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Citation: Lin, J.; Deng, Y.; Chen, S.; Li,
K.; Ji, W.; Li, W. Research Progress of
Urban Park Microclimate Based on
Quantitative Statistical Software.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335. https://
doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092335
Academic Editor: Rafik Belarbi
Received: 16 August 2023
Revised: 9 September 2023
Accepted: 12 September 2023
Published: 14 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
buildings
Review
Research Progress of Urban Park Microclimate Based on
Quantitative Statistical Software
Jiayi Lin 1, Yuqian Deng 1, Sibo Chen 1, Kaiyuan Li 1, Wenli Ji 1,* and Weizhong Li 2,*
1College of Landscape Architecture and Art, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China;
18729202177@163.com (J.L.); bbh1127562023@163.com (Y.D.); chensibo@nwsuaf.edu.cn (S.C.);
likaiyuan0705@163.com (K.L.)
2College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
*Correspondence: jiwenli@nwsuaf.edu.cn (W.J.); liweizhong@nwsuaf.edu.cn (W.L.)
Abstract:
Urban parks, as an important component of urban green spaces, play a crucial role in
improving the urban environment and enhancing residents’ quality of life. This review summarizes
the main content and research progress of urban park microclimate studies through analysis and
synthesis of relevant literature from academic databases such as Web of Science and Google Scholar.
Using Citespace or VOSviewer for bibliometric analysis, we found that the number of academic
papers on the urban park microclimate has been growing year by year. The research content primarily
covers the monitoring and analysis of temperature, humidity, wind speed, and other indicators
in urban parks, as well as the impact of park design and planning on the microclimate. Keyword
analysis revealed that researchers have mainly focused on the cooling effects of the urban park
microclimate, mitigation of the urban heat island effect, and improvement of air quality. In terms
of research methods, a combination of field observations and simulation models is commonly
employed, with data being analyzed and validated using mathematical and statistical methods.
The research results indicate that well-designed and planned parks can significantly improve the
microclimate environment, reduce temperatures, and provide comfortable climatic conditions in
urban areas. Additionally, vegetation arrangements and water features in urban parks also contribute
to microclimate regulation. Moreover, windbreak measures and cooling strategies in parks can help
alleviate the urban heat island effect, enhance air quality, and promote the health of ecosystems.
However, this review also identified some issues in urban park microclimate research, including
limitations in research scope, methods, and practical applicability. Future studies could deepen the
comprehensive understanding of the urban park microclimate and explore more effective strategies
for park design and planning to optimize and enhance the microclimate environment. It is also
important for researchers to continuously innovate in terms of research methods and verify the
feasibility of practical applications to better address the challenges of urban development.
Keywords:
urban park microclimate research; urban heat island effect; urban planning; bibliomet-
ric analysis
1. Introduction
The context and purpose of microclimate research in urban parks is based on knowl-
edge of the challenges facing cities with accelerating global urbanization [
1
–
3
]. As the
center of human activities, cities not only carry the agglomeration of the population, trans-
portation and economy, but also face the problems of environmental, ecological, and social
sustainable development. In this context, urban parks, as important urban green spaces,
are endowed with important ecological, environmental, and social functions [4].
The urban heat island effect refers to the phenomenon where the temperature in
urban areas is higher compared to surrounding rural and suburban regions [
5
]. It is
caused by anthropogenic factors such as high building density, population concentration,
Buildings 2023,13, 2335. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092335 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 2 of 24
transportation activities, as well as industrial and commercial activities in cities [
6
]. Through
their unique vegetation cover and water bodies, urban parks can absorb solar radiation
and release water, thus reducing the degree of the urban heat island effect. By studying
the microclimate characteristics of urban parks, we can obtain a more comprehensive
understanding of their potential for reducing urban temperature, improving air quality,
regulating the climate [
7
–
10
], and providing a scientific basis for urban planning and
design. Urban air pollution is a serious problem faced by cities today, and the vegetation
in urban parks can absorb and filter the pollutants in the air, thus reducing the degree of
air pollution [
11
]. By studying the microclimate of urban parks, we can assess the effect of
vegetation on reducing air pollution and provide guidance for park design and vegetation
configuration, thus improving the living environment of urban residents [12,13].
In urban parks, water bodies typically serve aesthetic purposes, temperature regulation
functions, and assist with ecological balance. Water bodies contribute to the visual appeal
and landscape value of the park [
14
]. Elements such as fountains, lakes, and artificial
streams provide visual pleasure and attractiveness, creating a pleasant atmosphere in the
park. Moreover, water has good thermal capacity, allowing it to absorb and release heat,
which helps regulate the surrounding air temperature. Water bodies can cool down the
hot temperatures during summer, providing a refreshing microclimate in the park [
15
].
Additionally, water bodies support ecosystems by providing habitats for various plants
and animals [
16
,
17
]. By studying the microclimate of urban parks, we can assess its
impact on rainfall runoff and provide a reference for urban water resources management
and rainwater utilization, which could help to solve the water resources problems faced
by cities.
As urban parks are places for residents to relax, entertain, and engage in social activi-
ties, the internal microclimate characteristics of urban parks have an important influence
on the comfort of residents [
18
,
19
]. Through an in-depth study of temperature, wind speed,
humidity, and other factors in urban parks, we can better understand the climate conditions
in parks and provide optimization suggestions for park design and planning. Through a
reasonable layout of vegetation, additional shading facilities, and comfortable seats and
rest areas, the comfort and quality of life of residents in the city park can be improved.
Urban parks, as important urban green spaces, are of great significance in improving
the urban environment and enhancing residents’ quality of life [
20
]. However, there are
still many shortcomings in the research on the urban park microclimate. Firstly, studying
the microclimate of urban parks can help us understand the microclimatic characteristics
and variations within the parks [
21
]. By studying the changes in temperature, humidity,
and wind speed within urban parks, we can uncover the environmental conditions and
microclimate characteristics within these parks [6].
Such research helps us understand several aspects: Firstly, studying temperature vari-
ations reveals the differences in thermal environments throughout the park across different
seasons, time periods, and locations [
7
,
18
]. This understanding contributes to assessing the
comfort level within the park and providing guidance for park planning and design aimed
at improving thermal conditions. Secondly, studying humidity variations reveals the degree
of moisture and water environments within the park. Understanding these changes is vital
for evaluating the growth and adaptability of plants [
22
]. It helps park managers choose
suitable plant species and provides reference points for water resource management [
15
].
Thirdly, exploring wind speed variations enables an assessment of airflow and ventilation
conditions within the park. This information plays a crucial role in managing air quality, re-
ducing heat stress, and creating a comfortable outdoor environment [
23
]. Through studying
these metrics, we can gain a deeper understanding of environmental features within urban
parks and provide a scientific basis for park management and planning [
24
,
25
]. Meanwhile,
research on the urban park microclimate is of significance for mitigating the urban heat
island effect [
8
,
26
,
27
]. Moreover, the study of urban park microclimate has the potential
to mitigate the urban heat island effect by regulating and reducing temperatures in areas
where surrounding temperatures are higher [
15
,
28
]. Through an in-depth study of the
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 3 of 24
microclimate characteristics of urban parks, we can effectively improve the cooling effects
of parks and alleviate the impacts of the urban heat island effect on residents. In addition,
research on the urban park microclimate also contributes to the development of strategies
for the construction and management of urban ecosystems [
26
,
29
,
30
]. Understanding the
effects of vegetation, water bodies, topography, and other elements within the parks on
the microclimate helps with selecting suitable vegetation species, optimizing water body
arrangements, and improving the quality of the ecological environment within the parks,
enhancing biodiversity, and creating comfortable recreational areas [31].
