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Sport and Traditions of Feminist Theory
Abstract
Sport and Traditions of Feminist Theory involves a philosophical examination of the opportunities that are offered to females who seek authority in sporting participation, by an examination of the ideas that emanate from various streams of feminist thought. Chapter One introduces the concepts of oppression and authority in sport for females. It also introduces Rortian pragmatism, and four strands of feminist thought which will be utilised throughout the thesis; liberal, standpoint, poststructural and Foucauldian feminism. Finally it briefly suggests the potentials for each of these feminisms to explain and alter the situation of women in sport. Chapter Two is an elaboration of Rortian liberalism. It explains the concepts of anti-foundationalism, the private-public split and the ideal liberal society. These ideas are then applied to an understanding of the opportunities for freedom in sport. Sport is viewed as a symbolic language medium where athletes have the opportunity to express their private freedom through idiosyncratic action. The chapter then goes on to address feminist concerns with Rortian pragmatism. It will be suggested that the female position in society forces a reformulation of Rortian pragmatism to include the possibility of collective expressions of freedom, and to recognise the systematic oppression of women in, and by, society. The female athlete must negotiate the unenviable position of performing in a practice that has a long history of male control over sporting discourses, and female exclusion from, or incorporation into, those sporting discourses. A feminist -reformed, Rortian pragmatism gives the female some tools with which to break down male control and produce individual and collective changes in the language; practice and theory of sport. Chapter Three is a selective history of feminist politics and female participation in sport. The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate that strong poetry; i.e. collective and individual language changes which increased the opportunity for females to speak with authority, were often the result of both contingent conditions in society, and the whims of the dominant class of males. Yet two important points should be made; firstly, within that limited area of freedom in both politics and sport, women did recreate themselves and their society, and secondly, the public discourse about female athleticism throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries suggests a genealogy of ideas which continues to limit female athletic participation and authority. It would be naïve to suggest that this history of ideas about female athleticism would be broken down simply by legislative change which allows for wider female participation in sport. Chapter Four investigates one mechanism of gaining authority for females in society and sport, the liberal intervention of equal opportunities. It has been suggested by radical and postmodern feminisms that such an intervention is inadequate because it leaves in place the structure of ideas that oppress females in the first place. Critiques of liberal feminist interventions in sport likewise suggest that such interventions maintain the maleness of reason in sport. Females are asked to participate and be judged in sports that have a male history and male structure of control. However, because Rortian pragmatism recognises that sport is a symbolic medium, liberal interventions should not be discarded. There are a number of sports which women either are not allowed to play or are discouraged from playing. The liberal intervention may allow women to participate in sport, and gain authority through their local and specific languages of participation. Chapter Five is an application of feminist standpoint theories to women's authority in sport. Feminist standpoints will be suggested as an important method for doubting the certainty of gendered truth statements in sport and society. The truth statements, which oppress women in sport reporting, and reinforce different modes of sport participation, will be deconstructed using feminist standpoint theories. Rortian pragmatism offers tools with which alternate candidates for truth status may be produced and disseminated throughout the sporting world. These alternatives may grant women greater authority in performing and talking about sports. Chapter Six will look at the postmodern and Foucauldian treatments of the female body as another mechanism of challenging the his-story about female athletes, which continues to limit both their participation in sports and their commentary about sports. It will be suggested that the fuzziness of the athletic body allows women all sorts of opportunities to challenge the maleness of authority in sport. One case study, which will be particularly investigated here, is the suggestion that women athletes could look at drugs as a mechanism for approaching the narrowly defined -by men- participation standards of male athletes. And as authority in sport is partially granted on the basis of objective sporting performance, females should view the drug ban as potentially a piece of phallocentric legislation designed to maintain male power. Other case studies that could be investigated at a later date are the suspicions about genetic engineering and virtual reality sport, and the distaste for female athletes aborting before sporting performance. Are these suspicions and distaste mechanisms of the control of the female athlete's performance which females should oppose? The final chapter summarises the opportunities that a reformed Rortian pragmatism, reformed by the female question, provides for females in sport. Sport as a bodily activity may offer some potentials and obstacles that are not present in theoretical activities like education and politics. This is not to imply a dualism, but simply to suggest that sport, like dance and theatre, is an activity where the body's movements and actions are symbolically communicative.
... The "Frankenstein Factor" theme is related to the "artificial" construction (or manipulation) of a hybrid human being. 10 For female athletes, the response is usually negative and often worse, because it was viewed as turning them into men. This response was highlighted in early anti-doping educational materials. ...
