T., Pečjak, S., Depolli Steiner, K., Puklek Levpušček, M., Gril, A., Boh
Podgornik, B., Hladnik, A., Kavčič, A., Bohak, C., Lesar, Ž., Marolt, M., Pesek, M., & Peklaj, C.
(2022). Slovenian validation of the children’s perceived use of self-regulated learning inventory. Fron-
tiers in psychology, 12, 1–10. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3389/ fpsyg. 2021. 730386
Pečjak, S., & Pirc, T. (2018). Developing summarizing skills in 4th grade students: intervention programme
effects. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 10(5), 571–581. https:// doi. org/ 10.
26822/ iejee. 20185 41306
Pečjak, S., & Pirc, T. (2020). Parental involvement in children’s career decision-making process in Slovenia:
parents’ and children’s perspective. Journal of Psychological and Educational Research, 28(2), 31–54.
Pečjak, S., & Pirc, T. (2021). Hazers’ personality characteristics and the perception of school climate in Slo-
venia. Violence and victims, 36(4), 531–547. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1891/ VV-D- 19- 00125
Pečjak, S., & Pirc, T. (2022). Teachers’ perceived competence in meeting students’ emotional needs during
COVID-19. Psihologijske teme, 31(2), 299–316. https:// doi. org/ 10. 31820/ pt. 31.2.5
Pečjak, S., Pirc, T., Podlesek, A., Peklaj, C. (2021). Some predictors of perceived support and proximity in
students curing COVID-19 distance learning. International electronic journal of elementary educa-
tion, 14(1), 51–62. https:// www. iejee. com/ index. php/ IEJEE/ artic le/ view/ 1627
Pečjak, S, Podlesek, A., Pirc, T. (2019). Decision-making styles as predictors of career decision difficulties
in secondary school students with regard to gender. Psihologijske teme, 28(3), 601–620. https:// doi.
org/ 10. 31820/ pt. 28.3.8
Pečjak, S., Pirc, T. (2019). Unofficial hazing in secondary schools: prevalence, activities, and attitudes. Psy-
chology in the schools, 56(2), 194–205. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1002/ pits. 22211
Pečjak, S., Pirc, T. (2018). Developing summarizing skills in 4th grade students: intervention programme
effects. International electronic journal of elementary education, 10(5), 571–581. https:// doi. org/ 10.
26822/ iejee. 20185 41306
Pirc, T., Pečjak, S., Polesek, A., Štirn, M. (2023). Perceived parenting styles and emotional control as pre-
dictors of peer bullying involvement. International electronic journal of elementary education, 15(4),
333–342. https:// doi. org/ 10. 26822/ iejee. 2023. 304
Pirc, T., Pečjak, S. (2023). Moral (dis)engagement among higher education student-bystanders in cyberbul-
lying. Didactica Slovenica Pedagoška obzorja, 38(2), 100–115.
... Additionally, it is crucial to include both teachers and parents as important actors in developing students' SRL [13,14]. However, research in this area remains limited, as Otto's [15] study is the only SRL intervention in primary school involving parents and teachers. ...
... Additionally, it is crucial to include both teachers and parents as important ac developing students' SRL [13,14]. However, research in this area remains limited, as [15] study is the only SRL intervention in primary school involving parents and tea To address these gaps, a ten-week school-based training program based on Stög Ziegler [16] was adapted to include cooperative learning and parental involvemen der to foster SRL within reading tasks among 5th and 6th graders. ...
... Beyond the classroom, students' learning is not only influenced by engagement with peers and teachers, but also with parents [14,38]. Parental behavior (e.g., motivational support, autonomy encouragement) plays an important role in the development of children's SRL [39]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a crucial competence in our rapidly changing society, yet its systematic promotion in the classroom remains limited. Addressing this gap, this study reports on a teacher-led intervention to promote SRL within reading tasks among 5th and 6th grade students. Although some interventions have been implemented to promote SRL, little attention has been paid to promoting SRL in primary schools. Building on a previous SRL intervention, the current study added cooperative learning among students and parental involvement, two aspects that are assumed to add value when fostering SRL. A randomized controlled field trial was designed to evaluate the effect of an intervention using pre-test, post-test and follow-up measures. A total of 757 students from 40 classes participated in the study. The data were analyzed using a multilevel approach. This study revealed no significant difference in SRL or reading comprehension outcomes in the post-test and the follow-up test between students of the experimental and control group. Further investigations showed that several aspects of treatment integrity had a significant impact on SRL outcome. This study encourages future SRL and reading intervention studies to assess and analyze the multiple aspects of treatment integrity.
