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Journal of Human Sciences
Print ISSN: 1992-2876
e-ISSN: 2523-9899
https://jouhum.uobabylon.edu.iq/
15
The Persuasive Political Style of Elite Statesmen
Manaf Abdul Hussain Mahdi 1*
1 Department of English, College of Education, University of Kerbala, Iraq.
Corresponding Author: Waleed Khalid Abdul Abbas
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Received: 11/11/2021
Accepted: 16/12/2021
Volume: 13
Issue: 1
The research presents a theoretical and practical study of the persuasive political
style that politicians emulate. The metaphorical language is chosen as a kind of
persuasive style used by politicians to persuade their audience. With regard to the
theoretical section, the content of the research presents a number of definitions and
opinions of some famous linguists such as: Nom Chomsky, Jeffrey Leech, George
Lakoof and others who have a long experience in analysing political texts. Regarding
the practical chapter, the research reviews a number of political texts. It begins with
a comparison between the politicians from the past and others from the
contemporary times. The metaphorical style in the texts used by the politicians is the
main element in persuading the public to the side of the politician. The aim of the
study is to show the difference between the politics of the past and the politics of
the contemporary time. It is clear from the analytical study that there is no difference
between them. This is because the goal is the same, which is to achieve personal
interests not to achieve the principles of justice and equality among the people.
Practically speaking, linguistic views and theories have been successfully applied to
the selected political texts which give important results produced by the stylistic
analysis. These linguistic views and theories proved the research hypothesis which
states that politicians use a persuasive style in order to gain personal interests and
not to achieve principles of justice and freedom.
KEYWORDS
1. Introduction
Bell (1991:45) disputes that prosperous speakers of political argumentation, need to satisfy the requirements, emotions
and aspirations of their people. When the successful politicians create a strong relationship with audience, the people are
satisfied that their requirements and ambitions will be fulfilled. To achieve a national unity is to make a sense of agreement
between the society and the members of parliaments. It is worth mentioning that the prosperous statesmen who are struggling
to foster national unity, often use language to manipulate the public opinions for their benefit. (Ball & Peters 2005: 81).
Van Dijk (1991:44) states that the variety of Language used by the members of parliament is so complicated and twisted
to manipulate the society's opinions and emotions for their benefit to support their parties and institutions and not for justice
or human rights. How to deliver a political speech is fundamentally different from giving a press or academic speech. Each of
them needs a different approach, skills and awareness of the listening audience. Political discourse takes a long time, tone of
voice, and linguistic style which combine together to exert a clear influence on the listeners to convince them of the power of
the absolute debate (Joseph,2006:69). Eventually, every political discourse has two meanings one is the literal meaning and
other is dramatically different. For example, the term ''Communism'' has a literal meaning in a political discourse to mean that
the power is in the hand of people. The core principle of communism is that the society controls everything in the state, while,
in fact, the second meaning of communism shows the contradiction in reality. People have absolutely nothing to do and
freedoms are restricted. The second example of political discourse is the term ''Democracy''. Democracy in political discourse
means that the population participate in political decisions, while the actual meaning of democracy, especially, in the United
States, which represent democracy in the world the people suffer from poverty and they have no value in determining the
political decisions. The evidence for this is the recent wars on Afghanistan and Iraq. Only the government decided to wage the
The Persuasive Political Style of Elite Statesmen
16
war while the American street rejected the war, but in vain. So, it is clear between the literal meaning and the actual meaning
of political terms used by politicians (Chomsky,1969:66).
