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College of Arts, Sciences and Social Work
Department of Social Sciences
PORNOGRAPHY CONSUMPTION AND
INTENT TO SEEK SEXUAL CONSENT AMONG
FILIPINO YOUNG ADULTS: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF
PERCEIVED PORNOGRAPHY REALISM
College of Arts, Sciences, and Social Work
Philippine Christian University
Taft Avenue, Manila
Submitted by:
Bermudez, Angelina P.
Colcol, Jemimah Angela V.
Hernandez, Micaela A.
Nogar, Christine Denise O.
Submitted to:
Anna Marie A. Baron
School Year 2022-2023
College of Arts, Sciences and Social Work
Department of Social Sciences
II
APPROVAL SHEET
This thesis hereto entitled:
Pornography Consumption and Intent to Seek Sexual Consent Among
Filipino Young Adults: The Mediating Role of Perceived Pornography Realism,
prepared and submitted by Angelina P. Bermudez, Jemimah Angela V. Colcol, Micaela
A. Hernandez, and Christine Denise O. Nogar, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Psychology has been examined and is recommended
for approval for ORAL DEFENSE.
Anna Marie A. Baron, RPsy
Thesis Adviser
Approved by the panel on oral defense with a grade of PASSED on December 13, 2022.
Jan Raphael Q. Gonzales, RPm, RPsy Carlita A. de Gula, RGC, RPm
Chairperson Member
Agnes M. Macalipay, M.A. Paola M. Gonzales, RPm, RPsy
Member Member
This paper has been accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Arts in Psychology.
Mylene G. Dinglasan, Ed.D
Dean
College of Arts, Sciences, and Social Work
College of Arts, Sciences and Social Work
Department of Social Sciences
III
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are grateful and privileged to have completed this research paper with
exemplary determination. The success of our paper would not be possible without the
assistance and guidance of supportive individuals, as well as the cooperation of each
member. The researchers would like to acknowledge and appreciate the presence of these
people who guided and supported us throughout the journey of completing our research.
First and foremost, we give our deepest gratitude to our thesis adviser, Mrs. Anna
Marie A. Baron, for guiding us along the process of writing this research, giving
encouraging words to lift our spirits, advising on every flaw and to-do in the paper, and
for her efforts in relaying every comment she makes to improve our research. In all of the
meetings and consultations, our hearts are full and grateful to have her as our adviser.
We would also like to extend our sincere thanks to the panelists for their efforts
in reading, correcting, suggesting, and writing comments that were useful in the revision
of our research paper. We are truly thankful to have these professors who challenged us
to further pursue our study and gave us clear instructions for the betterment of our paper.
We give thanks to our family and friends who have encouraged and given us moral
support to finish this paper with excellence. Thank you for the prayers, the trust in our
capabilities, and for believing in us. We also like to recognize our respondents who gave
their time and effort to participate and make this research possible.
We are also extremely grateful to God for giving us wisdom and strength to finish
every chapter at the appointed time and for the exceptional skills that made this research
successful. As He gave us the courage to finish and persevere to continue in the
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completion of this paper, we give back the praise and glory to Him.
Last but certainly not least, we want to thank each member of the team. We are
thankful for not giving up and for giving all that we could for this research paper. We
would never have made it this far without the good relationship and the great leadership
of our leader. For all the sleepless nights, fatigue, and bonding with each other that made
this research fun.
Thank you and may the Lord bless us all!