2. Materials and Methods
Citespace and VOSviewer are widely used academic literature analysis tools that
can be used to retrieve and visualize information such as keywords, authors, and citation
networks of academic papers [
10
,
14
,
17
,
20
,
32
]. First, in order to study the topic of the
“urban park microclimate”, it was important to define the research field and determine the
objectives and questions of the study. Next, we selected appropriate keywords for retrieval,
such as “Urban Park”, “City Park”, “Microclimate”, and “Climate”, and conducted litera-
ture searches using combinations of these keywords. In terms of selecting databases, we
chose academic databases relevant to the research field and objectives. For this study, the
academic databases used for retrieval included Web of Science and Google Scholar [
27
].
Since different databases cover different fields and ranges of literature, it was necessary to
perform multiple searches and comparisons, and exclude irrelevant papers [
33
]. For litera-
ture screening, we applied the selected keywords to search within the chosen databases
and filtered the literature based on predetermined criteria, such as time range, article type,
and language. Additionally, preliminary screening was conducted based on the abstracts or
titles of the papers, selecting only those related to the research topic. Finally, we exported
the filtered literature in a format suitable for analysis in Citespace or VOSviewer, such as
BibTeX or EndNote. In this study, the exported format was EndNote [17,34,35].
The specific procedure was as follows:
1.
Data Import: Import the selected literature data into Citespace (6.1.2 Official release)
or VOSviewer (V1.6.18 official release) software. Set options according to the research
needs, including time range, keyword settings, and merging author names.
2.
Keyword Extraction: Extract keywords and their associations from the literature.
Through keyword co-occurrence analysis and clustering analysis, reveal the relation-
ships between keywords and the development frontiers of research topics.
3.
Construction of Citation Networks: Citespace and VOSviewer can construct citation
networks by analyzing citation relationships, showcasing academic communication
and collaboration in the research field.
4.
Visualization of Results: Citespace and VOSviewer present the results of keyword
co-occurrence analysis or citation network analysis in a visual manner, such as topol-
ogy maps and temporal graphs, to intuitively display the knowledge structure and
development trends in the research field [36].
From three academic databases and two literature statistical software programs, the
results as of February 2023 were as follows: The search result for “City Park” and “Microcli-
mate” keywords was 210 papers. The search result for “City Park” and “Climate” keywords
was 1102 papers The search result for “Urban Park” and “Microclimate” keywords was
324 papers. The search result for “Urban Park” and “Climate” keywords was 1488 papers.
After removing duplicates and irrelevant papers, a total of 2241 papers related to the urban
park microclimate were retained as the study objects. Through comprehensive analysis, a
more comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of the urban park microclimate
and its interactions with the surrounding environment was obtained [
37
–
39
]. This has
significant implications for urban planning decisions, the construction of park cities, the
work of environmental protection departments, and the public’s experience.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 4 of 24
3. Results
3.1. Research Status of the Urban Microclimate
3.1.1. Study Scale and Scope of Influence
Through a comprehensive analysis of the articles on the “urban park microclimate”
published in the literature database, we were able to understand the research scale and
scope of influence in this field. From Figure 1, it can be clearly seen that from 1991 to 2023,
the number of published papers on the microclimate in urban parks has been increasing
year by year. There were some phased characteristics in this growth process [
40
]. The early
research stage was from the 1980s to around 2005. With the passage of time, the enrichment
of research methods and content, and the improvement of understanding of the importance
of the urban park microclimate, the number of related literature publications has rapidly
increased since 2006 and maintained a high development trend. In particular, the number
of published articles reached a historical peak in 2021, surpassing 100 for the first time. This
milestone marked the significant growth and increasing impact of microclimate research in
urban parks [
41
] and indicates that the field remains one of the hottest research directions
in academia, attracting a wide range of researchers [
24
,
42
]. This continuous growth trend
indicates that as more and more researchers continue to conduct scientific research in the
field of microclimate, the number of related works may continue to increase [
43
]. The
expansion of this area of study also had a broad impact on areas such as urban planning
and environmental management [
44
]. The results and insights of urban park microclimate
research provide an important basis for urban planners and decision-makers to improve
the climate environment of urban parks and thereby improve people’s quality of life. In
addition, these research results also provide guidance for environmental management and
sustainable development and help us better understand the interaction between the urban
ecosystem and climate change [
45
]. In summary, through a comprehensive analysis of the
number of articles on the urban park microclimate in major international journals, we can
see that the scale of the research field is expanding, which has had a widespread impact in
academia and practice. With the deepening of the research and the continuous investment
of researchers, we can expect that the research field of the urban park microclimate will
continue to achieve greater development and provide more valuable insights for future
urban planning and environmental management (see Figure 2).
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25
Figure 1. A number of published papers on the microclimate of urban parks.
Figure 2. The number of publications on interdisciplinary research of urban park microclimate.
3.1.2. Progress
The existing microclimate research papers cover 75 research directions, mainly
focusing on environmental science, environmental research, meteorological and
atmospheric science, building and building technology, green and sustainable technology,
and urban research [46]. Among them, the field of environmental science has the largest
number of papers, totaling 340, which reflects the importance and widespread application
of microclimate research in the field of environmental science.
These data (Figure 2) reveal the interdisciplinary nature of urban park microclimate
research, where researchers from different disciplines have studied urban park
microclimate from their respective perspectives [7,8,17]. It is evident from the figure that
the combination of environmental sciences with park microclimate research is the most
prominent, with as many as 340 articles. This is followed by environmental studies with
181 articles and meteorology and atmospheric sciences with 179 articles. These
interdisciplinary collaborations and blends have led to a diverse and comprehensive
research field [18].
Figure 1. A number of published papers on the microclimate of urban parks.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 5 of 24
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25
Figure 1. A number of published papers on the microclimate of urban parks.
Figure 2. The number of publications on interdisciplinary research of urban park microclimate.
3.1.2. Progress
The existing microclimate research papers cover 75 research directions, mainly
focusing on environmental science, environmental research, meteorological and
atmospheric science, building and building technology, green and sustainable technology,
and urban research [46]. Among them, the field of environmental science has the largest
number of papers, totaling 340, which reflects the importance and widespread application
of microclimate research in the field of environmental science.
These data (Figure 2) reveal the interdisciplinary nature of urban park microclimate
research, where researchers from different disciplines have studied urban park
microclimate from their respective perspectives [7,8,17]. It is evident from the figure that
the combination of environmental sciences with park microclimate research is the most
prominent, with as many as 340 articles. This is followed by environmental studies with
181 articles and meteorology and atmospheric sciences with 179 articles. These
interdisciplinary collaborations and blends have led to a diverse and comprehensive
research field [18].
Figure 2. The number of publications on interdisciplinary research of urban park microclimate.
3.1.2. Progress
The existing microclimate research papers cover 75 research directions, mainly focus-
ing on environmental science, environmental research, meteorological and atmospheric
science, building and building technology, green and sustainable technology, and urban
research [
46
]. Among them, the field of environmental science has the largest number of
papers, totaling 340, which reflects the importance and widespread application of microcli-
mate research in the field of environmental science.
These data (Figure 2) reveal the interdisciplinary nature of urban park microclimate
research, where researchers from different disciplines have studied urban park microclimate
from their respective perspectives [
7
,
8
,
17
]. It is evident from the figure that the combination
of environmental sciences with park microclimate research is the most prominent, with
as many as 340 articles. This is followed by environmental studies with 181 articles
and meteorology and atmospheric sciences with 179 articles. These interdisciplinary
collaborations and blends have led to a diverse and comprehensive research field [18].
