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Geographic Distribution of Owl Monkeys
Abstract
The owl monkeys, genus Aotus, are among the most widely distributed of all platyrrhine genera. The 13 currently recognized taxa are found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela. They range from lowland tropical moist and dry forests to over 3000 m.a.sl. in the cloud forests of the Andes. Owl monkeys appear to be sufficiently flexible to persist in anthropogenically altered habitats and fragmented forest patches. Here we gathered 1,703 owl monkey localities from a wide range of published and unpublished sources, making the most comprehensive database to date. These records were used to map the distributions of all owl monkey taxa based on our current understanding of the genus. Our knowledge is still limited in many areas where records are lacking, and we caution that all species IDs and maps be treated as tentative until the wide-ranging employment of genetic testing is available.
... Both mammal taxa are characterized by a high diversity of species and arboreal behaviors (Rylands et al. 2000;Poux et al. 2006;Fernandez-Duque et al. 2012;Amori et al. 2013;Upham et al. 2013;Ojeda et al. 2016;Álvarez et al. 2017). Night monkeys (genus Aotus) and nocturnal rodents such as porcupines of the genus Coendou are of particular interest (Puertas et al. 1995;Barthelmess 2016), as they have a wide geographic distribution in the Americas, occupying different types of forests (Voss et al. 2013;Voss 2015;Barthelmess 2016;Shanee et al. 2023). Night monkeys are distributed from Panama to Argentina, and from sea level up to 3,000 m in the Andean region (Defler 2010;Shanee et al. 2023). ...
... Night monkeys (genus Aotus) and nocturnal rodents such as porcupines of the genus Coendou are of particular interest (Puertas et al. 1995;Barthelmess 2016), as they have a wide geographic distribution in the Americas, occupying different types of forests (Voss et al. 2013;Voss 2015;Barthelmess 2016;Shanee et al. 2023). Night monkeys are distributed from Panama to Argentina, and from sea level up to 3,000 m in the Andean region (Defler 2010;Shanee et al. 2023). Similarly, porcupines, range from Mexico to Uruguay, but at elevations from sea level up to 3,650 m (Voss et al. 2013;Voss 2015;Barthelmess 2016;Brito and Ojala-Barbour 2016). ...
... Similarly, porcupines, range from Mexico to Uruguay, but at elevations from sea level up to 3,650 m (Voss et al. 2013;Voss 2015;Barthelmess 2016;Brito and Ojala-Barbour 2016). Night monkeys have the highest species richness in Colombia, with 8 of the 12 described species to date Shanee et al. 2023), while the highest number of porcupine species is concentrated in Brazil with 10 species, and also in Colombia with 6 of the 16 currently valid species (Voss 2015;Barthelmess 2016;Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2016;Menezes et al. 2021). ...
Tree cavities used as sleeping sites are a limited resource for arboreal mammals. The shared use of arboreal cavities as sleeping sites between Neotropical mammals is rarely observed and has been little studied. We documented an event of sleeping site sharing between two medium-sized mammals, the Caribbean night monkey (Aotus griseimembra) and the Quichua porcupine (Coendou quichua), recorded in the humid lowland forests of the inter-Andean basin of the Magdalena River in the eastern part of the Department of Caldas, Colombia. The sleeping site sharing occurred in an avocado tree (Persea americana) over a period of three days and included an agonistic encounter between the two species. The group of Caribbean night monkeys was always near one of the two cavity entrances, entering near sunrise and leaving near sunset, while the two Quichua porcupines were inside the cavity, in different positions, and remained in the sleeping site even after dusk and before dawn. This study provides new information on the interaction between night monkeys and porcupines, and on the sharing of tree cavities as sleeping sites.
... Considering the scarce morphological differentiation among night monkeys' species, the identification of each record was based mainly on the geographic distribution, following the proposals of Henao-Diaz et al. (2020) and Shanee et al. (2023b). Consequently, all sightings in the Orinoquía region were attributed to A. brumbacki, those in the Magdalena Medio Valley to A. griseimembra, those in the Amazonia to A. vociferans, and those in the Andes to A. lemurinus. ...
... We About 72 % of the records of night monkeys in urban and peri-urban forests in Colombia correspond to the species A. lemurinus, which may be related to the distribution of this species in the Andean region of the country. This species is present on both slopes of the 3 Andean Mountain ranges (Henao-Diaz et al. 2020;Shanee et al. 2023b), where most urban settlements in Colombia are concentrated and where about 70 % of the national population resides (Defler 2010;Armenteras et al. 2011). This region is also characterized by one of the highest rates of landscape transformation in Colombia, as it estimated 80 % of the natural vegetation having been modified (Etter et al. 2008). ...
Urbanization has transformed natural habitats by concentrating human populations in urban areas, with important consequences for biodiversity. In Colombia, several mammals, including primates, have occupied urban areas in different regions of the country. The objective of this study is to compile information on night monkeys (Aotus spp.) in urban and peri-urban forests in Colombia, based on field records and literature review. We compiled our own and literature records of night monkeys from urban and peri-urban forests in Colombia between 2018 and 2024. We categorized these records by type and grouped them by night monkey species, geographic location, type of population center (departmental capital city, municipality, corregimiento and vereda), and proximity to urban infrastructure. 36 localities were identified (23 new and 13 from the literature), distributed in 11 departments, ranging from the capital city to the veredas, where night monkeys have been recorded in urban and peri-urban areas. The most abundant species was A. lemurinus, and we report the first urban and peri-urban records of A. brumbacki, A. griseimembra and A. vociferans. About 33 % of the records of night monkeys in urban and peri-urban forests were found in capital cities with a population of more than 100000 people. Additionally, we report the use of 3 artificial sleeping sites in urban and peri-urban forests by A. brumbacki, A. griseimembra and A. vociferans groups. Records were also found in educational institutions such as schools and universities, suggesting the possibility of establishing long-term studies with these night monkeys as flagship species. The monitoring of these primates in urban and peri-urban environments is crucial for their conservation and to guide public policies towards sustainable development, especially in the management of urban threats such as electrocution, which remains a significant problem.
... Aotus brumbacki is an endemic nocturnal primate of Colombian Llanos. It is distributed in piedmont of Colombian Llanos, in gallery forest, Mauritia flexuosa swamps and lowland forest fragments (Defler 2010;Carretero-Pinzón & Defler 2019;Carretero et al., 2020;Shanee et al., 2023). It has been poorly studied despite its endemism and vulnerable status (Solano 1995;Vargas 2011;Carretero-Pinzón 2013;Carretero et al., 2020;Vargas-Gomez et al., 2023). ...