Crystal (2003:378) clarifies that the language of politics violates the rules of the co-operative principle. Members of
parliament use a method of argument that is contradictory for '' Gricean maxims''. Their speech is inconsistent between their
speech in the parliament hall and their speech in their secret meeting. For this reason, the citizen remains confused about
what is the secret in the parliament building that causes politicians to change their words, as the listener considers them to be
other people. When a citizen hears the words of politicians in the dome of the parliament, he feels and in every confidence
that the speaker is a fraud, and there is no relationship between reality and their utopian words. In addition to a violation of
the meaning of the relationship in speech, the politician also violates the principle of quantity in speech in that he wraps around
the topic and does not directly answer the question. As well as their speech, depends entirely on speculation and suspicion,
which makes their speech lose the principle of quality, and the loss of this characteristic means the speaker is a liar and a
charlatan.
George Lakoff (1980: 88) is an American philosopher and a linguist, who has presented many books and researches related
to the metaphorical mental meaning. His famous thesis illustrates that the lives of individuals are greatly influenced by the
central metaphors that people use to explain complex phenomena. His dissertation on conceptual analogy and metaphor,
which he presented with philosopher Mark Johnson in their book ''Metaphors We Live By'' in 1980, established applications in
a lot of theoretical domains . These applications are applied to : politics, literature and philosophy, which led him to a concept
that is usually considered a fundamental pillar of political science. These theoretical domains have enabled Lakoff to write his
famous book in 1996 "Moral Politics''. Lakoff pictures metaphorically conservative voters affected by the "strict father model".
He uses the rhetorical metaphor of resembling conservative voters to the state of police, while liberal voters are to be affected
by the "loving compassionate father". He likens the liberals to a family, and how a compassionate father protects his family
members from corruption, homelessness and poverty. According to the author's linguistic philosophy, the political, moral and
social life of society depends largely on the individual's knowledge of the linguistic structure. George Lakoff, in his book
''Metaphor and War'', has shown how the US administration is to justify the war in the Arabian Gulf by using the linguistic
metaphor.
Regarding metaphorical language and wordplay used by politicians, Geffroey Leech (1969:152) classifies four aspects of
metaphorical expressions in his book (A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry). They are: 1)- The concretive metaphor which
imparts tangible properties to an abstract entity.2)- The animistic metaphor which imparts animate characteristics to an
inanimate being. 3)- The humanizing metaphor which imparts human characteristics to a non-human. 4)- The synesthetic
metaphor which transfers meaning from one domain of sensory perception to another. George Orwell is an English writer, a
journalist and a political analyst who has long criticized totalitarian and authoritarian rule for the lack of social justice while
supporting socialism and democracy. Orwell has demonstrated the bad side of politicians' language, especially, the pioneers of
totalitarian and authoritarianism who have introduced many words to the English language such as '' big brother, double
thinking and cold war''. He is best known for his allegorical novel ''Animal Farm''. Orwell uses the metaphorical meaning in this
novel to describe the politicians in the form of animals as a reaction from the writer to the actions of politicians in ruling the
state. Through his critical article, he criticizes the hypocritical politicians for distorting the English language. They make language
imprecise in describing truths, as they change truths by making lies. They make the murderer respectable while the innocent
accused. As George described, the language of the hypocrites is vague and ambiguous that has become an infection that
spreads among people. They use metaphors, graceful phrases and complex grammatical structures to mask their bad
intentions.
Accordingly, it is clear that the use of metaphor and the double meaning to distort the truth is the approach of politicians
in managing the state. This is evident in the opinions of linguists, political analysts and literary critics such as: Geoffrey Leech,
George Orwell, George Lakoff, David Crystal and Noam Chomsky and others who have a wide experience in the political text
analysis. They unanimously agreed that politicians use metaphor and double meaning of words so that the literal meaning is
completely different from the second meaning to describe the truth as showed by the linguist and political analyst like Nom
Chomsky in his book (Language and Politics). This statement applies in the linguistic analysis of George Lakoff when he said that
the metaphorical meaning that politicians use to convince their audience of their views is to turn the political scene in their
favor. This is clear in the politicians' use of metaphorical expressions to describe their parties, such as ''the firm father'' when
describing the conservative party, or as ''the affectionate father'', who preserves his family when describing the liberal party.
