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Environmental Sustainability and Sports Management: A Review of
Marketing Contributions and Discussion of Future Research Opportunities.
Ricardo Roseira Cayolla1 2 [0000-0003-4015-7363], Marco Escadas 3 4
1 REMIT/UPT, Universidade Portucalense, Porto, Portugal
2 GOVCOP, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
3 University of Minho, School of Economics and Management, Braga, Portugal
4 Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Hospitality and Tourism School, Barcelos, Portugal
ricardo.cayolla@gmail.com mescadas@eeg.uminho.pt
Abstract. In this research, we provide an overview of the increasing area of
environmental sustainability in the sport management field and discuss future
research opportunities. Through a division of topics that we consider most
impactful, a selection of the research that has been implemented is presented, as
well as their results and possible future directions. We conclude with a final
reflection to extend and deepen sustainability studies in sport management.
Keywords: Environmental Sustainability, Sport Management, Marketing
1 Introduction
The sports industry is among the most important in the world. It generates billions of euros
annually and is of enormous importance in society: financially, socially, emotionally, from a
sustainable perspective (McCullough et al., 2020). Marketing and communication can function
as essential vehicles in conveying the intended message (Sutton et al., 1997). The development
of modern technology allows new ways to reach a vast audience (Shah, 2016). In consumers,
the perception of initiatives carried out by sports organizations is a sphere where marketing can
assist the sports industry (Trendafilova & McCullough, 2018). Recently, we have witnessed an
enormous effort by sport management in terms of sustainability initiatives, namely from the
perspective of environmental perspective such as Casper et al. (2020) Cayolla et al. (2021),
Trail ad Mccullough (2020). However, further research is needed to examine the influential
impact of such sustainability initiatives on the various stakeholders, as well as its subsequent
results in observable and measurable decisions and behaviors.
The general society is increasingly involved with climate changes, and sports
stakeholders are no exception. The sustainability practiced by sports organizations can be a
way to strengthen ties between communities, increase the fan base, make operations less
financially burdensome and benefit society globally (Trendafilova et al., 2013, p. 298). The
excitement derived from watching sporting events makes them more memorable. Combined
with a high level of consumer identification with the brand, it can facilitate consumer behavior
change towards greater sustainability.
This article begins by addressing the Environmental Impacts of Sport, an undeniable
reality resulting from a considerable mass of followers of the sports phenomenon. It then
presents studies on how to Manage Sustainability in Sport. It addresses several sports and
theories to try to explain how sports activity should be managed from an environmental
sustainability perspective. The Sustainability Facility is the next topic, particularly concerning
stadiums and countries that harvest mega-events. The sports consumer is unique because of the
strong emotions that characterize the activity. Fan Engagement is also an object of study from
a theoretical logic and applicability. Attitudes and Consumer Behaviors close the presentation
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of works achieved, highlighting the lack of models that control and monitor consumer
behaviours. Finally, we present a conclusion.
2 Environmental Impacts of Sport
Except for some deniers, climate change is a reality that today affects the quality of life
of many citizens. Diagnosing the existence of the sports industry requires more profound
knowledge, both at the micro level (e.g., individual as family planning) and macro level (e.g.,
in the definition of policies and their subsequent implementation).
Through questionnaires and interviews with directors of sporting events as well as
volunteers, among the first to conduct studies to evaluate the environmental performance of an
international multi-sport event were Mallen et al. (2010). The authors conclude that once a
plateau of results has been reached regarding environmental performance, structural, systemic
and cultural measures are necessary to define policies and subsequent implementation of the
respective programs. The success of sporting events from an ecological perspective, whether
strategic or operational, is a consequence of the measures to be defined.
The practice of sports, particularly for the youngest, has a considerable impact on the
environment due to the trips made by parents to enable them to practice their favorite sport.
For example, 75% of families with a school-age child in the United States alone engage in an
organized sporting activity. The steps taken to reduce this type of negative impact are essential.