... 9 Inversely, the existence of individual, group or even systemic abjection bias might fertilize the ground in which the unnaturalness argument can take root and flourish. 10 It is important to note that this theme is not always viewed negatively, for example, transhumanists believe that the human race can evolve beyond its limitations by mean of science and technology with desirable superhuman properties that should help to improve the human condition. ...
... Schneider et al. 10.3389/fspor.2023.1106446 ...
In this article we explore the relationships amongst anti-doping sciences, ‘abjection,’ and the protection of ‘women's’ sport. We introduce three novel concepts: ‘abjection bias,’ ‘abjection potential,’ and ‘intersectional abjection,’ as tools with the potential to provide greater nuance to understanding the context for these contentious issues in contemporary sport. The debate concerning participation in women's sport—especially elite sport—of people who do not fit within traditional definition of ‘women’ is increasingly fraught with acrimony with anti-doping sciences often recruited as arbitrator. With access to opportunities such as participation at the Olympic Games at stake, emotions run high in arguments that typically centre on inclusion of transgender and gender diverse (TGD) athletes on the one hand and protection of the women's category on the other. While sport theorists have begun the important work of identifying the roots of these problems deep within the structure of modern sport and society itself, they have hitherto paid little attention to the philosophical underpinnings of that structure. Through the lens of feminist critical analysis, we seek, in this paper, to understand the complex role of ‘abjection’ in framing the current debate in sport and in related anti-doping sciences. From a clear definition of abjection as a perceived existential threat due to violation of the status quo, we introduce the new concepts of ‘abjection bias,’ ‘abjection potential,’ and ‘intersectional abjection’ in order to understand and explain what in common parlance we might call ‘gut reaction.’ By looking at the few notable previous treatments of sport abjection and highlighting the historical connections between anti-doping sciences and efforts to protect the women's category, we demonstrate that this co-development is, in part, more easily understood in the context of ‘abjection.’ We conclude that the clarity gained can also help to shed light on current policy decision-making in relation to the question of protecting the women's sport category.
... We tend to agree with De Sensi (1992) that the term feminism, for both women and men, often involves a gross misrepresentation of its real nature and significance. Similarly, Burke (2001) asserts that there are diverse, divergent strands of thought and political action within the movement of loosely collected traditions that are considered feminist. In modern times, this problem of definition has spawned the acknowledgment of a variety of feminisms, including liberal feminism, radical feminism, black feminism, gay feminism, postmodern feminism, and existential feminism, among others. ...
The aim of this paper is to highlight the nature of the barriers facing women in terms of their participation in decision-making in Israeli sport, and to identify and evaluate some of the strategies and tactics adopted to overcome these barriers. This is done by making reference to a particular case study, the case of the process of establishing a major policy initiative in Israeli sport – the founding of the national Volleyball Academy for Young Talented Girls. The case is analyzed in order to identify how and why the goal of establishing the Academy was successful, and to consider what may be learned in terms of the implications for the tactics and strategies used that might be adopted by other women in similar circumstances.
Gender denotes socially constructed distinctions, while sex refers to biological differences. In sports, separating gender from sex is crucial. Historical perspectives justified limiting women in sports based on biological determinism, asserting inherent male superiority in strength, aggression, and competitiveness (Sociology, n.d.).
Since the 1970s, the sociology of sport has increasingly focused on analysing gender. Studies clearly demonstrate that sports are marked by gender distinctions, operating as social environments where boys and men receive more active and enthusiastic encouragement to participate compared to girls and women. Additionally, data indicates a higher participation rate of males in organized competitive sports, and male dominance is evident in sports administration and coaching (Sociology, n.d.).
In this paper, I investigate the feminism and social role theories by exploring fundamental questions that highlight their intricate interplay. How do these theories address issues of gender inequality and representation in the context of sports? Why is it essential to look at these frameworks to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges such as pay gap, lack of TV coverage faced by athletes, particularly women?
This theoretical framework emphasize the imperative for women to enjoy equal rights to men concerning equal pay, opportunities for participation, and media coverage within in sports which will be discussed in this paper.
Stories do not merely narrate events. They convey on action and actor-either one or both-the socially accredited status of being worth notice. To render narratable is to claim relevance for action, and for the life of which that action is part.