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Table of Contents
Title Page ...................................................................................................................... I
Approval Sheet ............................................................................................................. II
Acknowledgment .........................................................................................................III
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... V
Abstract ..................................................................................................................... VII
Chapter I: Introduction
Rationale ...................................................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 4
Hypotheses ................................................................................................................... 5
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 5
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 7
Scope and Delimitations ............................................................................................... 8
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 8
Definition of Terms .....................................................................................................10
Chapter II: Review of Related Literature
Review of Related Literature .......................................................................................11
Pornography Consumption ....................................................................................11
Perceived Pornography Realism ............................................................................13
Sexual Consent Attitudes ......................................................................................16
Effects of Pornography to Sexual Consent Attitudes ..................................17
Effects of Perceived Pornography Realism to Sexual Consent Attitudes ....19
Synthesis .....................................................................................................................20
Chapter III: Research Methodology
Research Design ..........................................................................................................22
Participants ..................................................................................................................22
Research Instruments ...................................................................................................25
The Consumption of Pornography Scale—General ...............................................25
Perceived Pornography Realism Scale ..................................................................26
The Sexual Consent Scale—Revised .....................................................................26
Data Gathering Procedure ............................................................................................27
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Data Analysis ..............................................................................................................28
Methodological Limitations .........................................................................................28
Ethical Issues ...............................................................................................................29
Chapter IV: Results and Discussion
Results .........................................................................................................................30
Descriptive Statistics .............................................................................................30
Correlation Analysis .............................................................................................31
Mediation Analyses ..............................................................................................32
Discussion ...................................................................................................................39
Chapter V: Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations
Summary of Findings ..................................................................................................44
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................46
Recommendations .......................................................................................................47
Practical Implications ............................................................................................48
References ..................................................................................................................50
Appendices
Appendix A ..........................................................................................................68
Appendix B ...........................................................................................................71
Appendix C ...........................................................................................................73
Appendix D ..........................................................................................................76
Appendix E ...........................................................................................................77
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VII
Abstract
With the advancement of technology, the usage of pornography has reportedly
increased due to its accessibility through mobile devices. Pornography consumption has
been linked to a variety of negative outcomes, including negative sexual consent attitudes,
which are frequently depicted on mainstream pornography websites. Moreover, past
researches demonstrated that exposure to pornography is more likely to result in
problematic sexual behaviors when consumers perceive its contents as realistic. This
study aims to explore the mediating effect of perceived pornography realism in the
relationship between pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent among
Filipino young adults. A total of 405 pornography consumers who are in a committed,
sexually active relationship participated in the online survey that was based from the
Consumption of Pornography Scale—General, Perceived Pornography Realism Scale,
and Sexual Consent Scale—Revised.
Using a quantitative simple mediation model, results revealed that perceived
pornography realism significantly mediates the relationship between pornography
consumption and intent to seek sexual consent. This implies that frequent and prolonged
exposure to pornography may increase the consumers’ perception that its contents are
real, lowering their intentions to ask consent from their partners. Thus, the null hypotheses
are rejected. A full mediation was concluded as consumption of pornography did not
directly affect sexual consent intent. The findings of this study provide consumers as well
as relevant organizations and professionals with insight into the possible effects of
pornography exposure on sexual consent attitudes and ways to mitigate them.
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Chapter I
Introduction
Rationale
Pornography consumption has increased in recent years, in part because of the
convenience and privacy of sexually explicit materials (SEM) made available through the
Internet (Daneback et al., 2012; Wright, 2013). According to the statistics shared by
Pornhub (2021), a major online website of sexually explicit content, the Philippines
topped the list of 20 countries in terms of time spent watching pornography with 11
minutes and 9 seconds duration of viewing per visit. Pornography is defined as sexually
explicit material intended to arouse (McKee et al., 2020). It can either be soft- or hard-
core that depicts various sexual acts such as vaginal, oral, and anal sex, masturbation,
multiple partners, as well as non-conventional sexual practices like fetishes and bondage,
discipline, sadism, and masochism (BDSM) which depicts control and dominance.
Consumption of pornography has been studied in terms of its negative effects on
adolescents and adults, including lower sexual satisfaction (Brown, 2014; Ortiz &
Thompson, 2017), risky sexual behaviors (Wright & Randall, 2012; Wright et al., 2018)
and weakened commitment among romantic partners (Bernarte et al., 2016; Minarcik et
al., 2016). It was also observed that consuming pornographic materials causes viewers to
prefer porn-like sex as they tend to compare themselves and their partners to what they
see in pornography (Habito et al., 2021; Sniewski & Farvid, 2019; Sun et al., 2015, 2016).
Given that pornography portrays unrealistic sexual activities that can be harmful and
degrading, this particular preference can lead to sexual attitudes and behavioral problems
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(Mazandarani, 2016; Stepanko, 2022).
Preference for porn-like sex happens when one views pornography as realistic and
applicable in real life, prompting viewers to pressurize their partners to perform similarly
to some pornographic scenes (Svedin et al., 2011; Wright et al., 2021a). Studies have
examined the link between pornography and perceived realism—a cognition in which a
media content is observed by an individual as something that exists and can happen in the
real world (Busselle & Greenberg, 2000; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006, 2010)—and revealed
that frequent consumption of pornographic materials increases the probability of seeing
it as valuable and realistic (Charig et al., 2020; Chock, 2011; Vandenbosch et al., 2017).
Researchers explained that when viewers perceive pornographic content as real and are
unable to differentiate real-life sex from pornographic sex, it can lead to sexual
aggression, risky sexual behaviors, objectification of women, hyper-gendered
masculinity, and hyper-femininity behaviors (Krahe et al., 2021; Wright and Stulhofer,
2019), which are also common behaviors portrayed in pornography. Apart from the stated
adverse effects of viewing pornography and perceived realism, an aspect that is still
underexplored in the area of pornography is its effects on viewers’ sexual consent
attitudes.