Aotus brumbacki is an endemic nocturnal monkey from Colombian Llanos, which use tree holes in dead and live trees to sleep. This study aim is to describe the type of nesting sites used by A. brumbacki in fragmented and relictual landscapes at Colombian Llanos. Observations were made during census in San Martin landscapes, and nest searches using interviews in Villavicencio, Acacias and Cumaral landscapes. Landscapes in which nest were found were classified according to percentage of forest cover present in the landscape as fragmented: 10.2-29% and relictual: 1.9–7.3%. A total of 24 nests of were characterized in this study. In Villavicencio, Acacias and Cumaral landscapes, nest sites were located inside forest fragments, at its edges or in living fences (2–8m height). While in San Martin landscapes nest were found inside forest and Mauritia flexuosa swamp fragments and at its edges (8–18m). Plant species used includes species from Moraceae, Fabaceae, Combretaceae, Meliaceae, Poaceae, Apocynaceae and Arecaceae families. This study highlights nest sites diversity influenced by plant species availability, that need to be considered in reforestation and connectivity projects.
... El mirikiná es la especie de Aotus con mayor distribución y se encuentra en Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Paraguay y Perú, desde la costa Atlántica al noreste de Brasil hasta los Andes de Bolivia y el sureste de Perú. La subespecie A. azarae azarae, presente en Argentina, habita un área relativamente pequeña al este de Formosa y noreste de Chaco (Shanee et al. 2023; figura 1). Esta especie está categorizada como "preocupación menor" a nivel global ) y "vulnerable" en Argentina, principalmente a causa de las altas tasas de deforestación que afectan a las regiones del Chaco Húmedo y Chaco Seco del país, causadas por el avance de la frontera agropecuaria que provoca fragmentación, degradación y pérdida de hábitat (Juárez et al. 2017). ...
Se utilizaron modelos predictivos para estimar la distribución de cada especie y se desarrollaron análisis de priorización espacial a través del software Zonation, para generar posibles áreas de importancia a nivel nacional y ecorregional de las 5 especies de primates que habitan en Argentina: Alouatta guariba, Alouatta caraya, Aotus azarae, Sapajus cay, Sapajus nigritus. El objetivo del presente trabajo es identificar aquellas áreas que aún no están protegidas por leyes o marcos normativos y que, por el tipo de hábitat, su conectividad, resiliencia, y el impacto antrópico que sufren, permiten incrementar los espacios de bosque con protección regulada, para asegurar la conservación de las especies de primates de Argentina.
https://www.argentina.gob.ar/especies-de-fauna-silvestre/plan-nacional-de-conservacion-de-primates-de-la-argentina
Current evidence indicates that owl monkeys (Aotus spp.) have species-rich, flexible diets. They can switch resources seasonally, consume ephemeral foods of many life forms, and locate food in small, degraded forests. They focus on fruits (20–87%) yet regularly consume flowers, leaves, and/or insects. Common dietary components are Fabaceae flowers (and leaves in the South American Chaco), Melastomaceae leaves and fruits (tropics), and Moraceae fruits (all), especially figs. They may use relative food brightness and odor as cues, while resource selection seems to be related to availability. Intergroup differences in diet and resource availability of the Azara’s owl monkeys of the South American Chaco are small, while diets diverge in more anthropogenic and species-rich habitats. Owl monkeys experience limited competition with other mammals, perhaps aiding dietary flexibility. Unfortunately, due to a dearth in systematic studies, the most ultimate and proximate determinants of Aotus diet and feeding ecology largely remain a conundrum.
The study of owl monkeys provides an excellent opportunity for understanding the behavioral correlates of pair-living, sexual monogamy, and cooperative behavior. However, the nocturnal habits of most Aotus species make it challenging to study their social behavior in the wild. An integrated approach combining research in the field, seminatural conditions, and the laboratory has advanced our knowledge of their social behavior. Owl monkeys’ social behaviors reflect high levels of cooperation within groups, whereas the recent documentation of a subpopulation of solitary floaters in Aotus azarae has prompted the investigation of the intra- and intergroup social dynamics from a new perspective. Intrasexual competition, and the behavioral, vocal, and olfactory mechanisms associated with it, surely influences the serial monogamous mating system of the genus. Reproductive adults are highly cooperative in the care of infants; females usually limit infant care to nursing, while males carry, play, groom, maintain proximity, and share food with them.
Entre los mamíferos, los primates son considerados un grupo bien conocido en su riqueza y distribución; además, en la actualidad es uno de los órdenes con mayores problemas de conservación. Con estas premisas y para identificar y llenar algunos vacíos de conocimiento, se llevó a cabo un estudio sobre la riqueza (capítulo III), distribución (capítulo IV) y conservación (capítulos V y VI) de los primates del Ecuador. Un primer paso fue el levantamiento de una base de datos con 12 452 registros basada en observaciones de campo, revisiones de museos y literatura. En el capítulo III se confirma la presencia de 21 especies y 22 taxones de primates para el país, correspondientes a 12 géneros y 5 familias; en adición, se sospecha que otros cinco taxones podrían estar presentes, para 27 taxones en el país. En el capítulo IV, mediante la revisión de registros de ocurrencia, la sobreposición de capas de vegetación actual y uso del suelo (2018) y un análisis de modelamiento de nicho ecológico con el programa Maxent, se definió la distribución actual de los 22 taxones de primates, cuyos resultados presentan nuevas y extendidas distribuciones para seis taxones, importantes reducciones para ocho, y distribuciones que poco cambiaron frente a las previamente conocidas para los restantes. En este capítulo también se incluye un análisis de la distribución altitudinal de los taxones, una revisión de las barreras naturales que han limitado su distribución y se presentan los vacíos de conocimiento identificados para cada taxón. En el capítulo V, mediante un análisis de 26 variables correspondientes a cuatro amenazas directas, 18 factores intrínsecos y cuatro zonas de sobreposición del hábitat idóneo, se evaluó el estado de conservación y riesgo de extinción de los primates del país, tanto en el momento actual, como en una proyección para 2050. Mediante este análisis se desarrolló un índice para medir el riesgo de extinción de un taxón (REX). Los resultados confirman que se trata de un grupo seriamente amenazado en el país, con cinco taxones que enfrentan un riesgo extremadamente alto de extinción en el presente y cuya condición se mantendrá para 2050. Para terminar, el capítulo VI presenta un análisis de la incidencia del cambio climático que para mediados de siglo se esperaría sobre la distribución y conservación de los primates. Para este estudio se llevó a cabo un nuevo modelamiento de nicho ecológico para dos escenarios, uno optimista (RCP 4.5) y otro pesimista (RCP 8.5), con el uso de tres diferentes modelos de circulación general (GCM); también se incluyó un modelamiento predictivo sobre el cambio del clima, se evaluó la pérdida de hábitat idóneo y se analizó la capacidad de resiliencia que cada taxón tendría frente a esta amenaza. Los resultados predicen que el impacto del cambio climático no será uniforme entre los primates; en el escenario optimista, el 55 % de los taxones se verían afectados, contra 73 % en el pesimista; además, para el 9 % este impacto sería de reducido a nulo en ambos escenarios. Within the mammals, primates are considered a well-known group for their richness and distribution; furthermore, it is currently one of the orders facing serious conservation challenges. Based on this, I carried out a study to evaluate richness (Chapter III), distribution (Chapter IV) and conservation issues (Chapters V and VI) of the primates of Ecuador. As a first step, I compiled a database with 12,452 records based on field observations, museum reviews, and literature. In Chapter III, I confirmed the presence of 21 species and 22 primate taxa for the country, corresponding to 12 genera and 5 families; in addition, I present information for another five suspected taxa that could increase the number of Ecuadorian primates to 27. In Chapter IV, I include an update to the distribution of Ecuadorian primates by reviewing occurrence records, the overlapping of current vegetation layers and land use (2018), and an ecological niche modeling analysis using the Maxent program. The results presented new and extended distributions for six taxa, significant reductions for eight, and for the rest, their distributions changed little compared to previous estimates. In this chapter, I also included an analysis of the altitudinal distribution of taxa, a review of the natural barriers that have limited their distribution, and an overview to the knowledge gaps identified for each taxon. In Chapter V, I evaluated the state of conservation and risk of extinction of the country’s primates, both at the present time and in a projection for 2050; I included in this analysis 26 variables corresponding to direct threats (4), intrinsic factors (18) and superposition of the suitable habitat (4). Through this analysis, I developed an index to measure the risk of extinction of a taxon (REX). In the results, I confirmed that this order is seriously threatened in Ecuador, with five taxa that face an extremely high risk of extinction at present and whose condition will remain the same until 2050. Finally, in the Chapter VI, I present an analysis of the impact of climate change expected by by the middle of the century on the distribution and conservation of primates. For this study, I carried out a new ecological niche modeling approach for two scenarios, one optimistic (RCP 4.5) and the other pessimistic (RCP 8.5), with the use of three different general circulation models (GCM). Also, I included predictive modeling of climate change, evaluated the loss of suitable habitat, and analyzed the resilience capacity that each taxon would have in the face of this threat. The results predict that the impact of climate change will not be uniform among primates; in the optimistic scenario, 55% of the taxa would be affected, against 73% in the pessimistic one; furthermore, for 9% there is likely to be no impact.