Bunds et al. (2018) studied 172 guardians of a sports swimming team with a jam-packed
competitive calendar consisting of 47 weeks of competitive activity. The study's objective was
to measure the environmental impact of the trips carried out. The use of the car, mainly for the
trips made, is a reality. The authors suggest using carpooling and including other objectives in
addition to going to the sports facility (e.g., grocery shopping) as measures to reduce the
environmental impact.
The carbon footprint caused by spectators in transport to access university sporting
events was studied by Triantafyllidis et al. (2018). One of the essential factors to consider is
the stadium's location and the spectator's area of residence. The authors chose on- and off-
campus locations, defining them as high-density and low-density, respectively. They
concluded that, depending on the sites in question, the type of transport chosen by the
participants differs. The metro is more used in the more densely populated area, with car-
pooling and buses more used in the less densely populated place. The analysis of these two
different stadium locations gives accurate insight into how spectator mode of transport has
influenced CO2 emissions and whether stadium location changes CO2 emissions per spectator.
The need for quantitative studies on the environmental impact of events is a fact. In
small-scale university sporting events held at a university, Dolf and Teehan (2015) examined
the carbon footprint of spectators and teams' travel by analyzing travel patterns. They
concluded that university spectators had a smaller footprint than teams per person, but a wider
overall carbon footprint. The authors advise measures to diminish the footprint of spectators
and teams, namely through a shorter number of long-distance air travel and rising the vehicle
occupancy rate.
As the sports industry, by its very genesis, pollutes, sports organizations have
accomplished, in the last decade, a set of more environmentally friendly practices. The research
objective of Triantafyllidis (2018) was to study the CO2 emissions produced in the sports
industry. The report shows that only measures with a management approach and the
development of sustainable policies can “attack” this problem. After a review of the literature,
the author concludes that it is necessary for sports organizations to have specific practices,
namely in the mobility of spectators, thus promoting more sustainable displacement.
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The reality is that sports organizations have been evaluating, in addition to the
economic impact, the environmental impact. For McCullough et al. (2020), while it is
important to underline this fact, further progress is needed. Monitoring and measuring
sustainable practices in all aspects, including negative ones, becomes imperative. In this study,
the authors first reviewed the literature that analyzes and reports on sports' environmental
impact. Then, they propose a model, thus expanding more understandably, the evaluation to be
carried out and the identification of specific aspects of sporting events to reduce their
environmental impacts.
Mobility is a “sine-qua-non” condition for the success of the sports industry, whether
on an amateur or more professional basis. It is necessary to have sustainability reports about
the events carried out, namely the environmental impact caused. Possible future research
directions may focus on the policies to be defined, the strategy of sports organizations and
subsequent implementation, and the family organization itself.
3 Managing Sustainability in Sports
Since the beginning of the millennium, sport organizations have had a genuine concern
regarding their performance in sustainability areas (REF BIBLIOG). The social importance of
sport has been constant over time. In this way, sport can serve as a facilitator of social change.
The sports industry has been making efforts to be more sustainable. Organizational
learning is a reality, and the sports industry may better understand and combine efforts made
in environmental sustainability initiatives. Employing two theoretical models (i.e., institutional
theory and diffusion of innovation) McCullough et al. (2016) uses examples from different
sports organizations and competitive leagues to classify the efforts made. They call these
examples “waves” and reflect on the possible implications arising from these efforts.
For johnson & Ali (2018) what has been done and the actual results of the initiatives
carried out are essential to take into account in the field of sustainability. They recognize the
effort sports organizations and event organizers have made to be more sustainable. They begin
their study with concrete, structuring questions about sustainability. "What is the true meaning
of sustainability?" "How do consumers perceive it?" "How are sustainable goals implemented,
and what is their true effectiveness and efficiency?" From these questions, the authors present
examples of greenwashing in the history of the Olympic Games, as well as two examples from
professional sports: NASCAR and the National Hockey League (NHL). They finish with two
recommendations: firstly, sports organizations should define, measure and evaluate
sustainability; secondly, there must be a closer link between government actions and the sports
industry to sustainability improves.