From the perspective of literature sources, urban forestry and urban greening, architec-
ture, environment, and sustainability are major research areas related to the microclimate
of urban parks. According to the statistical data (see Figure 3), among the papers related
to the urban park microclimate, 57 papers in the field of urban forestry and urban green-
ing, 54 papers in architecture, and 49 papers in the environment field. Research in these
areas has focused on the interrelationships between the climate environment of urban
parks and urban greening, architectural design, environmental protection, and sustainable
development [47].
These research results have mainly been published in journals related to urban architec-
ture and environmental research, such as architectural journals, urban forestry journals, and
urban greening journals (see Figure 4). This further proves the importance and influence of
urban park microclimate research in the field of architecture and the environment.
In conclusion, microclimate research is an interdisciplinary field that covers multiple
research directions. Related to urban parks, environmental science, architecture, and
architectural technology play an important role in urban research [
13
]. These studies have
been mainly published in journals related to urban architectural and environmental studies,
reflecting the increasing academic progress and growing academic influence in the field.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 6 of 24
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
From the perspective of literature sources, urban forestry and urban greening,
architecture, environment, and sustainability are major research areas related to the
microclimate of urban parks. According to the statistical data (see Figure 3), among the
papers related to the urban park microclimate, 57 papers in the field of urban forestry and
urban greening, 54 papers in architecture, and 49 papers in the environment field.
Research in these areas has focused on the interrelationships between the climate
environment of urban parks and urban greening, architectural design, environmental
protection, and sustainable development [47].
Figure 3. Number of papers published on the urban park microclimate in journals.
These research results have mainly been published in journals related to urban
architecture and environmental research, such as architectural journals, urban forestry
journals, and urban greening journals (see Figure 4). This further proves the importance
and influence of urban park microclimate research in the field of architecture and the
environment.
Figure 4. Number of urban microclimate papers published in journals.
In conclusion, microclimate research is an interdisciplinary field that covers multiple
research directions. Related to urban parks, environmental science, architecture, and
architectural technology play an important role in urban research [13]. These studies have
Figure 3. Number of papers published on the urban park microclimate in journals.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
From the perspective of literature sources, urban forestry and urban greening,
architecture, environment, and sustainability are major research areas related to the
microclimate of urban parks. According to the statistical data (see Figure 3), among the
papers related to the urban park microclimate, 57 papers in the field of urban forestry and
urban greening, 54 papers in architecture, and 49 papers in the environment field.
Research in these areas has focused on the interrelationships between the climate
environment of urban parks and urban greening, architectural design, environmental
protection, and sustainable development [47].
Figure 3. Number of papers published on the urban park microclimate in journals.
These research results have mainly been published in journals related to urban
architecture and environmental research, such as architectural journals, urban forestry
journals, and urban greening journals (see Figure 4). This further proves the importance
and influence of urban park microclimate research in the field of architecture and the
environment.
Figure 4. Number of urban microclimate papers published in journals.
In conclusion, microclimate research is an interdisciplinary field that covers multiple
research directions. Related to urban parks, environmental science, architecture, and
architectural technology play an important role in urban research [13]. These studies have
Figure 4. Number of urban microclimate papers published in journals.
3.1.3. Countries and Regions under Study
By analyzing the time series using the tidal band function, we obtained more de-
tail about international cooperation in urban parks from the perspective of cooperative
countries (Figures 5and 6). In the figure, the size of the nodes indicates the number of
published papers published in the country, while the thickness of the lines between the
nodes indicates the degree of cooperation between different countries. There are 74 nodes
and 211 connections in Figure 6.
From the national time zone map of urban park microclimate research in Figure 6, it can
be seen that China has the highest number of published papers in the research of urban park
microclimate. During the period of 2021–2022, there was a significant increase in publication
output, mainly concentrated between 2018 and 2022. The second-ranking country is the
United States, with publication output mainly focused between 2015 and 2020. Australia
ranks third, with its journals mainly concentrated between 2018 and 2022, experiencing
a sharp increase in publication output between 2018 and 2020. However, considering the
influence of national conditions and population differences on the data, we have taken
into account the impact of the annual average population on national publications. Taking
the top five countries in terms of publication ranking (Figure 5) as examples, the United
States has the highest per capita publication rate, followed by Australia, while China, with
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 7 of 24
the highest population count, ranks third. These countries reflect their active participation
and prominent positions in the field of urban park microclimate research in terms of scale
and influence. From a centrality perspective, the number of articles published by most
countries is positively correlated with their centrality in the collaboration network [
45
].
In other words, countries with a higher number of published papers tend to have greater
influence and importance in the collaboration network.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 25
been mainly published in journals related to urban architectural and environmental
studies, reflecting the increasing academic progress and growing academic influence in
the field.
3.1.3. Countries and Regions under Study
By analyzing the time series using the tidal band function, we obtained more detail
about international cooperation in urban parks from the perspective of cooperative
countries (Figures 5 and 6). In the figure, the size of the nodes indicates the number of
published papers published in the country, while the thickness of the lines between the
nodes indicates the degree of cooperation between different countries. There are 74 nodes
and 211 connections in Figure 6.
From the national time zone map of urban park microclimate research in Figure 6, it
can be seen that China has the highest number of published papers in the research of
urban park microclimate. During the period of 2021–2022, there was a significant increase
in publication output, mainly concentrated between 2018 and 2022. The second-ranking
country is the United States, with publication output mainly focused between 2015 and
2020. Australia ranks third, with its journals mainly concentrated between 2018 and 2022,
experiencing a sharp increase in publication output between 2018 and 2020. However,
considering the influence of national conditions and population differences on the data,
we have taken into account the impact of the annual average population on national
publications. Taking the top five countries in terms of publication ranking (Figure 5) as
examples, the United States has the highest per capita publication rate, followed by
Australia, while China, with the highest population count, ranks third. These countries
reflect their active participation and prominent positions in the field of urban park
microclimate research in terms of scale and influence. From a centrality perspective, the
number of articles published by most countries is positively correlated with their
centrality in the collaboration network [45]. In other words, countries with a higher
number of published papers tend to have greater influence and importance in the
collaboration network.
In addition, countries that have started research in recent years include Bahrain,
Pakistan, and Bosnia. The participation of these countries in the field of microclimate
research in urban parks shows that the field is attracting attention from international
scholars and has entered a leapfrog stage of development [48–50]. As more countries and
regions join this research field, it is expected that urban park microclimate research will
continue to flourish and achieve greater global influence in the coming years.
Figure 5.
The total number of publications and the annual average publication rate (per billion people).
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 25
Figure 5. The total number of publications and the annual average publication rate (per billion
people).
Figure 6. National time zone map for small climate studies in urban parks.
3.2. Cluster Analysis of Keyword Co-Citation
Research hotspots are the focus of scholars in specific academic fields, which reflect
the main issues discussed in the field over a certain period of time [25,51–53]. As an
important part of academic papers, keywords are often used to study the research focus
of a certain field when condensing the essence of papers. In order to reveal the research
hotspots in the field of the urban park microclimate, this study used CiteSpace software
to conduct keyword co-occurrence clustering analysis [41] and presents the clustering
view of keywords in a visual way, as shown in Figure 6. Different color blocks represent
different clustering regions.
In Figure 6, the number of nodes (N) of the network is 553, the number of connecting
lines (E) is 2342, and the network is 0.0153. The size of the module value Q correlates with
the sparsity of the nodes, and the larger the Q value, the better the clustering effect, which
can be used for scientific cluster analysis. The size of the mean contour value S can
measure the homogeneity of the cluster, and the larger the S value, the higher the
homogeneity of the network, indicating that the cluster has a high confidence. According
to the results of Figure 7, we can see that the Q value was 0.493, which indicates good
clustering of network structure, while the S value was 0.767, indicating the high
consistency of different clusters.