RESUMEN Presentamos información sobre la riqueza de especies de mamíferos silvestres no voladores de 14 sitios ubicados al Oeste del Canal de Panamá, específicamente en las provincias de Panamá, Coclé y Colón. Los trabajos de inventarios se realizaron entre mayo de 2001 y marzo de 2002. Gran parte del área de estudio esta fuertemente intervenida por diversas actividades humanas, lo que se refleja en lo fragmentado de los ecosistemas naturales en las tierras bajas, mientras que en las montañas aun se mantienen las porciones más significativas de hábitat menos perturbado. Los mamíferos pequeños se caracterizaron mediante la utilización de trampas Sherman, Tomahauk y Havahart, donde se capturaban vivos. Los mamíferos medianos y grandes fueron inventariados utilizando recorridos diurnos y nocturnos para obtener avistamientos directos de las especies o localizar rastros de su presencia. Se obtuvieron registros de 45 especies de mamíferos no voladores, entre los cuales hubo seis marsupiales, cinco xenarthros, cuatro primates, 13 roedores, un conejo, 12 carnívoros, un tapir y tres ungulados. Entre esos mamíferos, 28 están considerados bajo algún grado de amenaza. El macho de monte o tapir (Tapirus bairdii), el tigre o jaguar (Panthera onca), el puma (Puma concolor), el manigordo (Leopardus pardalis) y el tigrillo (Leopardus wiedii) están entre las especies más amenazadas. PALABRAS CLAVES Región central de Panamá, riqueza de especies, mamíferos no voladores.
Within the mammals, primates are considered a well-known group for their richness and distribution; furthermore, it is currently one of the orders facing serious conservation challenges. Based on this, I carried out a study to evaluate richness (Chapter III), distribution (Chapter IV) and conservation issues (Chapters V and VI) of the primates of Ecuador. As a first step, I com- piled a database with 12,452 records based on field observations, museum reviews, and literature. In Chapter III, I confirmed the presence of 21 species and 22 primate taxa for the country, corresponding to 12 genera and 5 families; in addition, I present information for another five suspected taxa that could increase the number of Ecuadorian primates to 27. In Chapter IV, I include an update to the distribution of Ecuadorian primates by reviewing occurrence records, the overlapping of current vegetation layers and land use (2018), and an ecological niche modeling analysis using the Maxent program. The results presented new and extended distributions for six taxa, significant reductions for eight, and for the rest, their distributions changed little compared to previous estimates. In this chapter, I also included an analysis of the altitudinal distribution of taxa, a review of the natural barriers that have limited their distribution, and an overview to the knowledge gaps identified for each taxon. In Chapter V, I evaluated the state of conservation and risk of extinction of the country’s primates, both at the present time and in a projection for 2050; I included in this analysis 26 variables corresponding to direct threats (4), intrinsic factors (18) and superposition of the suitable habitat (4). Through this analysis, I developed an index to measure the risk of extinction of a taxon (REX). In the results, I confirmed that this order is seriously threatened in Ecuador, with five taxa that face an extremely high risk of extinction at present and whose condition will remain the same until 2050. Finally, in the Chapter VI, I present an analysis of the impact of climate change expected by the middle of the century on the distribution and conservation of primates. For this study, I carried out a new ecological niche modeling approach for two scenarios, one optimistic (RCP 4.5) and the other pessimistic (RCP 8.5), with the use of three different general circulation models (GCM). Also, I included predictive modeling of climate change, evaluated the loss of suitable habitat, and analyzed the resilience capacity that each taxon would have in the face of this threat. The results predict that the impact of climate change will not be uniform among primates; in the optimistic scenario, 55% of the taxa would be affected, against 73% in the pessimistic one; furthermore, for 9% there is likely to be no impact
Forest fragmentation and deforestation are major threats to primates at a global scale. The survival of primates in forest fragments largely depends on their behavioral and dietary flexibility, as well as their ability to use a modified matrix in anthropogenic landscapes, hence the importance of determining these ecological parameters in habitats with strong anthropic interventions. This paper aims to describe the activity budget and diet of two groups of the Colombian night monkey (Aotus lemurinus) and to estimate their home range in two peri-urban forest fragments in the city of Manizales, Colombia. We combined scan sampling and handheld GPS fixes in order to determine the behavioral, dietary and spatial patterns of the study groups. Night monkeys spent most of their time resting and traveling and were mainly frugivorous relying on at least 26 plant species in their diet. The most consumed plants included Persea americana, Cecropia angustifolia, Musa x paradi-siaca, Cecropia telenitida, and Croton cf. mutisianus. Two of these plants are cultivated species and can provide important resources for populations in small forest fragments. Home range sizes were estimated at 1.7 to 1.8 hectares, using a grid count method. Our results suggest the potential adaptability that these primates have when exposed to anthropogenic habitat disturbances and habitat degradation. Nonetheless, future studies should evaluate the influence of demographic factors and resource availability on the behavioral, dietary and spatial patterns of A. lemurinus in peri-urban forests, in order to further understand their ability to cope with the pervasive processes of habitat fragmentation in the northern Andes.