By consulting websites, academic journals and magazines Wall-Tweedie and Nguyen,
(2018) studied the dissemination of activities related to environmental sustainability (ES) in
different modalities (football, basketball, baseball, and rugby, among others). The results
indicate low communication of ES practices by professional sport teams in the Asia-Pacific
region compared to North America. They propose future studies on relationships, where the
wealth of data can be complemented by analyzing factors such as attitudes, cognition or
behavior. Studies must be conducted outside North America, confirming or extending data
from investigations already carried out. The use of interviews to understand the reasons and
expected results or to obtain data to understand the public's perceptions and expectations in
these markets is also suggested.
In the four major North American leagues (NBA, NFL, MLB, and NHL), Trendafilova
and Babiak (2013) interviewed executives in their consulting, advisory, non-profit, and
corporate partner firms who were responsible or assisting with the design, implementation and
management of the environmental initiatives. The strategic importance for clubs of ecological
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practices, both in a generous logic and as a double benefit: organizational and social. This study
reinforces the importance of the environment as an essential pillar of sustainability strategies.
During the pandemic, three months after the suspension of public attendance at sporting
events, Cayolla et al. (2021) completed an online survey with a total of 5917 stakeholders
(partners, employees and sponsors) of a Professional Sport Team ( PST). This research aims to
deepen the importance of environmentally sustainable initiatives in sport (ESIS). Three topics
were considered (i.e., climate change and energy consumption, environmental impact of
sporting events, health and well-being) and analyzed under three forms of sustainability:
organizational, community and individual. Through a descriptive analysis of the results, the
theme most valued by partners and employees is health and well-being in a sustainable
individual form. At the same time, sponsors prefer more collective structures (i.e.,
organizational and community).
Based on the United Nations definition of higher education and supported by Kuskus's
(2007) environmental citizenship model, Busch and Hoffmanns's (2009) environmental
dimensions model, as well as a vision of the future (Belz, 2006), Mallen and Chard (2011)
present questions that are intended to be the beginning of a vigorous debate on the fate of
environmental sustainability at the sport academy. The model presented is nothing more than
the beginning of a discussion, and the extent and depth of it depend on the will and interest of
those involved in the sport academy.
For Sartore-Baldwin and McCullough (2018) sports organizations can be ecological
examples for other organizations in other industries. By incorporating ecocentric management
principles into their organizational practices, organizations that make up the sports industry can
be more environmentally friendly. In their work, firstly, they present a paradigm composed of
four levels of thought and respective values that identify and guide the practices of sports
organizations. Then they offer a set of propositions to adopt behaviors that reflect the values
of sports organizations.
The study of sustainability management in sport is still at a very seminal stage.
Collecting qualitative and quantitative studies is essential for a deeper understanding of the
subject, and studies on geographic contexts other than North America are something to
consider. Finally, knowing the opinion of the sport's primary stakeholders (i.e., the fans) is very
important. However, researchers should go further and also listen to the idea of sponsors,
managers and politicians who manage the public cause.
4 Facilities and Sustainable Initiatives
The places where the mega-events take place are the object of pilgrimages and are made
up of enormous symbolism. The stadiums where the mega-events are held are much more than
a symbolic issue as they represent a source of economic growth and a new way of being due to
consumers' behaviour when using the facilities. Careful study and analysis are required in the
planning and execution of these modern cathedrals.
Making sport mega-events more environmentally friendly has been a concern of sport
organizers, particularly in the last two decades. With the analysis and study of interviews
carried out with various stakeholders participating in the Beijing (2008), Singapore (2010) and
London (2012) Olympic Games, Samuel and Stubbs (2013) concluded there are transversal
measures (e.g., assuming publicly sustainable commitments, having sustainability as a basis in
the vision, mission and branding of the commission and organization). For the authors, these
measures allow for more excellent and better practices of sustainability policies and initiatives
that make these mega events more sustainable at all levels. Finally, reinforcing the
institutionalized sustainability characteristics in the sports organization is necessary.