The figure shows ten major keyword clusters, with “management”, “outdoor thermal
comfort”, and “air temperature” as the primary focus. These clusters were mainly
concentrated in time between 2010 and 2017, showing that the research field was relatively
mature during this period. The largest cluster was “management”, which was formed in
2004 and contains 90 keywords involving nature-based solutions, ecosystem services,
cultural ecosystem services, and other related concepts. The top five clusters mainly cover
topics such as outdoor thermal comfort, air temperature, and land use (see Table 1).
In conclusion, the keyword co-occurrence cluster analysis revealed the research
hotspots in the field of the urban park microclimate and the key issues that scholars paid
attention to in a specific time period [12,54,55]. The discovery of these research hotspots
has important implications for future research directions and priority areas and will
contribute to further development and maturation [56].
Figure 6. National time zone map for small climate studies in urban parks.
In addition, countries that have started research in recent years include Bahrain,
Pakistan, and Bosnia. The participation of these countries in the field of microclimate
research in urban parks shows that the field is attracting attention from international
scholars and has entered a leapfrog stage of development [
48
–
50
]. As more countries and
regions join this research field, it is expected that urban park microclimate research will
continue to flourish and achieve greater global influence in the coming years.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 8 of 24
3.2. Cluster Analysis of Keyword Co-Citation
Research hotspots are the focus of scholars in specific academic fields, which reflect
the main issues discussed in the field over a certain period of time [
25
,
51
–
53
]. As an
important part of academic papers, keywords are often used to study the research focus
of a certain field when condensing the essence of papers. In order to reveal the research
hotspots in the field of the urban park microclimate, this study used CiteSpace software to
conduct keyword co-occurrence clustering analysis [
41
] and presents the clustering view of
keywords in a visual way, as shown in Figure 6. Different color blocks represent different
clustering regions.
In Figure 6, the number of nodes (N) of the network is 553, the number of connecting
lines (E) is 2342, and the network is 0.0153. The size of the module value Q correlates with
the sparsity of the nodes, and the larger the Q value, the better the clustering effect, which
can be used for scientific cluster analysis. The size of the mean contour value S can measure
the homogeneity of the cluster, and the larger the S value, the higher the homogeneity of
the network, indicating that the cluster has a high confidence. According to the results of
Figure 7, we can see that the Q value was 0.493, which indicates good clustering of network
structure, while the S value was 0.767, indicating the high consistency of different clusters.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 25
Figure 7. Co-occurrence cluster map of keywords in microclimate research in urban parks.
Table 1. Important words used by the cluster.
Rank Cluster Name The Main Keywords
Mean
Number of
Years
Number of
Keywords
1 manage
Management (11.99, 0.001); Nature-based solutions (8.71,
0.005); Ecosystem Services (8.21, 0.005); Cultural Ecosystem
Services (7.99, 0.005); Twitter (7.99, 0.005)
2017 90
2 Outdoor thermal
comfort
Outdoor Thermal Comfort (72.43, 1.0 × 10−4); Pet (24.34, 1.0
× 10−4); UTCI (16.57, 1.0 × 10−4); thermal adaptation (13.66,
0.001); Thermal sensation voting (10.97, 0.001)
2011 80
3 air temperature
Air temperature (22.04, 1.0 × 10−4); surface temperature
(11.05, 0.001); outdoor thermal comfort (10.47, 0.005);
thermal environment (9.75, 0.005); cooling effect (7.5, 0.01)
2014 79
4 land use
Land use (8.48, 0.005); Park (8.04, 0.005); Ecosystem
Services (7.6, 0.01); ecosystem service (7.46, 0.01); thermal
comfort (7.32, 0.01)
2010 62
5 air
contamination
Air pollution (29.25, 1.0 × 10−4); Particulate matter (18.48,
1.0 × 10−4); Urban cooling (12.31, 0.001); Environmental
management (12.31, 0.001); Urban form (12.31, 0.001)
2012 44
3.3. Research and Development Stage of the Microclimate in Urban Parks
3.3.1. Dynamic Changes and Differentiation of Keywords
Frontier trend analysis is a literature cluster that consistently cites a fixed set of basic
literature, mainly based on co-citation clustering and citation analysis, to describe the
transition and nature of a specific type of research field [36,57,58]. Timeline mapping
demonstrates the keyword clustering of the literature on a two-dimensional timeline so
that researchers can explore the evolutionary and frontier trends of specific clusters. The
largest cluster in the literature related to the urban park microclimate was “management”,
which contains 90 keywords with the average year of 2017, including keywords
Figure 7. Co-occurrence cluster map of keywords in microclimate research in urban parks.
The figure shows ten major keyword clusters, with “management”, “outdoor thermal
comfort”, and “air temperature” as the primary focus. These clusters were mainly concen-
trated in time between 2010 and 2017, showing that the research field was relatively mature
during this period. The largest cluster was “management”, which was formed in 2004
and contains 90 keywords involving nature-based solutions, ecosystem services, cultural
ecosystem services, and other related concepts. The top five clusters mainly cover topics
such as outdoor thermal comfort, air temperature, and land use (see Table 1).
In conclusion, the keyword co-occurrence cluster analysis revealed the research
hotspots in the field of the urban park microclimate and the key issues that scholars paid
attention to in a specific time period [
12
,
54
,
55
]. The discovery of these research hotspots has
important implications for future research directions and priority areas and will contribute
to further development and maturation [56].
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 9 of 24
Table 1. Important words used by the cluster.
Rank Cluster Name The Main Keywords Mean Number of
Years
Number of
Keywords
1 manage
Management (11.99, 0.001); Nature-based
solutions (8.71, 0.005); Ecosystem Services (8.21,
0.005); Cultural Ecosystem Services (7.99, 0.005);
Twitter (7.99, 0.005)
2017 90
2Outdoor thermal
comfort
Outdoor Thermal Comfort (72.43, 1.0 ×10−4);
Pet (24.34, 1.0
×
10
−4
); UTCI (16.57, 1.0
×
10
−4
);
thermal adaptation (13.66, 0.001); Thermal
sensation voting (10.97, 0.001)
2011 80
3 air temperature
Air temperature (22.04, 1.0 ×10−4); surface
temperature (11.05, 0.001); outdoor thermal
comfort (10.47, 0.005); thermal environment
(9.75, 0.005); cooling effect (7.5, 0.01)
2014 79
4 land use
Land use (8.48, 0.005); Park (8.04, 0.005);
Ecosystem Services (7.6, 0.01); ecosystem
service (7.46, 0.01); thermal comfort (7.32, 0.01)
2010 62
5 air contamination
Air pollution (29.25, 1.0 ×10−4); Particulate
matter (18.48, 1.0
×
10
−4
); Urban cooling (12.31,
0.001); Environmental management (12.31,
0.001); Urban form (12.31, 0.001)
2012 44
3.3. Research and Development Stage of the Microclimate in Urban Parks
3.3.1. Dynamic Changes and Differentiation of Keywords
Frontier trend analysis is a literature cluster that consistently cites a fixed set of basic
literature, mainly based on co-citation clustering and citation analysis, to describe the
transition and nature of a specific type of research field [
36
,
57
,
58
]. Timeline mapping
demonstrates the keyword clustering of the literature on a two-dimensional timeline so
that researchers can explore the evolutionary and frontier trends of specific clusters. The
largest cluster in the literature related to the urban park microclimate was “management”,
which contains 90 keywords with the average year of 2017, including keywords “manage-
ment” proposed around 2004 (Figure 8). Over time, keywords have expanded to include
“nature-based solutions”, and “ecosystem services”, largely focused on the evolution of
microclimate studies in urban parks. According to the recent clustering results in the
figure, the new keywords include “air pollution”, “outdoor hot comfort”, “residents”, etc.