Therefore, the researcher decides to rely on the opinions of linguists and analysts by adopting the metaphorical meaning and
double meaning of words as a model of analysis in describing politicians’ language. It is the way to analyse their texts as a
method of persuasive style. The study will depend on a comparison between the politicians of history and the politicians of
contemporary time to show the similarities and differences.
Journal of Human Sciences 13 (1):15-20
17
2. Analysis of Political Texts
2.1 Text One
''Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones
My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,
And I must pause till it come back to me ''
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
(from Julius Caesar, spoken by Marc Antony)
In this historical scene, and in order to link the politicians of the past and the politicians of the contemporary time. Marc
Antony wants to turn the political scene in his favour when he requested to deliver a speech to the audience, as this speech
contains emotional phrases and metaphorical meanings that shake feelings for his favour and to turn the events against the
revolutionaries Brutus and his other companions. He begins his speech with linguistic words that affected the feelings of the
audience when he describes them as ‘’friends’’ to win their affection. In fact, for Antony, the word "friends" has two meanings.
The literal meaning is that he considers the Roman citizens his friends and loves them, while the other meaning for him is that
they are just a mob whom he uses them as a tool to kill Brutus. He uses metaphorical expressions to turn the sentiments of the
people against the putschists and to incite the public to kill Brutus. He describes evil deeds as living even after the death of a
person when he said ‘’ The evil that men do lives after them;’’. He describes charitable deeds as being buried with their bones
when he says: ‘’The good is oft interred with their bones’’. He also uses metaphorical expressions when he describes his heart
as being with Caesar while he is waiting for his heart to return to him. He says: ‘’My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, And
I must pause till it come back to me ‘’ Those metaphors that Antony cleverly used changed people's feelings against Brutus to
take revenge on him and turn the joy of the revolution into weeping for Caesar. According to Leech’s analysis of metaphorical
meaning, these uses of metaphors are called humanizing metaphors which ascribe human qualities to those which are not
human.
2.2 Text Two
‘’Cuba as a woman, a neighbor, a ripe fruit, and a child learning to ride a bicycle’’
Louis A. Perez Jr. (8/15/2008)
Cuba in the American imagination (Appendix 1)
Cuban-American relations were at their best before the Cuban Revolution and Castro's accession to power. Where the
United States proposed to buy the island in order to obtain the lion's share in the investments and to control the exports and
imports of the island. For nearly 200 years, the US administration has used a metaphorical language that brought the US-Cuban
relations closer to unifying the interests between the two countries. They used a metaphorical style comparing Cuba and giving
it human characteristics. According to Leech’s classifications, this is humanizing metaphor. It is compared to a woman and a
child learning to ride a bicycle. This kind of metaphorical language used by the American administration is a kind of persuasive
style to bring the interests closer between the two countries.
2.3 Text Three
‘’Cuba of trying to develop biological weapons, adding the country to Washington’s list of axes of evil courtiers.’’
US President George Bush (Appendix 2)
The Persuasive Political Style of Elite Statesmen
18
The language used showed the deterioration of US-Cuban relations after the Cuban Revolution and Castro's accession to
power. This deterioration in relations prompted the US administration to impose an economic and military embargo on Cuba,
in addition to describing it in words that made it a pariah in the international community.