Most primates live in lowland ecosystems; however, some species have been particularly successful at colonizing higher altitudes, such as night monkeys (genus Aotus). Studies of the ecology of night monkeys in tropical forests are numerous, but behavioral data are limited due to the challenges associated with their nocturnal habits. Although Andean night monkeys (A. lemurinus) live in mountain forests >1000 m.a.s.l. and Caribbean night monkeys (A. griseimembra) live in rainforests <1000 m.a.s.l., they are found at similar tropical latitudes. Between 2018 and 2019, we followed three groups of A. lemurinus and one group of A. griseimembra at three sites in Colombia and recorded data on their ecology and behavior. Although they live at different altitudes, the two species had similar activity patterns and diet, investing approximately half of the night in resting (48%), and feeding primarily on fruits. We found differences among groups in the time invested in feeding on flowers, their home range, and distance traveled per night. These differences may be related to the unique characteristics of each study site and differences in resource availability and floristic composition of forests at different altitudes. Although the most important families in their diet were Moraceae and Urticaceae, highland groups also fed frequently on a large number of Melastomataceae and Rubiaceae trees. This research suggests these two nocturnal primates, living in contrasting environments, use similar strategies to cope with the challenges of being active at night in tropical forests.
El estudio de la diversidad local de los mamíferos en el BST es importante, debido al valor cultural que tienen para las comunidades locales como fuente de alimento y medicina. Además, la información sobre estos ensamblajes es útil para el manejo del bosque seco tropical, uno de los ecosistemas más amenazados de Colombia cuyos remanentes constituyen importantes albergues para la fauna. El objetivo de este trabajo fue caracterizar los mamíferos medianos no voladores del “Bosque seco tropical Hernán Victoria Mena”, municipio de Cartago (Valle del Cauca). El trabajo de campo se desarrolló durante 9 días en dos fases, empleando técnicas para la detección directa e indirecta (fototrampeo, trampas de huellas, recorridos libres y entrevistas). Se acumularon 130 registros correspondientes a 19 especies de mamíferos. Algunas están citadas en la lista roja de la IUCN y el libro rojo: Lontra longicaudis, Aotus lemurinus y Cabassous centralis. Los resultados presentados en este documento serán utilizados como línea base para implementar iniciativas de manejo por parte de los propietarios del predio.
Resumen Los primates que habitan en los ecosistemas de montaña de la cordillera de los Andes en Colombia están expuestos a fuertes amenazas como consecuencia del desarrollo de la infraestructura y la transformación del uso del suelo en lo que corresponde a la región más densamente poblada de Colombia. Para el género Aotus cuyos hábitos son principalmente nocturnos, las amenazas sobre sus poblaciones no han sido bien documentadas hasta la fecha, aunque especies como el mono nocturno andino (Aotus lemurinus) ha sido catalogado como Vulnerable a nivel nacional y global. En este estudio, se compilaron registros recientes de individuos de A. lemurinus muertos por electrocución accidental en cuatro departamentos de los Andes Centrales de Colombia. Estos registros, a pesar de que son preliminares, contribuyen al conocimiento previo sobre esta problemática a nivel nacional y resaltan la necesidad de formular e implementar estrategias de mitigación del riesgo de electrocución para esta y otras especies. Palabras clave: Red eléctrica, Urbano, Mono nocturno andino, Subadulto. Abstract Primates that live in mountain ecosystems of the Andes Cordillera in Colombia are exposed to strong threats as a result of the development of extensive infrastructure and land use changes in
Aotus lemurinus I. Geoffroy, 1843, Cebus albifrons (Humboldt, 1812), and Sapajus apella (Linnaeus, 1758) are widely distributed primates in Colombia. Despite this, there are gaps in the occurrence of these species in the southwestern part of the country. Through the collection of specimen remains, molecular analyses and review of museum specimens, we reported new records for these species in the Department of Nariño, Colombia, expanding their distribution range. Finally, we highlight some important notes for the conservation of these species.
En los bosques montanos de Los Chilchos habitan cinco especies de primates, cuya situación actual, tamaño de grupo y abundancia son desconocidos, información que es indispensable para el manejo y la formulación e implementación de medidas de conservación. Afín de obtener información sobre los aspectos mencionados, fueron conducidos censos por transecto lineal entre junio y julio del 2017 en bosques de baja y alta perturbación antrópica. Como resultado de los censos fueron registrados 63 grupos pertenecientes a 5 especies. De ellos, 50 grupos correspondieron a los bosques de baja perturbación, siendo Aotus miconax y Ateles belzebuth los más observados con 21 y 17 grupos, respectivamente. Grupos más grandes se observaron en Cebus yuracus
(promedio 17.0±5.0 individuos) y A. belzebuth (promedio 14.5±7.2 individuos) y más pequeños en A. miconax (promedio 2.6±0.7 individuos). Con excepción de Lagothrix flavicauda, la abundancia relativa y densidad poblacional fueron más altas en bosques de baja perturbación, demostrando así el buen estado de conservación, lo que no ocurre en bosques de alta perturbación. Entre los primates, la densidad más alta fue para A. miconax con 26.23 indiv./km2 y más baja para Alouatta seniculus con 3.0 indiv./km2. Lagothrix flavicauda fue registrada únicamente en bosque de alta perturbación, cuya abundancia relativa fue estimada en 0.1 grupos/ 10 km.
The black-headed night monkey, Aotus nigriceps, has one of the largest distribution ranges of the 11 night monkey species found across Central and South America. Yet, only three studies have focused on their ecology, describing considerable variation in habitat, group composition, and population density. Therefore, we analyzed habitat use, group composition, population density, and diet of 14 groups at two field sites in southeastern Peru. All sampled groups were found in secondary tropical rainforest, often dominated by native bamboo species. Half of the observed sleeping sites were in bamboo stands, though groups also emerged from cane thickets and lianas. This contrasts with other Aotus studies which have found groups living in tree cavities and lianas. Population density estimates for both sites were 19 and 50 individuals per km2, outside the range previously reported for A. nigriceps (31−34 individuals per km2). We recovered seeds of 12 species from fecal samples over the course of two field seasons, belonging mainly to Cecropiaceae, Piperaceae and Moraceae. Our results suggest that the black-headed night monkey in Peru can survive and even thrive in secondary forest, feeding extensively on pioneer species, occupying a range of forest types, all while living near human settlements.
The Critically Endangered Peruvian yellow-tailed woolly monkey Lagothrix flavicauda was presumed to only occur in the tropical montane cloud forests between the Marañón and Huallaga rivers in northern Peru. Here we report the discovery of a population to the south of its previously known range, in the Región Junín. During September–December 2018 we carried out transect surveys to record large mammals present near the village of San Antonio in the district of Pampa Hermosa, at 1,287–2,015 m altitude. We recorded five primate species during transect surveys. Lagothrix flavicauda was seen four times, and appeared phenotypically distinct from populations to the north, with notable white patches above each eye and a reduced yellow patch at the end of the tail. The presence of L. flavicauda in Junín extends its known geographical range over 200 km southwards from the closest previously known population in the Huánuco region, and presents a unique opportunity for the conservation of this Critically Endangered species.