According to the systematically generated cluster report, the literature best matching the
cluster keywords was “The impact of plant clusters on the cooling effect: a case study
of a subtropical island park, China’s global ecology and conservation”. Its rich connec-
tivity with clusters such as the urban park microclimate suggests a degree of multi-topic
co-occurrence [42].
The keywords of urban park microclimate were used to map the distribution, which
was also one of the key elements of the analysis (Figure 9). Each node in the time zone plot
represents a keyword, and the node size indicates how often that keyword appears [
59
].
Larger nodes represent hotspots for microclimate research, and red nodes indicate the
occurrence of emergent keywords [
60
]. The analysis showed extensive studies of the
urban park microclimate, and that keywords gradually began to move from the initial
focus on the urban climate, urban park, human thermal comfort, and heat island effect
to the multidisciplinary study of outdoor thermal comfort [
61
], climate change, green
infrastructure, ecosystem services, and the urban microclimate between 1991 and 2023.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 10 of 24
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25
“management” proposed around 2004 (Figure 8). Over time, keywords have expanded to
include “nature-based solutions”, and “ecosystem services”, largely focused on the
evolution of microclimate studies in urban parks. According to the recent clustering
results in the figure, the new keywords include “air pollution”, “outdoor hot comfort”,
“residents”, etc. According to the systematically generated cluster report, the literature
best matching the cluster keywords was “The impact of plant clusters on the cooling effect:
a case study of a subtropical island park, China’s global ecology and conservation”. Its
rich connectivity with clusters such as the urban park microclimate suggests a degree of
multi-topic co-occurrence [42].
Figure 8. Keyword timeline mapping.
The keywords of urban park microclimate were used to map the distribution, which
was also one of the key elements of the analysis (Figure 9). Each node in the time zone
plot represents a keyword, and the node size indicates how often that keyword appears
[59]. Larger nodes represent hotspots for microclimate research, and red nodes indicate
the occurrence of emergent keywords [60]. The analysis showed extensive studies of the
urban park microclimate, and that keywords gradually began to move from the initial
focus on the urban climate, urban park, human thermal comfort, and heat island effect to
the multidisciplinary study of outdoor thermal comfort [61], climate change, green
infrastructure, ecosystem services, and the urban microclimate between 1991 and 2023.
Figure 8. Keyword timeline mapping.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 25
Figure 9. Keyword time zone map of the urban park microclimate.
3.3.2. Four Stages of Microclimate Research in Urban Parks
From 1991 to 1998, the high-frequency keywords were heat island effect, urban effect,
and thermal effect (Table 2), indicating that the research on the urban park microclimate
was mainly focused on the understanding and analysis of the urban climate, without in-
depth analysis of the microclimate in specific urban locations [62]. However, the relevant
literature and attention in this period were limited; papers mainly focused on climate
change across the whole city, and no systematic model of microclimate research had been
established.
Table 2. Distribution table of high-frequency keywords in urban park microclimate studies.
Phase
Position Year Frequency Keywords
1991–1998
1991 4 heat island
1997 3 urban
1998 3 heat
1997 2 layer
1996 1 urban heat island
1998 1 heat comfort
1996 1 canyon geometry
1998 1 car through
1998 1 objective lag model
1998 1 Shuifen
1999–2006
2004 3 area
1999 3 heat island
2004 3 climate
2004 2 environment
1999 2 urban park
2006 2 plant
2003 2 city
2006 1 ecosystem service
1999 1 boundary layer resistance
2003 1 coastal area
Figure 9. Keyword time zone map of the urban park microclimate.
3.3.2. Four Stages of Microclimate Research in Urban Parks
From 1991 to 1998, the high-frequency keywords were heat island effect, urban effect,
and thermal effect (Table 2), indicating that the research on the urban park microclimate was
mainly focused on the understanding and analysis of the urban climate, without in-depth
analysis of the microclimate in specific urban locations [
62
]. However, the relevant literature
and attention in this period were limited; papers mainly focused on climate change across
the whole city, and no systematic model of microclimate research had been established.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 11 of 24
Table 2. Distribution table of high-frequency keywords in urban park microclimate studies.
Phase Position Year Frequency Keywords
1991–1998
1991 4 heat island
1997 3 urban
1998 3 heat
1997 2 layer
1996 1 urban heat island
1998 1 heat comfort
1996 1 canyon geometry
1998 1 car through
1998 1 objective lag model
1998 1 Shuifen
1999–2006
2004 3 area
1999 3 heat island
2004 3 climate
2004 2 environment
1999 2 urban park
2006 2 plant
2003 2 city
2006 1 ecosystem service
1999 1 boundary layer
resistance
2003 1 coastal area
2004 3 area
2007–2016
2008 57 city
2007 54 climate
2009 47 park
2007 37 urban heat island
2009 35 temperature
2011 35 heat comfort
2009 34 plant
2008 32 influence
2007 29 area
2010 28 heat island
2017–2022
2017 128 influence
2017 125 city
2017 100 urban heat island
2017 99 park
2017 98 climate
2017 93 temperature
2017 85 urban park
2017 82 plant
2017 79 heat comfort
2017 79 climate change
During 1999–2006, the frequent keywords were region, heat island, climate, environ-
ment, and urban parks (Table 2). Many studies at the time included urban vegetation,
architecture, and air in the urban microclimate research system [
63
]. We continued to study
the interaction between the urban microclimate and urban environment and build urban
microclimate models using environmental conditions and impact indicators [
63
]. Some
studies also included small areas of the city (indoor environments, such as houses, parks,
etc.) as research subjects of microclimate research [
14
,
64
]. The number of research papers at
this stage increased and attracted a certain degree of academic attention. However, based
on a few previous studies, the research system of the urban park microclimate was not
mature, and its value remained unclear.
In the study of urban parks from 2007 to 2016, the keywords mainly focused on
cities, climate, parks, and urban heat islands (Table 2). There is no doubt that research
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 12 of 24
at that time began to focus on thermal comfort, combining the human experience, urban
construction, and microclimate research [
65
–
67
]. At the same time, extensive academic
research led to the strengthening and development of research technologies and factors
affecting the microclimate in urban parks [
68
]. At this stage, the number of documents
increased significantly (Figure 1). The research methods and value system of the urban
park microclimate gradually improved, the research system became more mature, and the
theoretical basis was more in-depth [69].
From 2017 to 2023, the high-frequency keywords were influencing factors: city, urban
heat island, and park (Table 2). At this stage, the main direction of research was to improve
thermal comfort for humans through ecological synergies and modeling techniques for
interdisciplinary research [
70
]. At the same time, the ecological construction and landscape
design of cities became more highly valued [
71
]. During these five years, the theoretical
research and practical application of the urban park microclimate were closely combined
with the environment and ecology, the subject scope was wider, and the relevant research
results and technical methods also developed rapidly.
4. Research Hotspots
4.1. Distribution of Research Hotspots Based on Keyword Clustering
In the process of finding research hotspots, the word frequency analysis of keywords
is an essential tool to effectively and accurately reveal their distribution [
72
]. In this study,
keyword mapping analysis using VOSviewer software selected the top 54 keywords with
high frequency in urban park microclimate studies. The word frequency threshold was set
through the analysis of these high-frequency keywords; we revealed the research hotspots
of microclimate research in urban parks [16,73].