Therefore, the US administration expressed in a rhetorical and metaphorical manner, which aimed at inflaming world
opinion against Cuba and made it isolated from the world by using linguistic words that compared Cuba to the axis of evil in
the world through using metaphorical language as a persuasive style. This type of metaphorical style is called the concretive
metaphor according to the classification of Geoffrey Leech, which attributes abstract properties to concrete entities. So, th e
government of Cuba is compared to ‘’axis of evil’’. With the change of interests and time, the style of American politician has
changed according to the requirements of their interests, not for freedom and justice
2.4 Text Four
‘’The American faith in freedom and democracy as a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations’’
Us President George W. Bush (Appendix 3)
The false slogans that the US administration claimed to raise were delusions of the American imagination. These false
illusions were exploited by successive US governments to achieve their interests at the expense of others. The US
administration used a persuasive political style including a metaphorical language that compared freedom and American
democracy and likened them to seeds that took their origins from different nations. This metaphor is intended to convey an
idea that American democracy is rooted in all nations. in addition to the fact that these words freedom and democracy are in
fact, as the linguist and political analyst Noam Chomsky said that they have two meanings for politicians. The first meaning is
the literal meaning that is the apparent meaning in which society is deceived because these words contain ideals and lofty
values but, in fact, the second meaning is a radically different meaning that does not relate to freedom or democracy in
anything.
2.5 Text Five
‘’ As I told the prime minster the United State has no closer friend and ally than the United Kingdom’’
US President Barak Obama (Appendix 4)
British-American relations prolonged back to several years, which was formerly known as the Anglo-American relationship.
In fact, they are united by the association of language, religion and European race. US President Barack Obama used a
metaphorical style comparing the relations between the United States and Britain as very close friends, thus adding human
characteristics to the relationship between the two countries. This is a metaphorical style intended to bring common interests
closer, as well as to remind with historical relationship between them. These two alliance countries, whose relationship roots
go back to many years, linked to the common goals of domination of the European continent. They are two colonial countries
that controlled the countries of the Middle East with their expansionist ideas. This type of metaphor is called humanizing
metaphor, which imparts human characteristics to non-human beings.
2.6 Text Six
‘’Politics is a fight/war’’
Us President Barak Obama’s inaugural speech (Appendix 5)
US President Barack Obama began his speech in a metaphorical style, describing politics as a fight or war. It is considered
a fight, because the fate of the peoples depends on the successful policy in managing the country. This metaphorical method
used by the American president may be referring to the electoral battle or the demonstrations in which the people come out
for change. This kind of metaphorical language, according to Geoffrey Leech's analysis, is called the synesthetic metaphor
which transfer meaning from one domain of sensory perception to another.
2.7 Text Seven
‘’ The United Nations Security Council approved for the first time in 23 years mandatory sanctions under chapter VII of the
United Nations Charter. These sanctions, now enshrined in international law have the potential to deny Iraq the fruits of
aggression while sharply limiting its ability to either import or export anything of value, especially oil.’’
Journal of Human Sciences 13 (1):15-20
19
Address on Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait
George H. W. Bush (Appendix 6)
US President Barack Obama began his speech with a metaphor, comparing the sanctions imposed on Iraq by the United
Nations as a reward for the occupation of Kuwait. The American president likened these sanctions to being a product of
aggression against a brotherly country. Through this metaphorical style, the US president was trying to persuade the world
opinion to side with the United States against Iraq. He used the phrase, (fruit of aggression) to make a metaphorical comparison
with these sanctions which led to the imposition of a siege that has lasted for many years. These sanctions starved the Iraqi
people and destroyed the country’s infrastructure. As the result of this siege that was more severe than the traditional war
because of its impact on the social reality of the country. This type of a metaphorical style, according to Leech’s analysis is
called concretive metaphor which confer characteristics of concreteness to an abstraction.
2.8 Text Eight
‘’ A puppet regime imposed from the outside is unacceptable’’
Address on Iraq’s Invasion of Kuwait (August 8/ 1990)
George H. W. Bush (Appendix 7)
Once again, the US president attacked the interim Iraqi government in occupied Kuwait, describing it as a caricatured
government. Therefore, the US president deliberately used a metaphorical style to compare the Iraqi interim government with
the phrase(A puppet regime) . This language is considered to be a persuasive style whose purpose is to seek global support
from the United Nations to stand by the United States in waging a war against Iraq and expelling the Iraqi army from Kuwaiti
lands. As for the other matter, it was persuading other countries to restore the Kuwaiti government to power and punish Iraq
by imposing economic sanctions on it.