For arboreal primates, ground use may increase dispersal opportunities, tolerance to habitat change, access to ground-based resources, and resilience to human disturbances, and so has conservation implications. We collated published and unpublished data from 86 studies across 65 localities to assess titi monkey (Callicebinae) terrestriality. We examined whether the frequency of terrestrial activity correlated with study duration (a proxy for sampling effort), rainfall level (a proxy for
food availability seasonality), and forest height (a proxy for vertical niche dimension). Terrestrial activity was recorded frequently for Callicebus and Plecturocebus spp., but rarely for Cheracebus spp. Terrestrial resting, anti-predator behavior, geophagy, and playing frequencies in Callicebus and Plecturocebus spp., but feeding and moving differed. Callicebus spp. often ate or searched for new leaves terrestrially. Plecturocebus spp. descended primarily to ingest terrestrial invertebrates and soil.
Study duration correlated positively and rainfall level negatively with terrestrial activity. Though differences in sampling effort and methods limited comparisons and interpretation, overall, titi monkeys commonly engaged in a variety of terrestrial activities. Terrestrial behavior in Callicebus and Plecturocebus capacities may bolster resistance to habitat fragmentation. However, it is uncertain if the low frequency of
terrestriality recorded for Cheracebus spp. is a genus-specific trait associated with a more basal phylogenetic position, or because studies of this genus occurred in pristine habitats. Observations of terrestrial behavior increased with increasing sampling effort and decreasing food availability. Overall, we found a high frequency of terrestrial behavior in titi monkeys, unlike that observed in other pitheciids.
There is no information on the primate communities of the montane forests of the Peruvian Amazon except in the northeast. The regions of Pasco and Ucayali have never been explored for the primates that occur there, which motivated us to conduct this study, to assess the conservation status of the primates and especially to determine the limits of the distribution of the Peruvian yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda). Linear transect censuses were conducted from July to October 2018 in six survey sites. In 709 km traveled, we saw 28 groups of five species. The Peruvian woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagoth-richa tschudii) and the Marañón white-fronted capuchin (Cebus yuracus) were the most sighted, with eight and seven groups, respectively. Lagothrix flavicauda was not recorded in any of the survey sites, but we do not rule out its presence in other areas, particularly in Pasco. Red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) groups averaged 3.4 members, ranging from 2 to 6. The black spider monkey (Ateles chamek) and C. yuracus were seen in larger groups. The largest of three groups of the Andean saddle-back tamarin (Leontocebus leucogenys), seen in two localities, was seven. Relative abundance was higher for the species sighted in Ucayali, the highest being A. chamek with 1.5 groups/10 km. In Huánuco, the geographic distribution of L. flavicauda ranges as far as the montane forest of the province of Pachitea to the southeast, between 1,900 and 2,800 m above sea level. The geographic distribution of L. l. tschudii on the other hand extends to the western side of the Ucayali, to the ríos Pachitea and Pichis, and includes the montane forests of Pasco, Ucayali and part of Huánuco. Deforestation and hunting are the main threats to the survival of primates and other wildlife, particularly in Pasco and Huánuco.
(Wild and domestic animals: abuse, ethics, and environmental conservation)
Social networks and other media on the Internet have greatly facilitated the access to scientific information as well as true and false news about the relationship we humans have with animals and the environment. There are also heated arguments about hunting, pets, wildlife traffic, zoos, animal use and animal rights from liberation extremists to profiteer enterprises, but most of them lacking of biological knowledge and coherence in their arguments. This essay
describes cases of use and abuse of animals worldwide and in Bolivia, mentions the biological and ecological bases of animal life, and discusses different perceptions of people about animal rights and ethics of human activities. It defines and distinguishes wild from domesticated species, native and exotic ones, as well as invasive animals and other threatened with extinction in order to help the reader develop an informed position on these issues. It also highlights the case of wild animals suffering and dying from deforestation, pollution and ice melting caused by human activities, which usually receive less attention in the networks than the mistreatment of pets.
Finally, in view of the growing trend of the human population, environmental deterioration and global climate change, it summarizes warnings and recommendations from scientists concerned about the survival of animals and our own society.
Little is known of the demography of night monkeys, Aotus. The few studies that have been conducted in specific sites of the Amazon region do not allow for landscape-level inferences, and many of them fail in terms of the basic principles of statistical inference or are inadequate regarding assumptions of the methods used (replication and randomness). Night monkeys in the Colombian Andes inhabit generally fragmented landscapes of differing structure and composition (size, shape, isolation and vegetation types). However, there has been no quantitative diagnosis of their status or any effective monitoring of their populations. We estimated the population density of Aotus cf. lemurinus in a forest of about 900 ha on the eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera in the department of Valle del Cauca, Colombia, between 1,600 and 2,178 m above sea level. We used the Distance sampling method, with 30 linear transects with a total transect length of 9 km and a survey effort of 98.4 km. Surveys were conducted between 18:00 and 22:00 and between 03:00 and 06:00. The population density was estimated to be 113 individuals/ km 2 , one of the highest reported for the genus. This density could be a crowding effect related to the isolation process or a density compensation because of the reduced abundance of other species that may compete with night monkeys in some niche dimensions. A monitoring programme is needed to determine the trend of this population.
In this report we present the first record of Lagothrix flavicauda in montane forests on the eastern side of the Río Huallaga. The record of five groups occurred during primate censuses between the villages of Monopampa and Libertad, along the horseshoe that connects the basins of the ríos Huallaga and Pozuzo. With this record, the known distribution of L. flavicauda is extended to the southeast, up to the boundary with the Región Pasco. Five other primates, among them Lagothrix lagothricha tschudii, occur in the forests there, at elevations above 1900 m above sea level. As in other parts of the Región Huánuco, deforestation is the main threat for the primates and the wildlife in general.
In this report we provide information on the geographical distribution and current status of the Peruvian yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda) and of other primates that inhabit the montane forests of the Región Huánuco. For this purpose we conducted transect censuses and interviews during the months of July, September and October 2015 and January 2016 in the montane forests of the ríos Chontayacu, Santa Martha, Monzón and Derrepente, and also in the upper basin of Río Huallaga. The results indicate that the southern distributional limit of L. flavicauda is the Región Huánuco in the montane forests on the left bank of the Río Alto Huallaga. During the survey, we also recorded 28 groups of five species of other primates, the most frequently observed of which was Leontocebus leucogenys. In all locations surveyed except for the montane forests between the ríos Chontayacu and Magdalena, populations of L. flavicauda and other primates are in the process of local extinction, principally due to intense deforestation for agriculture, cattle ranching and timber extraction, but also due to hunting.