According to the results of Figure 10, it can be seen that the most frequently occurring
keywords from 1991 to 2006 include ‘microclimate’, ‘heat island’, ‘urban parks’, and ‘urban
climatology’. From the results of Figure 11, it is evident that the most frequently occurring
keywords between 2007 and 2022 are ‘urban heat island’, ‘urban parks’, ‘human thermal
comfort’, ‘outdoor comfort’, ‘climate change’, and ‘urban planning’. These keywords
reflected the focus and main issues of scholars on microclimate research in urban parks at
this time [
74
]. Through the keyword analysis and mapping of the study time division axis,
we were able to further explore the distribution of research hotspots (see Figure 12).
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 25
In the process of finding research hotspots, the word frequency analysis of keywords
is an essential tool to effectively and accurately reveal their distribution [72]. In this study,
keyword mapping analysis using VOSviewer software selected the top 54 keywords with
high frequency in urban park microclimate studies. The word frequency threshold was
set through the analysis of these high-frequency keywords; we revealed the research
hotspots of microclimate research in urban parks [16,73].
According to the results of Figure 10, it can be seen that the most frequently occurring
keywords from 1991 to 2006 include ‘microclimate’, ‘heat island’, ‘urban parks’, and
‘urban climatology’. From the results of Figure 11, it is evident that the most frequently
occurring keywords between 2007 and 2022 are ‘urban heat island’, ‘urban parks’, ‘human
thermal comfort’, ‘outdoor comfort’, ‘climate change’, and ‘urban planning’. These
keywords reflected the focus and main issues of scholars on microclimate research in
urban parks at this time [74]. Through the keyword analysis and mapping of the study
time division axis, we were able to further explore the distribution of research hotspots
(see Figure 12).
Figure 10. Co-occurrence network of urban park microclimate research from 1991 to 2006.
Figure 10. Co-occurrence network of urban park microclimate research from 1991 to 2006.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 13 of 24
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 25
Figure 11. Co-occurrence network of urban park microclimate research from 2007 to 2022.
Figure 12. Axial axis diagram of microclimate research in urban parks (12 categories).
Through the analysis of CiteSpace software, we obtained 12 research hotspots related
to urban park microclimate clustering: #0 city heat island, #1 outdoor hot comfort, #2
Figure 11. Co-occurrence network of urban park microclimate research from 2007 to 2022.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 25
Figure 11. Co-occurrence network of urban park microclimate research from 2007 to 2022.
Figure 12. Axial axis diagram of microclimate research in urban parks (12 categories).
Through the analysis of CiteSpace software, we obtained 12 research hotspots related
to urban park microclimate clustering: #0 city heat island, #1 outdoor hot comfort, #2
Figure 12. Axial axis diagram of microclimate research in urban parks (12 categories).
Through the analysis of CiteSpace software, we obtained 12 research hotspots related
to urban park microclimate clustering: #0 city heat island, #1 outdoor hot comfort, #2
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 14 of 24
extreme, #3 thermal comfort, #4 air pollution, #5 city park, #6 surface temperature, #7
heat, #8 urban climate, #9 local climate zone, #10 landscape parameters, and #11 mental
health. Through the keyword analysis of these research hotspots, we achieved a deeper
understanding of the research priorities and hot issues in the field of the urban park
microclimate.
In particular, urban heat island, as a long-term research keyword with high vocabulary
centrality, is considered one of the important research hotspots of microclimate research
in urban parks [
75
–
77
]. It involves the heat distribution within the city, the formation
mechanism of the urban thermal environment, and the control of the heat island effect in
urban planning and design [
78
]. This indicates that scholars have paid continuous attention
to the study of urban heat islands and have made important contributions to this concept
in the field of the urban park microclimate.
In conclusion, the distribution of research hotspots in urban park microclimate research
could be clearly revealed by keyword clustering analysis [
79
]. These research hotspots
included urban heat islands, outdoor heat comfort, climate change, urban planning, and
other keywords, reflecting the main topics that scholars have focused on in this field [
80
].
These research hotspots provide important guidance and reference for further exploring
the microclimate of urban parks.
4.2. Frontier Analysis and Hot Spot Prediction Based on Keyword Emergence
Keyword bursts provide evidence that specific keywords are associated with a surge
in frequency and indicate that a potential topic at a particular time attracts or is attracting
unusual attention from researchers [
55
]. Burst detection is therefore considered an indicator
of highly active research areas and allows for the exploration of emerging trends.
Sudden words refer to the words that appear frequently in a certain period of time.
Their changes can reflect the hot spots of scholars in the field in this period, and they are
also a basis for judging the evolutionary development trend of this field [
81
,
82
]. To achieve
a deeper understanding of the evolutionary trends of the urban park microclimate [
38
],
the results of the sudden word field, which are presented in Figures 13 and 14, included
the sudden onset, duration, and intensity of sudden emergence. On this basis, this paper
presents the development trend of urban park microclimate research from the perspectives
of occurrence intensity, duration, and occurrence time.
From the time series from 1991 to 2006 (Figure 13), “heat island”, “diurnal change”,
“urban park”, “urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “urban microclimate”
appeared for the first time. “Urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “water
balance” emerged in the later period and continued until 2006. This will be a point of
follow-up for future studies. In terms of the duration of the emergence, “hot island”,
“urban climatology”, and “urban green space” were notable. The long occurrence of “heat
islands”, “urban climatology”, and “urban green space” indicated that they have long
been the focus of related research. Based on the intensity of emergent words, we found
that “heat island” (Strength = 0.77), “urban microclimate” (Strength = 0.68), and “water
balance” (
Strength = 0.66
) had very high emergent intensity, indicating a significant change
in frequency.
From the time series from 2007 to 2023 (Figure 14), “heat island”, “daily change”,
“urban park”, “urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “urban microclimate”
emerged for the first time. “Urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “water balance”
were updated and have continued until now. This will be a point of follow-up for future
studies. In terms of the duration of the emergence, “heat islands”, “urban climatology”,
and “urban green space” were notable. The terms “heat island”, “urban climatology”, and
“urban green space” appeared for longer, indicating that they have long been the focus of
relevant research studies. Based on the emergent intensity of emergent words, we found
that “heat island” (Strength = 0.77), “urban climatology” (Strength = 0.65), and “urban
green space” (intensity = 0.6) had very high emergent intensity, indicating a significant
change in frequency. Overall, “urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “water
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 15 of 24
balance” are considered the latest hotspots, not only because of their high occurrence
intensity but also due to their proximity to time.
In general, with the passage of time, the progress of society, and the change in the
external environment [
83
], the research content and hotspot degree of the “urban park mi-
croclimate” are constantly changing, which also shows that the “urban park microclimate”
is a topic with research value from other perspectives.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25
Figure 13. Appearance of keywords from 1991 to 2006. (The higher the intensity of an emerging
term, the more significant the frequency change.)
From the time series from 1991 to 2006 (Figure 13), “heat island”, “diurnal change”,
“urban park”, “urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “urban microclimate”
appeared for the first time. “Urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “water
balance” emerged in the later period and continued until 2006. This will be a point of
follow-up for future studies. In terms of the duration of the emergence, “hot island”,
“urban climatology”, and “urban green space” were notable. The long occurrence of “heat
islands”, “urban climatology”, and “urban green space” indicated that they have long
been the focus of related research. Based on the intensity of emergent words, we found
that “heat island” (Strength = 0.77), “urban microclimate” (Strength = 0.68), and “water
balance” (Strength = 0.66) had very high emergent intensity, indicating a significant
change in frequency.