This performance autoethnography explores some of the tensions, contradictions and consequences of stories in elite sport. Using my embodied experience, the performance questions how the socially constructed physical 'I' is created by those with interpretive privilege. Sports news media, collected over a 14-year period - stories about me - provide one strand of a dialogical narrative in which the focus is sporting excellence. Contrasting these stories, I draw on diary extracts, stories, poems and songs, written by me, to weave a second reflexive understanding of my self, identity and life-playing professional sport. The justification for turning to arts-informed research practice was to explore and include creative, embodied, subjective and emotional aspects of life, identities and selves which can be too easily obscured or omitted through traditional methodological approaches. This approach makes possible a more holistic portrayal of identity development, selfhood and relationships, and therefore provides some unusual, if not unique, insights regarding how athletes' lives can be interpreted, shaped, edited, revised and reclaimed. I hope the performance, and its textual representation here, contributes to the expanding use of arts-informed research by showing the relevance to practitioners in elite and professional sport.
The need to understand ethical and moral issues in sport is at an all-time high. This latest edition of Ethics in Sport presents readers with the challenges involved when working in the field. This new third edition retains many of the previous editions’ thought provoking pieces, which are still applicable to today’s current issues. These are enhanced by the inclusion of 17 new essays. Ethics in Sport, 3rd Edition comes with an instructor guide that includes a sample syllabus, sample assignment topics and discussion questions to facilitate class conversations. There’s also suggested class assignments to encourage deeper discussion and understanding of ethical issues.
"This volume draws together Foucault's contributions to what he saw as the still-underdeveloped practice of political analysis. It covers the domains Foucault helped to make part of the core agenda of Western political culture - medicine, psychiatry, the penal system, sexuality - illuminating and expanding on the themes of The Birth of the Clinic, Discipline and Punish, and the first volume of The History of Sexuality. Power also includes important later writings, highlighting Foucault's revolutionary analysis of the politics of personal conduct and freedom."--BOOK JACKET.
Genealogy "opposes itself to the search for "origins"".
"The development of humanity is a series of interpretations. The role of genealogy is to record its history: the history of morals, ideals, and metaphysical concepts, the history of the concept of liberty or the ascetic life".
"Among the philosophers idiosyncrasies is a complete denial of the body".
"Where religions once demanded the sacrifice of bodies, knowledge now calls for experimentation on ourselves, calls us to the sacrifice of the subject of knowledge. The desire for knowledge has been transformed among us into a passion which fears no sacrifice, which fears nothing but its own extinction. It may be that mankind will eventually perish from this passion for knowledge. If not through passion, than through weakness."
Within feminism, the argument between realism and relativism appears to be both acute and political. I shall examine this argument, primarily from a political point of view. My philosophical education taught me to follow reason wherever it went and to distrust political considerations. My experience as a feminist has taught me to stick by my political commitments even when I appear to have lost the argument. In this paper I am trying to reconcile this conflict and I hope to demonstrate that, at least in social and political spheres, the political is, and should be, given equal consideration to the epistemological. I shall do this by first looking at the strengths and weaknesses of the two positions, and suggest that the differences are not as great as first appears, because both need to appeal to the same community, in the same way, in order to decide what is the case and what we should do about it. I call this community a ‘community of resistance’, borrowing the term from liberation theology,1 and I see it not merely as a way of being with other people, but as a way of being in, and knowing, the world; a way which sees both politics and knowledge as process, rather than as achievement. While the paper appears to be about relativism, my main concern is to make explicit the way in which this community offers the democratic epistemology which I seek.
Two central, interconnected tasks that face feminist philosophers working in theory of knowledge are that of finding appropriate ways of knowing women’s experiences and the structures that shape them; and that of developing theoretical accounts of knowledge which retain continuity with those experiences. To perform the first task adequately, it is necessary, among other things, to break out of stereotyped perceptions of woman’s ‘nature’ which work, persistently, to constrain possibilities of knowing well. In this connection, I shall argue that ways of knowing can be judged ‘appropriate’ partly on the basis of responsibility manifested by cognitive agents in making knowledge claims, and in acting upon assumptions that they know. Adequate performance of the second task requires a shift in perspective about the purpose of ‘the epistemological project’. It involves moving away from theoretical positions which advocate a purity in knowledge that would leave experience behind in a search for an epistemic ideal of unrealisable clarity.
Issues about women’s autonomy have been central to feminist thinking and action. Women have so often been in situations of powerlessness and dependence that any system of belief or programme of action that could count as ‘feminist’ must in some way see this as a central concern. But what is meant by ‘autonomy’ and under what conditions is it possible? This has been an important and contentious question in philosophy. But questions about autonomy, and related questions about self and identity have also been important to feminism, and within feminist thinking it is possible to find radically different ways of thinking about these things. In this paper, I want to look at one kind of way in which some feminists have tried to conceptualise what it is for a woman to be ‘autonomous’, and at the implications this has for ways of thinking about the human self. I shall argue that this conception is not only philosophically problematic, but also has an implicit politics which is potentially damaging. And I shall try to suggest some ways of beginning to think about ‘autonomy’ which seem to me to be more fruitful and adequate, and to draw on different traditions of thinking about the self which have become influential in some recent feminist thinking.