Estudios realizados en las cuencas de los ríos Napo y Nanay entre 1986 y 1987 han permitido el registro de plantas cuyos frutos fueron usados por Aotus vociferans y otros mamíferos nocturnos. Ellos consumieron mayormente frutos (83%) y en menor proporción tlores néctar (17%). Los frutos de mayor consumo correspondieron a Ficus sp. (14%) e higa marginata (10%). Entre las flores y néctar destaca por su consumo Eschweilera sp. (10%). El reporte también incluye descripciones sobre competencia intraespecífica y con otros mamíferos de hábitos similares.
We assess progress toward the protection of 50% of the terrestrial biosphere to address the species-extinction crisis and conserve a global ecological heritage for future generations. Using a map of Earth's 846 terrestrial ecoregions, we show that 98 ecoregions (12%) exceed Half Protected; 313 ecoregions (37%) fall short of Half Protected but have sufficient unaltered habitat remaining to reach the target; and 207 ecoregions (24%) are in peril, where an average of only 4% of natural habitat remains. We propose a Global Deal for Nature—a companion to the Paris Climate Deal—to promote increased habitat protection and restoration, national-and ecoregion-scale conservation strategies, and the empowerment of indigenous peoples to protect their sovereign lands. The goal of such an accord would be to protect half the terrestrial realm by 2050 to halt the extinction crisis while sustaining human livelihoods.
Executive Summary Primary Biodiversity Data (PBD) are defined as the basic attributes of observations or records of the occurrences of species. PBD is a fundamental concept of biodiversity informatics since it is substantial in quantity and provides the links to organize other large and independent bodies of data concerning species (= taxonomic information) and environments. In fact, PBD is at the core of the exploding field of biodiversity informatics, which in some sense now underlies biogeography, macroecology, landscape ecology and several other subdisciplines of biology. A principal – and rapidly growing – class of research that can be performed using PBD is the estimation of a species' environmental requirements and the projection of these in both environmental and geographic spaces to estimate niches or distributional ranges, generally by using models of ecological niches and species' distributions (often called ENMs or SDMs, respectively). The largest point of access to PBD in the world is the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), and hundreds of papers have now used GBIF-mediated data to fit and apply ENM/SDM. Experience has shown that GBIF, like other aggregated data research infrastructures, holds a number of potential problems related to incomplete or difficult access to all the fields in its schema, inconsistent information among fields, or simply erroneous or incomplete data. These drawbacks complicate ENM/SDM analyses considerably, and detract from the enormous scientific value of this information storehouse. Three overlapping communities participate in GBIF's data process: providers (museums, herbaria, and observer's networks), users (scientists, analysts working for governments, NGOs or the private sector, the public) and the technical staff managing the huge databases, web services and servers at GBIF. Each can play a different role in fixing data issues of GBIF. Our main recommendations for the GBIF Secretariat are the following: GBIF.org should serve indicators of precision, quality, and uncertainty of data that can be calculated practically, and preferably " on the fly " , as well as summaries and metrics of completeness of inventories, at scales and for regions defined by the user. The summaries should display maps and graphs of completeness by region, time-period and taxa. The implementation of the GBIF information resource should go beyond unique identifiers of queries (DOIs for downloads, including the capability to rerun queries, http://www.gbif.org/publishing-data/summary#supporteddatasettypes), and to include identifiers of the individual data that make up the queried data. GBIF.org should include applications or functionalities enabling users to annotate errors or problems, and communicate those changes directly to providers, as it may be practical and appropriate. This point may need to be discussed with providers. A procedure enabling users to make accessible versions of their databases that have been improved and annotated should be supported, but this functionality should not lose the vital tie back to the original data records and the actual data provider. GBIF should partner with and/or support initiatives to do more for training and guiding users on the proper use of the data; such initiatives should incorporate actual expert uses in ENM/SDM to assure that current best practices are followed.
Large and medium-bodied rainforest canopy mammals are typically surveyed using line transects, but these are labour intensive and usually ignore nocturnal species. Camera traps have become the preferred tool for assessing terrestrial mammal communities, but have rarely been used for arboreal species. Here, we compare the efficiency of arboreal camera trapping with line transects for inventorying medium and large-sized arboreal mammals, and assess the viability of using camera traps in trees to model habitat occupancy. We installed 42 camera traps, spaced 2 km apart, in the canopy of the Maijuna-Kichwa Regional Conservation Area, Peru and walked 2014 km of diurnal line transects on 22 trails at the same site. We compared the efficiency of each method using species accumulation curves. We applied a multi-species occupancy model, while examining the effect of camera height on detection probabilities, including the distance from a village and from a river as covariates to examine variability in habitat occupancy. In 3147 camera days, 18 species of arboreal medium and large-sized mammals were detected by cameras, while 11 species were recorded on line transects. Ten of these species were detected by both methods. Diurnal species were detected more quickly and with less effort using arboreal camera trapping than using diurnal line transects at the same site, although some species were more easily detected during line transects. Habitat occupancy was positively correlated with distance from the village for two species, and negatively correlated with distance from the river for one. Detection probabilities increased modestly with camera height. Practical limitations of arboreal camera trapping include the requirement for specialized climbing techniques, as well as increased potential for false triggers, requiring extended processing time. Arboreal camera trapping is an efficient method for inventorying arboreal mammals and a viable option for studying their distribution relative to environmental or anthropogenic variables when abundance or density estimates are not required.
In this study we present the results of inventory efforts of non-volant mammals in Sangay
National Park (SNP), one of the least studied regions of Ecuador. We conducted inventories
at 9 locations between December 2010 and June 2015 along a gradient of elevations between
1.300 and 3.650 m. To document the presence of non-volant mammals we used capture techniques
(Sherman, Tomahawk, and pitfall traps) and direct and indirect detection techniques
(track and sign surveys, interviews). The trap effort consisted of 5.730 trap/nights. We detected
86 species in the study area of which rodents were the most diverse group with 36 species
(41.8%). The small mammals Chilomys instans, Neusticomys vossi, Ichthyomys cf. stolzmanni,
Thomasomys fumeus, Dactylomys dactylinus and Echimys saturnus, the marsupial
Marmosa rubra were detected in the SNP for the first time. The shrew-opossum Caenolestes
sangay, shrew Cryptotis montivaga and rodents Phyllotis haggardi, Thomasomys fumeus,
T. hutsoni, T. cf silvestris, Rhipidomys sp. nov., y Cavia patzelti are endemic species that
speak to the biogeographic importance of SNP. Our results with additions from other published
studies indicate the presence of 103 species of non-volant mammal, positioning it as the most diverse
natural area in the Andes of Ecuador, and as the second most diverse of the tropical Andes.