Article
Parental involvement and student self-regulation are widely recognized as critical factors influencing academic success. However, quantitative research examining the relationship between these two variables remains limited. This study investigated the association between parental involvement and students’ self-regulation skills, as well as barriers to parental engagement in education. A survey was conducted with caregivers of 119 students from a metropolitan school in Monterrey, Mexico, assessing levels of parental involvement and identifying potential obstacles. Concurrently, teachers completed a rubric evaluating students’ self-regulation abilities. Results revealed that time constraints were the primary barrier to parental involvement, with few caregivers reporting school-related obstacles. Statistical analysis demonstrated significant, though moderate to low, correlations between parental involvement and student self-regulation. These findings underscore the importance of parental engagement in fostering students’ self-regulatory skills and highlight the need for strategies to overcome time-related barriers to involvement.
Article
Full-text available
This research begins with a situation that shows the low academic achievement of junior high school students. Self-regulated learning and authoritative parenting are supporting factor to produce student with good academic achievement. Therefore, this research aims to show the influence of self-regulated learning as a mediator between authoritative parenting and learning achievement in junior high school students in Depok District. This research approach was quantitative research using survey methods. This research was conducted in Depok District, Sleman Regency with a sample of 303 students. Data collection techniques used cluster random sampling, with research instruments on the scale of authoritative parenting and self-regulated learning. The validity test used total score results (r) and the reliability test used Cronbach's Alpha with an authoritative parenting style scale value of 0.862 and a self-regulated learning scale of 0.879. In addition, data analysis techniques were carried out using regression using PROCESS v4 for SPSS by Andrew F Hayes. The research results show that self-regulated learning acts as a mediator between authoritative parenting and learning achievement. In this research, it is found that path c had a higher coefficient is 0.4181, and path c' was lower is 0.2501. Based on both, the regression coefficient c' decreased, proving the existence of partial mediation. It can be concluded that there is a partial mediation effect of self-regulated learning from authoritative parenting on learning achievement
Article
Full-text available
This study examines the effect of parenting and teaching styles on students' values development within Arab society in Israel. It aimed to determine: 1) the relationship between parenting style and students' values development from teachers' perspectives; 2) how teaching methods using English as a Second Language (ESL) strategies affect students' values development; and 3) demographic differences (sex, role, education, types of schools) among teachers in values development and parenting styles.The sample includes 280 teachers (112 male; 168 female) from Arab high schools' students in northern Israel and 200 parents (104 male; 96 female) who participated in the questionnaire. Findings indicate that authoritative parenting, which balances warmth and control, is most effective in fostering positive values, while authoritarian and permissive styles may lead to poorer outcomes in self-esteem, motivation, and behavior. Discussion-oriented and student-centered teaching approaches promote critical thinking, empathy, and ethical reasoning. No significant differences were found in the impact of teaching and parenting styles on values development based on gender, age, or educational level of teachers, except for differences in direct and delegating teaching styles.The study concludes that parenting and teaching styles are interdependent. Supportive parenting enhances the effectiveness of constructive teaching methods, and teachers' approaches can reinforce values instilled by parents. Recommendations for Arab society include promoting authoritative parenting through educational programs, encouraging discussion-based and student-centered teaching methods via teacher training and curriculum reforms, fostering school and community collaboration, addressing cultural sensitivities, and providing teachers with necessary resources and professional development opportunities.