2.9 Text Nine
‘’ It was with great sadness that I learned of lady Thatcher’s death. We have lost a great leader, a great prime minister
and a great Briton.’’
Prime Minster David Cameron (Appendix 8)
British Prime Minister David Cameron used a metaphorical phrase in his speech. It was used to compare the former Prime
Minister of Britain, Mary Thatcher, with Great Britain. This figurative language he used in eulogizing Thatcher was of gratitude
for the work and devotion she has done for her country. Where the rise of political and economically in the country and
preserved the reputation of Great Britain from economic and political collapse. Therefore, she was nicknamed by many titles,
including: The Iron Woman, Great Britain, and The Steel Personality. This iron figure was known for her daring liberal economic
and political actions. After she came to power, she carried out a series of political and economic reforms that they were very
daring. They were not accepted, especially by the trade unions, but their results were in the interest of the country and kept
it from economic collapse after years of political and economic collapse wrecked Britain. This type of metaphor, according to
Jeffrey Leech's classification, is called the humanizing metaphor, because it imparts human characteristics to a non-human
being
8. Conclusions
In conclusion, our study on the persuasive political style is in the light of a confused political life. The researcher has seen that
it is an important requirement that needs careful consideration, especially in this period. Opportunists’ politicians are ruling
who are only concerned with their personal interest at the expense of the interest of their people and their countries. The
research reviewed a group of speeches by political leaders who have a political and economic influence in society. Where the
research began with a historical comparison between the politicians of the past and others of the contemporary time. The
perfect example of conveying the image of past politicians was part of Antony's sermon inflaming popular opinion against
The Persuasive Political Style of Elite Statesmen
20
Brutus. Using words and metaphors, Antony was able to defeat Brutus and his companions and bring the people to his side for
his own good and not for the interest of Rome. In line with the same opportunist approach, we clearly see the lies and hypocrisy
of contemporary politicians, such as the Americans and the British.
Through research, we have seen how the words of American politicians towards Cuba have changed according to their
interests. About 200 years ago, they praised them in beautiful terms, but in the modern era, after the Cuban revolution, the
praise turned into satire, and they considered them the axis of evil in the world. Accordingly, the principles and goals are the
same. There is no difference between the politician of today and the politician of the past. Their goals and needs are their
interests, not the country and the citizen. The researcher relied on a group of linguists, such as: Nom Chomsky, Jeffrey Leech
and others who have a long experience in analysing political texts. Through the research, the metaphorical style had an impact
on persuading the audience, as some politicians were able, through this metaphorical language, to turn political reality and
events to their advantage.
References
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Bell, A. 1991 . The Language of the News Media. Oxford: Blackwell.
Crystal, D. 2003. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Chomsky, Noam .1969. American Power and the New Mandarins. Ney york: Pantheon Books.
Joseph, John .2006. Language and Politics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1980. Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Leech, Geoffrey .1969. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. London: Longman Group Ltd.
McDonald, Russ .2001. The Bedford Companion to Shakespeare: An introduction with Documents. Bedford: Bedford
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References from internet site
Louis A Perez .2002. "Cuba in the American imagination: Metaphor and the Imperial Ethos"
WWW.Amazon.com/CubaAmerican.Imagination-metaphor
Margaret Thatcher's death. www.bbc.com/news/uk.22o66982
Obama https://en-wikipedia.org/wiki/Special-Relationship
Obama .2009. Presidential inauguration. www.inaugural.senate.gov/swearing-inaddressn.co.uk.
Orwell, G. 1946. "Politics and the English Language". Retrieved on June 14/2015 www.Orwell.ru/library/essays
US President George W. Bush “Address on Iraq' invasion of Kuwait” www.millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech
US President George W. Bush Persuasive Technique in Language. WWW.zigzageducation.com
Timeline Us-Cuba relations: www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america