This study sought to describe the degree of success of a basic tenet of liberal feminism in providing equal opportunity as defined by female representation in the NCAA. The study showed how the NCAA is reflective of an association that is an instrument of domination. The purpose of the study was to determine the number of women holding leadership positions at the campus level in NCAA labeled functions. These data were compared with similar 1987-88 data. In addition, male and female representatives at the national level on committees and councils were compared to similar data collected in 1987-88. A gender comparison was made with the 1992-93 data involving NCAA national committees. The data revealed that there were significantly more males than females on NCAA national committees in 1992-93. The results of χ2 tests between years and female representation revealed no significant increase in female representation between 1987 and 1993; however, there was an increase in female representation beyond the manda...
The purpose of this paper is to present a historical overview of the role of women in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) since the demise of the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW). The paper traces the reluctance of some men and women to form this uneasy alliance. The paper presents evidence showing that the NCAA recognizes that women's athletics are part of the organization and that they deserve recognition and concern. However, the paper also shows that when substantive changes in the NCAA appeared imminent and the degree of recognition approached proportional equity, the pervasive and strong loyalty to the status quo quelled any proactive legislation that might include equal voice for reform in the organization.
This article examines television’s portrayal of female athletes during the 1992 winter Games. Although women are depicted in physically challenging events that defy stereotypical notions of femininity, such as mogul skiing, luge, and the biathlon, rhetorical analysis suggests that the sports media reinforce a masculine sports hegemony through strategies of marginalization. These include the application of condescending descriptors, the use of compensatory rhetoric, the construction of female athletes according to an adolescent ideal, and the presentation of female athletes as driven by cooperation rather than competition.
In this paper I explain the scholarly role of stories and argue for their power and efficacy in creating a particular kind of truth. Drawing on philosopher Richard Rorty’s insights about the “narrative turn,” I describe the importance of stories in particular and the imagination in general as tools for increasing our sensitivity to the pain of others. Stories convey the suffering of those whom we might be tempted to dismiss as having nothing in common with us. Stories allow us to re-envision ourselves as the marginalized Other, and thereby offer us the possibility of moral behavior. The measure of truth in stories is not a standard of objectivity, but rather their power to evoke the vividness of experience. Throughout this discussion, I weave my own stories about stigmatized bodies to illustrate how one might use the narrative turn in sport sociology.
We interrogate Nike’s implication in the developments of 1980s and 1990s popular feminisms by contextualizing and examining the advertising strategies deployed by Nike in its efforts to seduce women consumers. Although Nike is represented as progressive and pro-women, we demonstrate Nike’s alliance with normative forces dominating 1980s America. We suggest that Nike’s solicitation relies on the logic of addiction, which demonized those people most affected by post-Fordist dynamics. While Nike’s narrations of “empowerment” appeal to a deep, authentic self located at the crossroads of power and lifestyle, we suggest that these narratives offer ways of thinking/identities that impede political action. Finally, we consider the relations among Nike, celebrity feminism, and the complex and invisible dynamics that enable transnationals to exploit Third World women workers.
This paper evaluates a growing genre of studies of masculinity and sport. It is argued that sport sociology, like sociology in general, has become more gender conscious but not necessarily more feminist. Feminist critiques of objectivism and value-free sociology and feminist calls for a values-based feminist standpoint are discussed. Two responses to feminism by male scholars—antifeminist masculinism and profeminism—are discussed and critically analyzed. Finally, it is argued that studies of masculinity and sport are more likely to tell a true story if they are grounded in an inclusive feminism, which utilizes multiple standpoints that take into account the intersections of class, race, gender, and other systems of domination and subordination.
In this study, we examine how sports commentators minimized women’s athletic participation, abilities, and achievements in the 1992 televised “Battle of the Champions” tennis competition between Martina Navratilova and Jimmy Connors. Using content analysis, we found clear differences in naming practices, adjective and adverb use, amount and type of praise and criticism, and character flaws attributed to the players. In the unique case of male versus female athletic competition it also becomes apparent that commentators “gender” the athletic event. Although women have made great strides in sport, their achievements will continue to be meaningless as long as sports broadcasters undermine, trivialize, and minimize women’s performances through biased commentaries.