Article
Full-text available
The importance of parenting styles and teacher interaction on self-regulated learning (SRL) and academic performance is well documented. This study aimed to identify the correlation between parenting styles and interaction with teachers, with SRL in students and how these predict academic performance. The cross-sectional design research was conducted with 420 students selected using a random cluster sampling method. Data collection was carried out in classrooms through self-administered questionnaires. The study’s results show that the authoritative parenting style and teachers’ cooperative behaviour were positively correlated with SRL strategies. There was a negative correlation between the tolerant parenting style and teachers’ dominance behaviour with SRL strategies. Parenting styles and interaction with teachers accounted for 34.9% of the variance in SRL among adolescents. SRL was positively correlated with academic success. Considering Kosovo students’ low educational outcomes, these findings provide insights for a shift towards more parent-teacher interactive education.
Article
Full-text available
In our study, we aimed to determine how different demographic variables (gender, age, free time spent online) and mechanisms of moral (dis)engagement (justification, disregarding or misrepresenting injurious consequences, diffusion of responsibility, dehumanization) predict perceptions of cyberbullying among student bystanders, according to the Bystander Intervention Model. The model proposes that a bystander must take five steps in order to intervene: notice the event, interpret the event as an emergency requiring help, accept responsibility for intervening, know how to intervene or provide help, and implement decisions to intervene (Latané and Darley, 1970). Our sample included 205 student-bystanders in cyberbullying. The most variance (27 %) was explained in the second step – to interpret the event as an emergency and help. Older students and students with less pronounced dehumanization were more likely to perceive cyberbullying as serious and to help. Our findings suggest a need for greater interest and intervention in the group of cyber-bystanders among this age group of students as well.
Article
Full-text available
This study aimed to investigate the role of teacher support and equity in the relationship between teacher's autonomy-promoting behavior and students' learning strategies. The approach examines the direct relationship between teacher's autonomy-supportive behavior and students' learning strategies and via perceived teacher support. It also discusses the effect of perceived equity for the relationship between autonomy-supportive behavior in teacher's and teacher support. Data were obtained from 24 secondary schools in nine Lithuanian municipalities with poor socioeconomic level contexts (N = 632 pupils). The findings revealed that teacher's autonomy-supportive behavior is directly associated to student's greater use of learning strategies, as well as through a mediator-student's perceptions of teacher support. The association between teach-er's autonomy-supportive behavior and teacher support is moderated by students' perceived equity so that the positive relationship is stronger for students with a higher than with a lower perceived equity. This study adds to the understanding of the importance of teacher behavior for students' learning by concentrating on equity, which is especially essential for students from low-income families. Teachers may foster equity by providing more possibilities for autonomy for all students, creating a supportive classroom environment and inviting students to be active participants in the learning process.
Article
Full-text available
One of the most important competencies to become a life-long learner is considered to be self-regulated learning (SRL). In this narrative review study, we describe research on the relationships between classroom- and dyad-level student-teacher interactions and the components of elementary students’ SRL. These components include metacognition and the regulation of cognition, motivation, behavior, and emotions. Three electronic databases were examined, which resulted in 30 studies that met our eligibility criteria. The results suggest that both well-organized and emotionally supportive classroom climates, in addition to high-quality instructional support, are associated with students’ metacognition. Results also show that associations between classroom-level interactions and the components of SRL that tap students’ behaviors and motivation are mixed. In contrast, at the dyad-level, higher quality teacher-student interactions were consistently found to be related to the motivational component of SRL. We also found a positive relationship with metacognition, but at the dyad level studies on the other components of SRL were hardly available. The review revealed a number of gaps in research on SRL, such as the paucity of studies on the regulation of cognitions and emotions, the overreliance on self-reports in the measurement of SRL, and the absence of cross-cultural research.
Article
Full-text available
The COVID-19 pandemic also affected the university setting, where the study process was conducted remotely for the first time. In our research, we were interested in how students of the Faculty of Education of the University of Ljubljana reacted to the changed emergency situation, both emotionally and cognitively. A total of 291 students participated in the study during the first pandemic wave and 382 students during the second pandemic wave. The aim of the study was to examine their views on emergency remote teaching, their psychosocial experience of the overall situation, self-regulation strategies used in distance learning and positivity. Although the overall psychosocial experience and positivity were comparable in the first and second waves of the pandemic, the emergency remote education in the second wave suited the students better. In the second wave, students reported fewer problems with the organisation of time and space, planning study work, in-depth study work, product quality and efficiency, but more problems with concentration and communication with classmates. Most self-regulation strategies were used to a similar extent. Differences emerged in two self-regulation strategies: in the second wave, students used time management to a lesser extent, but used help-seeking strategies more frequently than students in the first wave. The research findings contribute to a better understanding of the different experiences of students at different periods of the pandemic and provide professionals with an opportunity to focus on the critical elements when looking for ways to support students during emergency remote teaching in the pandemic.