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Currently, all organizations are faced with a degradation of the environmental
condition, and the sports industry is no exception. Starting from a case study of a specific
country, Canada, Mallen and Chard (2012) present a proposal for a guided vision adapted from
several reports unanimously recognized worldwide, as well as from several academic studies.
To better understand the phenomenon of sustainability and its impacts, they end with questions
that open new avenues for research.
The possible social change is always inherent to the activity of the sports industry. The
most visible symbol of the environmental flag for sports organizations is the stadium where the
events occur. Sport has enormous popularity and importance in society. Kellison et al. (2015)
interviewed 13 stadium architects wanting to learn more about the link between social change
and sustainable design and concluded that, in North America, only 40% of the stadiums are
new. That is, they follow directives in favor of more sustainable construction and future
behavior that is more environmentally friendly. The environmental movement and concerns
for a more sustainable world were significant in the conception and design of the stadium.
The sustainability initiatives executed in 16 North American stadiums were analyzed
by Mallen et al. (2010). Through questionnaires to three dozen experts, the authors made a
“state of the art” regarding the environmental sustainability of the stadiums in question,
including several domains (e.g., reported value, financial support, best practices, challenges).
They reveal future trends and advocate that the results in question can be an educational guide
that promotes discussions and debates that allow the development of environmental
sustainability.
It is well known that mega sporting events generate vast amounts of pollution.
Regarding environmental sustainability efficiency, it is crucial to have a criterion for choosing
the cities or countries that will host these events. Pereira et al. (2017) propose the Facility
Location Problem (FLP) model as a tool to be applied in the sports sector. With this study,
using a tool with proven evidence in other economic sectors and from a sustainability
management and planning perspective, it would be easier to choose cities and countries that
are candidates for mega sporting events. For this, it is necessary to change the current selection
criteria.
The topic related to the Facilities and Sustainable Initiativeshas not been the subject of
extensive research. From an environmental sustainability perspective, it's necessary to broaden
the scope (e.g., other countries, other sports, events of a more local nature but which involve a
greater frequency of action) and to create a volume of research. That allows greater certainty
about where we are and which way to go.
5 Fan Engagement
The importance of sport in today's society is an undeniable reality. The colossal stage
enjoyed in the most diverse media, combined with a strong sense of identity, can help make
consumers more aware of climate change and make society more environmentally friendly
through their behaviour. From the various studies published in recent years, we present authors
who cover the topic of fan engagement from different perspectives.
Based on Kelman's perspective, Inoue and Kent (2012b) investigated how a sports team
can induce consumers to behave in favor of the environment. In this study, carried out through
an online questionnaire composed of 197 students, the authors prove that positive
environmental practices increase the level of internalization of the team's values by the
consumer. The acknowledgement of this fact leads, on the part of the fan, to a greater intention
to support the team's environmental initiatives and include behaviors in favor of the
environment in their daily life. The authors conclude by reinforcing the role of the social impact
of sports organizations and highlighting the role of internalization in the entire process.
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About sustainability practices Ciletti et al. (2010) analyzed and examined from a triple
perspective (social, environmental and economic) the websites of 126 teams from four North
American leagues (NFL, MLB, NBA, NHL). Although the type of communication varies
according to the league in question, there is a common denominator. On websites, social items
are valued more than economic items. The authors conclude that, as far as sustainability
initiatives are concerned, close attention should be paid not only to the communication efforts
of sports organizations but also to consider the various stakeholders' perceptions. They warn
that these two factors have consequences concerning consumer behavior and attitude towards
professional sports.
Through Corporate Social Marketing (CSM), Inoue and Kent (2012a) investigated the
extent to which professional sports organizations can voluntarily influence fan behavior. An
online survey of supporters of two sports teams collected 620 valid responses. After studying
them, the authors conclude that corporate credibility influences organizations and the
characteristics of the programs developed. Concerning sustainability actions, the behavior of
the adept is a reflection of this corporate credibility. Interestingly, the authors find that
supporters with less involvement in environmental issues are more susceptible to the greater
importance of corporate credibility. Professional sports organizations' importance as a vehicle
for social improvement is thus proven due to their credibility in the CSM.