Figure 13.
Appearance of keywords from 1991 to 2006. (The higher the intensity of an emerging term,
the more significant the frequency change.)
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 16 of 24
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 25
Figure 14. Appearance of keywords from 2007 to 2022. (The higher the intensity of an emerging
term, the more significant the frequency change.).
From the time series from 2007 to 2023 (Figure 14), “heat island”, “daily change”,
“urban park”, “urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “urban microclimate”
emerged for the first time. “Urban green space”, “urban microclimate”, and “water
balance” were updated and have continued until now. This will be a point of follow-up
for future studies. In terms of the duration of the emergence, “heat islands”, “urban
climatology”, and “urban green space” were notable. The terms “heat island”, “urban
climatology”, and “urban green space” appeared for longer, indicating that they have long
been the focus of relevant research studies. Based on the emergent intensity of emergent
words, we found that “heat island” (Strength = 0.77), “urban climatology” (Strength =
0.65), and “urban green space” (intensity = 0.6) had very high emergent intensity,
indicating a significant change in frequency. Overall, “urban green space”, “urban
Figure 14.
Appearance of keywords from 2007 to 2022. (The higher the intensity of an emerging term,
the more significant the frequency change.).
5. Future Directions
5.1. Future Research Directions
The impact of climate change on the microclimate of urban parks: With global warm-
ing, the microclimate of urban parks will also be affected. Future research could explore
multiple aspects, including the impact of climate change on factors such as temperature,
humidity, and wind speed in urban parks [
2
,
6
,
84
]. Further studies should also examine
specific adaptation strategies to mitigate these effects. For instance, investigating the in-
fluence of green space design and layout on the microclimate of urban parks [
85
], the
interaction between buildings and vegetation on the microclimate of urban parks [
8
,
12
],
the spatial scale impact on the microclimate of urban parks [
11
,
86
], and the relationship
between urban park microclimate and human health [
1
,
7
,
9
,
87
]. As shown in Figure 15, we
utilized the visual aid tool Citespace to create a cluster analysis diagram that illustrates the
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 17 of 24
future development trends of microclimate in urban parks. This diagram visually presents
the interrelationships between architecture and vegetation in urban park microclimate,
the influence of spatial scale on microclimate in urban parks, the relationship between
microclimate in urban parks and human health, as well as the application and development
perspectives of numerical simulations. In summary, this cluster analysis diagram provides
an intuitive interpretation of the future development trends of microclimate in urban parks.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25
Figure 15. Key trends in the development of microclimate in urban parks.
5.2. Multidisciplinary Convergence Analysis Study
Micro-research in urban parks requires the synthesis of multidisciplinary knowledge
and methods to conduct convergence analysis research. This integrated approach can
provide a comprehensive understanding and the ability to address microclimate
problems in urban parks [85]. The following are some of the main areas of
multidisciplinary convergence analysis in the microclimate of urban parks:
Meteorology and Climatology: Knowledge of meteorology and climatology is
essential for microclimate research in urban parks. These disciplines can provide a
theoretical basis for meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity,
precipitation, and wind speed, and reveal the climate characteristics and change laws in
urban parks through observation, data analysis, and numerical simulation.
Geography and Topography: Geography and topography provide information on
the spatial distribution of the microclimate in urban parks. Through the analysis of
topography, geomorphology, and geographic information systems (GIS) [87], the
influence of the surface characteristics, vegetation coverage, water distribution, and other
factors on the microclimate can be determined, providing a spatial reference for the
planning design of urban parks.
Botany and Ecology: Knowledge of botany and ecology is critical to understanding
the physiological properties and ecological functions of vegetation in urban parks.
Investigation and analysis of the plant community structure, vegetation type, and
vegetation coverage in urban parks can elucidate the role of vegetation in regulating their
microclimate, such as the effects on temperature, humidity, and wind speed [86].
Architecture and Urban Planning: The perspectives of architecture and urban
planning contribute to understanding the interaction between urban parks and the
surrounding built environment. By analyzing the layout of urban parks, the height of
buildings, shadow effects, and other factors, we can evaluate their impact on the
microclimate and propose corresponding design strategies to optimize the climate
environment of urban parks.
Sociology and Human Geography: Studies of sociology and human geography can
focus on the users of urban parks and their perception and adaptation to the microclimate.
Figure 15. Key trends in the development of microclimate in urban parks.
The impact of green space design and layout on the microclimate of urban parks:
Different types and layouts of green spaces may have different effects in improving the
microclimate of urban parks. Further research could explore the optimal green space design
and layout strategies to maximize the improvement of microclimate conditions in urban
parks [83].
The impact of the interaction between buildings and vegetation on the microclimate of
urban parks: There are complex and subtle interactions between buildings and vegetation,
which may have significant impacts on the microclimate of urban parks [
43
,
46
,
87
]. Future
research could delve into the impact mechanism of the interaction between buildings and
vegetation on parameters such as temperature, humidity, and wind speed in urban parks.
The impact of spatial scale on the microclimate of urban parks: Factors such as the size,
shape, and spatial distribution of urban parks may have an impact on their microclimate
conditions [
83
]. Further research can explore the differences in microclimate in urban parks
at different spatial scales and propose corresponding planning and design suggestions.
The relationship between urban park microclimate and human health: There is a close
connection between urban park microclimate and human health [
84
]. Future research
could delve into the impact mechanisms of the urban park microclimate on human comfort,
mental health, and physiological health, providing a scientific basis for improving the
quality of life of urban residents.
Through in-depth exploration of the above research directions, we could better under-
stand the microclimate characteristics and influencing factors of urban parks, providing
scientific support and guidance for improving urban environmental quality and enhancing
people’s quality of life.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 18 of 24
5.2. Multidisciplinary Convergence Analysis Study
Micro-research in urban parks requires the synthesis of multidisciplinary knowledge
and methods to conduct convergence analysis research. This integrated approach can
provide a comprehensive understanding and the ability to address microclimate prob-
lems in urban parks [
85
]. The following are some of the main areas of multidisciplinary
convergence analysis in the microclimate of urban parks:
Meteorology and Climatology: Knowledge of meteorology and climatology is essential
for microclimate research in urban parks. These disciplines can provide a theoretical basis
for meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, and wind
speed, and reveal the climate characteristics and change laws in urban parks through
observation, data analysis, and numerical simulation.
Geography and Topography: Geography and topography provide information on the
spatial distribution of the microclimate in urban parks. Through the analysis of topogra-
phy, geomorphology, and geographic information systems (GIS) [
87
], the influence of the
surface characteristics, vegetation coverage, water distribution, and other factors on the
microclimate can be determined, providing a spatial reference for the planning design of
urban parks.
Botany and Ecology: Knowledge of botany and ecology is critical to understanding the
physiological properties and ecological functions of vegetation in urban parks. Investigation
and analysis of the plant community structure, vegetation type, and vegetation coverage in
urban parks can elucidate the role of vegetation in regulating their microclimate, such as
the effects on temperature, humidity, and wind speed [86].
Architecture and Urban Planning: The perspectives of architecture and urban planning
contribute to understanding the interaction between urban parks and the surrounding
built environment. By analyzing the layout of urban parks, the height of buildings, shadow
effects, and other factors, we can evaluate their impact on the microclimate and propose
corresponding design strategies to optimize the climate environment of urban parks.
Sociology and Human Geography: Studies of sociology and human geography can
focus on the users of urban parks and their perception and adaptation to the microclimate.