Traditionally, arboreal rainforest mammals have been inventoried using ground-based survey techniques. However, given the success of camera traps in detecting secretive terrestrial rainforest mammals, camera trapping could also be a valuable tool for inventorying arboreal species. Here we assess, for the first time, the effectiveness of arboreal camera traps for inventorying arboreal rainforest mammals and compare the results with those from other methodologies. We do so in one of the world's most biodiverse conservation areas, the Manu Biosphere Reserve, Peru. We accumulated 1201 records of 24 arboreal mammal species. Eighteen species were detected by arboreal cameras, seven by diurnal line transects, six by nocturnal transects and eighteen through incidental observations. Six species were only detected using arboreal camera traps. Comparing arboreal camera traps with traditional ground-based techniques suggests camera traps are an effective tool for inventorying arboreal rainforest mammal communities. They also detected more cryptic species compared with other methodologies. Daily detection frequency patterns were found to differ between ground-based techniques and arboreal cameras. A cost-effort analysis indicated that despite greater upfront costs in equipment and training for arboreal camera trapping, when accounting for the additional survey hours required to provide similar numbers of records using ground-based methods, overall costs were similar. Our work demonstrates that arboreal camera trapping is likely to be a powerful technique for inventorying canopy mammals. The method has considerable potential for the study of charismatic and threatened arboreal mammal species that may otherwise remain largely unknown and could quietly disappear from the world's tropical forests.
The montane forests of the Andes extend from northern Colombia, south through Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and include parts of the distributions of Aotus azarae, A. brumbacki, A griseimembra, A. jorgehernandezi, A. nigriceps, A. vociferans, and A. zonalis, with A. lemurinus and A. miconax restricted to elevations >900 and >1400 m.a.s.l, although more research is still needed on the elevational distributions of most of these species. The Andes support relatively high human population densities even in rural areas (avg. 101.6 people/km2). The main threats to owl monkeys and their habitats in the Andes are from farming, human population expansion, mining, and logging. However, protected areas and the genus’ relatively small body size, nocturnal habits, and behavioral plasticity may help owl monkeys survive in the region. Locally managed conservation projects and less damaging agricultural practices, such as shade-grown crops, could prove key to successful conservation efforts for owl monkeys in the Andes.
In the last few decades, important advances have been made in the knowledge on the behavioral ecology of pair-living primates such as owl monkeys (Aotus spp.). With the growing understanding, researchers have become increasingly aware that populations do consist not only of established family groups but also of solitary “floaters”: dispersing individuals who travel (mostly) solitarily after leaving their natal (or previous breeding) group and before obtaining a breeding position. Floaters may have a profound impact on local operational sex ratios and, thus, population dynamics, with the subsequent potential to change natural and sexual selection pressures on pair-living and sexually monogamous taxa. Unfortunately, floaters are notoriously difficult to study, so assessments of their role on social organization and mating systems remain challenging. Floaters of different taxa experience different selection pressures and employ varying strategies. In owl monkeys, a combination of limits to group size and habitat saturation forces all maturing individuals to become floaters as subadults or young adults, such that floating is essentially a life stage in the species. The dispersal process is accompanied by increased tensions between adults and pre-dispersing individuals, probably due to various aspects of food and mate competition. Owl monkey floaters balance the need for prospecting with avoidance behavior toward groups, with whom they can engage in highly aggressive and potentially lethal interactions, by adapting their ranging behavior to spatial avoidance while seeking proximity at a temporal scale. Some fundamental aspects of floater biology on owl monkey societies (e.g., mortality rates, impact on population dynamics) are still poorly understood. We strongly suggest that floaters in all taxa where they occur are taken more consistently into consideration and efforts are undertaken to improve understanding of their impact on group and population dynamics, and of sexual selection.
The Panamanian owl monkey (Aotus zonalis) is found from northern Coclé to Darién provinces in Panama, south through the Pacific lowlands of the Chocó biogeographic region, to just north of the Ecuadorian border in Colombia. It is currently listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List. Although much captive research has been conducted, little is known about the current status of wild populations or the species’ actual distribution. We review knowledge of the species conservation ecology and evaluate new data on the presence/absence at 60 sites in Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador and report on anthropogenic activities which may threaten its survival. In combination with the results of previous studies, we found that the species habitat is being reduced by anthropogenic forest clearance, leaving some populations fragmented and susceptible to hunting. Aotus zonalis remains one of the least known primates, and information is needed on its behavior, population dynamics, and ecology.
Trade can have serious implications for primate species. Owl monkeys (Aotus spp.) have historically been a principal species traded for biomedical research. Individuals found in the biomedical trade continue to be sourced from captive-bred, wild, and semi-wild populations. The number of legally traded owl monkey body parts or derivatives registered with CITES is increasing, while the only trade of live individuals since 1990 is from Peru. There are estimates that numbers of owl monkeys trafficked illegally for biomedical experiments to Colombia during 1994–2011 are at least as great as the global legal trade. Owl monkeys are commonly found in the illegal pet trade, which is larger and has more serious implications than the legal trade, and trafficking in live animals is the main form of domestic trade. Reported numbers consistently underestimate the true scale of the problem, and current levels of enforcement are insufficient to properly combat trafficking.
Natal dispersal, the movement of individuals from their birthplace to new areas in which they may breed, is an important aspect of life history that influences processes at the level of the individual, group, and population. This chapter takes a holistic approach by reviewing what is known about the entire process of dispersal in owl monkeys, from when and why they leave their natal group to what they do and where they go after dispersing. It also examines how dispersal patterns can inform our understanding of the evolution and maintenance of owl monkeys’ social organization, mating system, and parental care. While owl monkey dispersal strategies are highly variable, we identify some important common patterns. All individuals, both male and female, disperse prior to reproducing. Individuals also often “prospect” prior to permanently dispersing, and almost always spend some time as solitary floaters. While dispersed solitaries may occasionally engage in prosocial interactions, they typically face aggression from adults in established groups. Currently, nearly everything known about owl monkey dispersal comes from a population of Azara’s owl monkeys (Aotus azarae) in Formosa, Argentina. Expanding studies to other sites and Aotus species will generate a more multifaceted understanding of dispersal in pair-living primates.
This chapter presents an overview of the general characteristics of the Nancy Ma’s owl monkey (Aotus nancymaae) and a case study where we explore the genetic composition of wild populations in northern Peru and its genetic representation in an ex situ population. The species has historically been heavily exploited for biomedical research. On the Colombian-Peruvian border of the Amazon, trafficking, post-experimentation releases into the wild, and deforestation present growing threats for this vulnerable species. We provide evidence of the heterogeneous geographical origin of the ex situ population and relatively high diversity in wild populations. Unexpectedly, we found no evidence of the Amazon River as a barrier to dispersal, based on the scarce genetic differentiation among populations on opposite riverbanks. We conclude recommending binational collaboration concerning data sharing, population health assessment, and adherence to recent policies to improve the conservation of the most threatened owl monkey species in the Amazon region.