The design and construction of sports infrastructures emphasizing sustainability is an
excellent example of the importance of pro-environmental strategies in professional sports
organizations. It may result in positive results in three areas: environmental, social and
economic. Kellison and Kim (2014) interviewed ten directors from four North American sports
leagues (MLB, NBA, NFL, NHL). The authors found that sports organizations emphasize the
social component of sustainability. However, this does not mean that the other domains
(environmental and economic) are not closely linked. Still, there is a more significant concern
with the social component. With a focus on social, they hope to achieve two goals: raising
awareness among fans in the field of sustainability and attracting new fans, thus increasing the
business base.
For Mccullough and Kellison (2016), sports organizations have been implementing
measures to reduce this impact because the sports industry affects the natural environment.
Such actions range from energy improvements, to waste management programs, and a strong
connection with supporters (i.e., fan engagement). However, the results of the efforts of
initiatives related to fan engagement are contradictory. In this way, the authors propose,
through fan identification, the leverage of Sense Of Place (SOP). The objective would be to
achieve greater fan participation in this initiative. Consequently, there will be a decrease in the
environmental impact of the actions of sports organizations and at the individual level through
the behavior of fans. Through the explanation of practical examples, the authors present a
model that encompasses sports management and sustainability.
Sustainable behaviour is vital in events played at the stadium or opponents' facilities.
In college men's basketball, Casper et al. (2020) studied how the engagement initiatives carried
out by sports organizations for fans, associated with values and norms related to the
environment, influence their behavior in home games. Two hundred sixty-seven fans with
annual tickets were studied in two moments: before the season started and at the end of the
season. The assessment was based on memory and three environmental initiatives (recycling,
water conservation, and composting). The results indicate that personal values and norms are
not significantly related to changes in a particular behavior (i.e., at home). The rules for
sporting events enabled a more excellent perception of the benefits of recycling, thus
supporting that sustainability campaigns to achieve greater engagement of supporters are
effectively a communication and promotion lever for more sustainable behavior.
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Due to the vast audiences, sustainability initiatives carried out in sport can reach a vast
and heterogeneous audience. Although it is known that this type of initiative can help to
increase consumer awareness, there are few certainties about the actual effectiveness of
campaigns carried out with this objective. To try to find out more about what fans think about
the sustainability initiatives of a professional sports organization, Cayolla, Kellison, et al.
(2021) collected data at two different times (2020 and 2021). The authors studied the 1687
suggestions provided by members through an open question registry. Applying content
analysis, recommendations were summarized in five main themes: sustainable venue design,
eco-friendly matchday operations; green sponsorship activation; pro-environmental
communication; and improving matchday experience in general. They conclude that the
perception of the partners concerning the main themes suggested a greater awareness of the
themes related to sustainability.
From the studies presented, in general, more research is needed to understand how fans
receive the initiatives performed by sports organizations. More studies are required to
understand, for example, to what extent the current behaviors of fans are changed due to the
initiatives executed. Carrying out comparative studies between North American leagues and
leagues from other parts of the world is also a way forward. Knowing that it is difficult to get
the supporters' commitment to sustainable behaviors, realizing the degree to which consumers
are truly aware of the initiatives is another possible area of investigation.
6 Attitudes & Consumer Behaviors
In a way, consumer behavior is unpredictable. For sports organizations to begin
understanding the impact that the sustainability initiatives carried out have on the consumer is
very important. Communication comes into this equation, which is central to making known
what is being done. Then we describe the chosen studies on this topic.
The sports industry has been thoughtfully and committed to the issue of climate change.
Due to the lack of uniform models that allow the evaluation of environmental sustainability
initiatives, Trail and McCullough (2020) created and tested a model for evaluating
sustainability initiatives among participants in an endurance race, obtaining 531 responses. To
test for non-response bias, two response times (participants who completed the survey before
the last day and those who completed the previous day) and various factors (gender, education
level, family income and distance travelled to the race) were taken into account. The needs and
values of the participants are aspects to consider in the initiatives to be developed by sports
managers and managers.