Through social surveys, interviews, and behavioral observations, we can understand the
needs, preferences, and comfort levels of park users, providing a social sustainability
perspective for park design and planning [13,45,48].
By combining knowledge and methods from these disciplines, urban park micro-
climate research can be analyzed and addressed based on multiple dimensions. Such a
multidisciplinary convergence analysis study can provide a comprehensive understanding
of the microclimate problems in urban parks and thus provide a scientific basis for the plan-
ning, design [
49
], and management of urban parks, creating a healthier, more comfortable,
more sustainable urban environment.
5.3. Prospects of Numerical Simulation Studies
Numerical simulation plays an important role in the microclimate study of urban
parks [
50
]. They can simulate and predict microclimate parameters such as the temperature
distribution, wind field characteristics, and humidity variation in urban parks. In the
future, numerical simulation research has the following prospects in the field of the urban
park microclimate:
Refined Simulation: The current numerical simulation method has been able to sim-
ulate the microclimate of urban parks on a larger scale, but with the improvement of
computing power, higher resolution and more refined simulation could be achieved in the
future. By increasing the spatial resolution and the temporal resolution of the model, it
could more accurately simulate the meteorological changes at different locations within the
urban park, providing more detailed microclimate information.
Model Validation and Optimization: The accuracy and reliability of numerical simula-
tions are critical to the validity of the study results [
88
]. Future studies could strengthen the
validation of the numerical simulation results and improve the credibility of the models by
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 19 of 24
comparing and verifying them with field observation data. At the same time, they could
also improve and optimize the numerical model to reduce errors and uncertainty.
Multi-actor Coupling Simulation: The urban park microclimate is comprehensively
affected by a variety of factors, including vegetation, water bodies, buildings, terrain,
etc. [
11
,
19
]. Future numerical simulation studies could further strengthen the coupled
simulations of these factors, considering the interactions and complexities between them.
By simulating the changes and combinations of different factors [
89
], we could gain insight
into the impact of each factor on the microclimate of urban parks, providing more precise
guidance for optimizing park design and planning.
Scenario Simulation and Decision Support: Numerical simulation can be used to
simulate the urban park microclimate under different scenarios, such as different vegetation
configurations, different building layouts [
56
], etc. Future studies could use numerical
simulation techniques to provide support to policymakers to assess the impact of different
planning strategies and measures on the urban park microclimate and to optimize park
design for better climate adaptation and ecological sustainability.
Model Integration and Comprehensive Application: The research of the urban park
microclimate requires the comprehensive application of multiple models and methods. In
the future, numerical simulations could be integrated with other models and methods,
such as remote sensing data, GIS, social survey data, etc. [
3
–
5
]. Through the comprehensive
application of different models and methods, a more comprehensive study of urban park
microclimate problems and a deeper understanding of the complex relationships with the
urban environment, ecosystem, and human activities could be achieved [86].
Overall, numerical simulations have great potential for microclimate research in urban
parks [
42
]. Future developments will further improve simulation accuracy and credibility,
deeply explore the coupling effects of different factors, provide more specific and reliable
information for decision-makers, and promote the climate adaptability and sustainable
development of urban parks.
This study will support further investigations into the relationship between urban park
microclimate and the urban ecosystem. It will enable us to explore the dynamic interaction
between vegetation and climate, examine the contribution of vegetation ecosystem services,
and evaluate the role of urban parks in biodiversity conservation. On the one hand, we will
extend our research to investigate the impacts of climate change on microclimate conditions
in urban parks. This will involve studying the vulnerability of urban parks to climate
change and developing adaptive strategies to mitigate its negative effects, promoting
enhanced climate adaptability [59–61].
On the other hand, we aim to explore the application of intelligent technologies in
managing microclimate within urban parks. By utilizing the Internet of Things, sensor
networks, and artificial intelligence, we can establish real-time monitoring systems, early
warning mechanisms, and automatic regulation approaches. These advancements will
significantly enhance the efficiency and accuracy of park microclimate management. Fur-
thermore, we will emphasize the integration of microclimate planning with urban park
design. By incorporating microclimate considerations in the early stages of park planning
and design, we can optimize the park microclimate environment through rational layouts,
strategic vegetation configurations, and appropriate architectural designs [
77
]. Through
international cooperation and experience-sharing, we will jointly study the microclimate of
urban parks and provide intellectual support for the climate adaptability and sustainable
development of urban parks around the world.
In conclusion, the study of the microclimate in urban parks is of great significance in
improving urban environmental quality, improving residents’ quality of life, and promoting
urban sustainable development. Future research should continue to explore the associations
of the microclimate with urban ecosystems, climate change, and smart technologies and
strengthen the practical application of microclimate planning and design to contribute to
the creation of a healthier, habitable, and sustainable urban park environment.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 20 of 24
6. Conclusions
In-depth research on the microclimate characteristics of urban parks has significant
practical importance. By understanding and exploring the microclimate variations in urban
parks, scientific evidence can be provided for urban planning, environmental improvement,
and ecological conservation. As an integral component of urban green spaces, urban parks
play a crucial role in enhancing the urban environment and improving residents’ quality of
life through their microclimate conditions [
35
]. Studying the microclimate of urban parks
helps to reveal air circulation patterns and heat distribution patterns and provides scientific
references for park design and planning.
Based on the impact of specific green space design and layout, the interaction between
buildings and vegetation, the influence of spatial scale, and the relationship between
urban park microclimate and human health, we propose the following strategies for the
development of urban park microclimate:
Optimize Green Space Design and Layout: Careful consideration should be given to
the arrangement and distribution of vegetation within urban parks. Strategic placement
of trees and shrubs can help provide adequate shade, promote natural ventilation, and
mitigate heat island effects.
Enhance Building–Vegetation Interactions: Incorporating green roofs and vertical
gardens into building designs can enhance the cooling effect and air quality improvement
of urban parks. It is important to explore and implement innovative architectural and land-
scaping techniques that maximize the mutual benefits between buildings and vegetation.
Consider Spatial Scale: When planning and designing urban parks, it is crucial to
consider the appropriate spatial scale to achieve desired microclimate conditions. The size
and layout of park elements, such as open green spaces, water features, and tree-lined
paths, should be carefully balanced to ensure effective microclimate regulation.
Promote the Link between Urban Park Microclimate and Human Health: Recognizing
the positive impacts of urban park microclimate on human well-being, efforts should be
made to raise awareness and promote the use of parks for recreational activities, relaxation,
and social gatherings. This includes providing amenities like shaded seating areas, water
fountains, and fitness facilities to encourage physical activity and improve overall health
outcomes. By implementing these strategies, urban park planners and designers can create
more comfortable and sustainable microclimates that benefit both the environment and the
well-being of residents.
In summary, strengthening research on the microclimate of urban parks can provide
information for enhancing urban comfort and improving the urban climate environment
in urban planning. It also contributes to enhancing the ecological functionality and social
benefits of parks. Therefore, the significance of studying the microclimate of urban parks
should not be overlooked, as it helps to promote sustainable urban development and
improves people’s quality of life.
Author Contributions:
Author contributions: Conceptualization, J.L.; Data curation, J.L. and Y.D.;
Writing—original draft, J.L. and S.C.; methodology, S.C. and K.L.; Formal analysis, Software, Valida-
tion, J.L. and K.L.; Funding acquisition, W.J. and W.L.; Writing—review and editing, J.L., S.C., W.J.
and W.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (2019FY101604)
and the Special Project of the Shaanxi Province Forestry Science and Technology Innovation Program
(SXLK2021-0203).
Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Buildings 2023,13, 2335 21 of 24
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