Article
Full-text available
The importance of self-regulated learning (SRL) has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic and measures for assessing students’ self-regulation skills and knowledge are greatly needed. We present the results of the first thorough adaptation of the Children’s Perceived use of Self-Regulated Learning Inventory (CP-SRLI). The inventory, consisting of 15 scales measuring nine components of SRL, was administered to a sample of 541 Slovenian ninth graders. Confirmatory factor analyses supported internal structure validity of most components, but two components required some structural modifications. Internal consistency coefficients were acceptable for the majority of scale scores and were highly comparable to the original ones. While metric invariance across gender was confirmed, the scalar invariance of some scales needs further examination. Meaningful correlations with relevant externally assessed and self-reported self-regulation and school performance variables indicated good criterion validity of the inventory. The Slovenian version of the CP-SRLI thus proved to be a sufficiently valid and reliable instrument for assessing pupils’ learning self-regulation.
Article
Full-text available
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, distance learning and social isolation have dramatically changed the social and learning experiences of adolescents. Given that social isolation can adversely affect students’ psychosocial well-being, our study examined the extent to which ICT competences, resilience, and individual types of contact with teachers and classmates contribute to the psychosocial well-being of lower secondary school students (N = 1,813) over an extended period of distance learning. The questionnaires were conducted in groups via videoconferences using the 1ka application. The structural model showed that perceived proximity and support from teachers and classmates as indicators of psychosocial well-being were most strongly predicted by student resilience, teacher organization of group work, student contact with class teachers outside of regular school hours, and contact with classmates through online social networks. These findings have practical applications for teacher education and implementation in teacher practice.
Chapter
The scientific monograph entitled "Perspectives on teacher education and development" is the work of authors from different professional and scientific backgrounds, coming from a broader international area. The publication consists of 38 original scientific contributions addressing different aspects of teacher education and training and highlighting some of the major challenges in this field. Particular aspects such as contemporary didactic and pedagogical approaches, digital transformation of education, inclusiveness, educational policies, curricula, leadership, and personal and professional development of teachers are highlighted. The monograph highlights some of the important issues that can also be reflected in changes at the systemic level.
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Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, students and teachers found themselves in an unprecedented situation where they faced both academic and psychosocial problems. In our study, we focused on some teacher characteristics that predict their perceived competence in meeting students' emotional needs during distance learning (PSCEN-DL) and thus contribute to students' well-being. In a sample of 645 Slovenian compulsory basic education teachers, the results of the regression analysis showed that teachers' resilience and their beliefs about the importance of focusing on psychosocial relationships when returning to school explained one-fourth of the variance in their PCSEN-DL. Results from a subsample of class teachers (n = 375) who were categorised into two extreme groups (low and high) in terms of their PCSEN-DL showed that teachers with high PCSEN-DL focused more on supporting, encouraging and relaxing students. Some practical implications about the importance of developing PCSEN in teachers are discussed.
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Socioeconomic status has been a long-time discussed topic due to its impact on children’s school paths. However, despite extant research indicating strong relationships between students’ socioeconomic status, use of self-regulated learning strategies, and academic achievement, research on interventions addressing these topics is limited. This investigation aimed to examine the effectiveness of a school-based, narrative-based program to promote self-regulated learning strategies and academic performance among fourth-graders from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Twelve classes were randomly assigned to the intervention or control group. The students from low socioeconomic status backgrounds in each group were enrolled in the study. A quasi-experimental study with three measurement moments was conducted. Data were gathered from self-reported questionnaires and an on-task measure. Findings indicate that the program was efficacious in promoting the use of self-regulated learning strategies and academic performance in children from low socioeconomic backgrounds. This research paper discusses both practical implications and future research guidelines.