El éxito reproductivo y viabilidad de primates arborícolas dependerá de la selección correcta de sitios para anidar. El mono nocturno Aotus zonalis, presenta una adaptación interesante al no solo ser críptico arborícola, sino también nocturno. En este trabajo describimos parte de su comportamiento y analizamos variables que podrían estar influyendo en la selección de sus sitios para anidar. Se observó un grupo de A. zonalis en un bosque fragmentado al norte de la provincia de Coclé, Cerro Colorado, Pajonal, Panamá (N 08º34'44.8'' O 80º13'42.0''). Utilizamos métodos Ad libitum y Transecto de Franja (768 hrs.), con luz roja y seguimiento nocturno, y Sistema de Cámaras Orión (SCO) (8,760 hrs.), desde mayo 2017 a mayo 2018. La estructura grupal fue una pareja adulta (macho/hembra) y un juvenil, conviviendo en un parche de bosque de 3 km2. Se ubicaron tres dormideros. Las entradas (Kruskal-Wallis: p=3.161E-06 ; p <0.005) y salidas por mes (Kruskal-Wallis: P=0.001113; p <0.005), fueron no significativas y dependieron levemente de tres variables (luna, lluvia y temperatura), la temperatura es determinante. Se presentó un mayor uso del nido en estación lluviosa, cópula y cuidado parental masculino. Las plantas más utilizadas para nidos fueron Bactris gasipaes y Cydista aequinoctialis. Diplomis labilis se reporta como especie compartiendo hábitat. Estos trabajos iniciales darán pie a un monitoreo a largo plazo para estudios más robustos y programas de conservación de esta especie en Panamá.
The Alto Mayo region in the Peruvian department of San Martin has one of the highest levels of deforestation and fragmentation in the country. Historically, San Martin was home to at least 20 primate species, of which at least 14 persist in the Alto Mayo Valley. We surveyed primate populations in the “Jungla de Los Monos”, a locally protected remnant of a naturally diverse primate community in one of the last remaining mid-elevation (800 m a.s.l.) seasonally flooded forests in the region. We recorded seven primate species, with a further two species reported to have been extirpated from the area. By far the most common species was Saimiri macrodon. Half of the primate biomass was made up of a single species, Alouatta seniculus, with S. macrodon accounting for another quarter. The endemic Plecturocebus oenanthe was only detected once in forest interior, but was observed in edge and riverine forest, as well as neighboring fragments. The area holds a surprisingly high diversity and density of primates considering its proximity to population centers, thanks primarily to self-imposed hunting bans and logging control by local communities.
The mechanisms that underlie the diversification of Neotropical primates remain contested. One mechanism that has found support is the riverine barrier hypothesis (RBH), which postulates that large rivers impede gene flow between populations on opposite riverbanks and promote allopatric speciation. Ayres and Clutton-Brock (1992) demonstrated that larger Amazonian rivers acted as barriers, delineating the distribution limits of primate species. However, profound changes in taxonomy and species concepts have led to the proliferation of Neotropical primate taxa, which may have reduced support for their results. Using the most recent taxonomic assessments and distribution maps, we tested the effect of increasing river size on the similarity of opposite riverbank primate communities in the Amazon. First, we conducted a literature review of primate taxonomy and developed a comprehensive spatial database, then applied geographical information system to query mapped primate ranges against the riverine geography of the Amazon watershed to produce a similarity index for opposite riverbank communities. Finally, we ran models to test how measures of river size predicted levels of similarity. We found that, almost without exception, similarity scores were lower than scores from Ayres and Clutton-Brock (1992) for the same rivers. Our model showed a significant negative relationship between streamflow and similarity in all tests, and found river width significant for the segmented Amazon, but not for multiple Amazon watershed rivers. Our results support the RBH insofar as they provide evidence for the prediction that rivers with higher streamflow act as more substantial barriers to dispersal, and accordingly exhibit greater variation in community composition between riverbanks.
Peru is one of the most biodiverse countries on earth. Its northern montane forests are home to levels of biodiversity similar to those in the much larger Amazonian lowlands. We carried out rapid surveys of large mammal presence at 9 sites between the Marañón and Huallaga river valleys in Amazonas and San Martin, Peru. We calculated alpha and beta diversity for all sites and tested the effect of different habitat types, size of survey area and altitudinal range on diversity levels among sites. We recorded the presence of 57 large mammal species representing 45 genera, 29 families and 10 orders. There were significant differences in the number of species recorded among sites, ecoregions and vegetation types. Positive correlations were found between alpha diversity and the size and altitudinal range of an area. We found a weak correlation between indices of beta diversity in different vegetation types with altitudinal range. Additionally, we present range extensions for several species.
This is the first in a series of papers on some behavior patterns of New World monkeys. The main emphasis of these papers will be comparative. Special attention will be paid to social signal patterns (including hostile and sexual signals) and other patterns that differ significantly in the various species. It is hoped that analyses of these patterns may throw some light on the evolution of the group as a whole.
Recent decades have seen rapid development of new analytical methods to investigate patterns of interspecific variation. Yet these cutting-edge statistical analyses often rely on data of questionable origin, varying accuracy, and weak comparability, which seem to have reduced the reproducibility of studies. It is time to improve the transparency of comparative data while also making these improved data more widely available. We, the authors, met to discuss how transparency, usability, and reproducibility of comparative data can best be achieved. We propose four guiding principles: 1) data identification with explicit operational definitions and complete descriptions of methods; 2) inclusion of metadata that capture key characteristics of the data, such as sample size, geographic coordinates, and nutrient availability (for example, captive versus wild animals); 3) documentation of the original reference for each datum; and 4) facilitation of effective interactions with the data via user friendly and transparent interfaces. We urge reviewers, editors, publishers, database developers and users, funding agencies, researchers publishing their primary data, and those performing comparative analyses to embrace these standards to increase the transparency, usability, and reproducibility of comparative studies.
Multiple anthropogenic drivers of extinction risk in primates are increasing. The expansion of urban areas, road networks, and agricultural frontiers are threatening primates through habitat loss, fragmentation, and increased incidences of hunting. Man-made climate change is affecting habitat quality and availability, particularly in rare ecosystems. Three of Peru’s endemic primate species, the yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda), the San Martin titi monkey (Plecturocebus oenanthe Sensu, Byrne H, Rylands AB, Carneiro JC, Alfaro JWL, Bertuol F, da Silva MNF, Messias M et al. (2016) Phylogenetic relationships of the New World titi monkeys (Callicebus): first appraisal of taxonomy based on molecular evidence. Frontiers in Zoology 13:1–26) and the Peruvian night monkey (Aotus miconax), have naturally restricted distributions in the foothills of the country’s northeastern Andes. Montane forest habitat in this area not only suffers from the highest rates of deforestation in the country but is also predicted to be among the most at risk areas from the effects of man-made climate change. Using data from extensive published and unpublished field surveys, this study modeled the species’ historical, current, and future distributions. To best estimate the effects of multiple drivers of extinction risk, I used models of future climate change scenarios coupled with predications of expanding human settlement and hunting over multiple timescales. Results of these models predict a reduction in niche availability for A. miconax and L. flavicauda and an increase in niche availability for P. oenanthe. In all cases predicted habitat loss was less than in previous studies. However, when taking into account anthropogenic disturbance, habitat loss is much more severe. I suggest that predictive modeling is a useful tool for conservation, but should always use the most up-to-date data and results should be interpreted with caution based on expert knowledge of the species and area. Future climate change is predicted to increase threats to many species but deforestation and hunting will remain the major threats for many primates.