Most studies on the carbon footprint focus on sporting events and, to a lesser extent, on
sporting teams. The perspective of active participants in sport was embraced by Wicker (2019),
through a study on the heterogeneity of individual consumer behavior in Germany. Through
online questionnaires, 6537 adults who practice twenty sports reported their behavior related
to sports trips, whether for regular training or competitions. The author concludes that a more
significant relationship exists between environmental awareness and a smaller carbon footprint
in favor of individual sports to the detriment of team sports. Interestingly, nature sports
participants had the highest emission levels.
Through a longitudinal study, Janssen et al. (2014) investigated the use of sunscreen
during snow vacations by 418 Dutch adults. Before the trip, two moments of evaluation were
designed. First, psychosocial factors were measured in a questionnaire (e.g., knowledge, risk,
social influence, among others). After the trip, the authors measured sunscreens and sunburn
frequency. The results show that, regardless of the intention to use sunscreen, about 40% did
not use it. Men and the youngest to respond are the highest risk group. The authors conclude
that using sunscreen, among others, predicts a positive attitude and high levels of efficacy.
8
Inoue and Kent (2014) have developed a conceptual model that explains how
companies can influence consumer behavior through initiatives carried out under the aegis of
Corporate Social Marketing (CSM), whether from a social or business benefit perspective. For
the authors, the company's credibility is critical in the sense that the effectiveness of CSM
initiatives depends on this factor. As antecedents of credibility, there are three levels to
consider: 1) the company's characteristics, 2) the characteristics of CSM initiatives, and 3) the
characteristics of the cause itself. They conclude that the credibility of the CSM influences the
intention of prosocial behavior and consumer loyalty.
Reducing the environmental impact of sports organizations is an objective to which the
sports industry is committed. However, it is tough to control the behavior of the fans on an
environmental level. This research by Trail ad Mccullough (2020) seeks to follow up on the
evaluation of sports sustainability campaigns in a sports organization. Over time, the authors
studied movements that addressed various topics (e.g., garbage collection, transport, and
energy conservation, among others). Needs and values influence attitudes towards
sustainability campaigns. The authors analyzed 182 caregivers of intellectually disabled
athletes and propose that sustainability intentions before the event predict sustainable behaviors
during the event, adding that a higher satisfaction rate with the campaigns carried out influences
a more sustainable behavior day by day.
The implementation of sustainability initiatives is a reality for many sports
organizations. Cayolla et al. (2022) analyzed the initiatives carried out at an unusual time –
during COVID19 and with the absence of fans at the stadiums, under two topics: diversity and
inclusion (i.e., in the public domain); and attraction and retention of human capital (i.e., not the
inner plane of the organization). Also, the authors added the distance from the fans' residences
to the stadium. The idea is to understand if there was any relationship between the distance and
the lesser or more significant knowledge of sustainability initiatives. Five thousand six hundred
ninety-four members answered the online questionnaire. The results indicate the importance of
knowing the initiatives with positive discrimination. Finally, distance affects positively or
negatively depending on the knowledge or lack of understanding of the initiatives.
Concerning sustainability initiatives, much more is known today than a decade ago
about consumer behavior, attitudes and ways of being. However, this is one of the areas where
a more significant amount of research is needed to have a more coherent and holistic view so
that sports organizations can effectively carry out sustainability initiatives with concrete
results. Using the models proposed in other contexts is possible, as well as carrying out studies
in other sports.
7 Conclusion
Far more is known today than just two decades ago in environmental sustainability.. In
sports, progress has been made very quickly in this specific area of sustainability. However,
the truth is that we are still in the first steps towards a more sustainable sports industry from an
environmental perspective. For sports organizations, simple actions such as making annual
reports, monitoring, controlling and evaluating the initiatives carried out are crucial for better
sustainable performance in all its perspectives: environmental, economic and social. Further,
standard vocabulary (e.g., ES, ESIS, SI) is also desirable for faster and deeper dissemination
and understanding of the research executed. We hope that the reflection provided by this
research paper can encourage this scientific journey.
9
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