Establishing sexual consent is necessary to build mutual pleasure, willingness,
respect, and choice between two parties (Archard, 2019; Wood et al., 2019). This means
that a consensual sexual activity starts when one party seeks consent through verbal
communication (i.e., "Do you want to have sex?") or non-verbal communication (i.e.,
pulling someone closer), and with the other party clearly and freely expressing their
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agreement (i.e., answering "yes", guiding partner’s hands). In connection with
pornography, studies illustrated that most popular pornographic films did not show
consent cues nor portrayed a positive image of consent, while some films established
consent in an ambiguous manner (Cusack, 2013; Martellozzo et al., 2016). The same
findings were also observed for mainstream pornography, which is produced and
distributed by large companies, indicating that it commonly depicts non-consensual sex
between heterosexual couples along with other problematic themes such as aggression,
male dominance, and violence (Fritz & Paul, 2017; Keene, 2021; Shor, 2019; Stepanko,
2022).
The absence of consensual agreement in pornography can be concerning in terms
of shaping the viewers’ attitudes about sexual consent. Pornography consumption, for
example, was linked to a variety of sexual beliefs and misconducts which highlight the
lack of sexual consent, including the likelihood to commit sexual assault and rape
(Foubert et al., 2011), developing negative sexual consent attitudes (McGuinness, 2019),
and viewing of sexual coercion TV scenes as consensual (Gronert, 2022). Moreover, a
prior study also observed that perceiving pornography as realistic decreased viewers’
positive sexual consent attitudes (Fegley, 2013). However, the literature related to
pornography and sexual consent attitudes is very limited (Dawson et al., 2020) and
inconsistent since most studies focused on the relationship between pornography and
sexual violence rather than examining its effect on individuals’ perceptions and practices
of sexual consent (McKee et al., 2021).
Acknowledging the negative effects of perceiving pornography as realistic as well
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as the discrepancy and inadequacy of studies related with pornography and sexual
consent, the present study aims to observe the mediating role of perceived pornography
realism in the relationship of pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent
by exploring the (i) frequency and duration of pornography consumption, (ii) level of
perceived pornography realism, and (iii) intention to seek partner’s sexual consent of
Filipino young adults. This study focuses on identifying the relationship of these
variables; (i) pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent, (ii)
pornography consumption and perceived pornography realism, and (iii) perceived
pornography realism and intent to seek sexual consent.
Statement of the Problem
The present study aims to determine whether perceived pornography realism
mediates the relationship between pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual
consent of Filipino young adults. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions:
1. Does pornography consumption predict perceived pornography realism in terms of:
1.1. frequency of pornography consumption
1.2. duration of pornography consumption
2. Does perceived pornography realism predict the intent to seek sexual consent?
3. Does perceived pornography realism mediate the relationship between pornography
consumption and intent to seek sexual consent in terms of:
3.1. frequency of pornography consumption
3.2. duration of pornography consumption
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Hypotheses
The study proposes the following null hypotheses:
H01: Pornography consumption does not predict perceived pornography realism
H01A: Frequency of pornography consumption does not predict perceived
pornography realism
H01B: Duration of pornography consumption does not predict perceived
pornography realism
H02: Perceived pornography realism does not predict the intent to seek sexual consent
H03: Perceived pornography realism does not mediate the relationship between
pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent
H03A: Perceived pornography realism does not mediate the relationship between
frequency of pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent
H03B: Perceived pornography realism does not mediate the relationship between
duration of pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent.
Theoretical Framework
This study is anchored on the 3AM Model of sexual media socialization by Wright
(2011b), which posits that sexual scripts are acquired through media consumption,
activated in the memory, and applied in sexual situations. Sexual scripts are defined as
“cognitive schema that serves as a guideline on understanding and acting during a sexual
situation” (Masters et al., 2013). The model explains that acquisition of a sexual script
happens when individuals observe an unfamiliar behavior through media exposure. The
acquisition can be influenced by several factors that are depicted by the media, such as
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the sexual behavior’s arousal and functional value, its prevalence, and its compatibility
with one’s existing sexual scripts. After acquiring a new sexual script, activation occurs
wherein a script is retrieved from memory following a media exposure cue. Frequency,
recency, and long exposures to media increase the accessibility of scripts in the memory.
Lastly, application of the sexual script deals with the enactment of sexual behavior. An
important factor that can determine the application of a sexual script is the consequence
of the behavior, which is often portrayed by the media models through rewards and
punishments. The model also emphasizes how viewing media content as realistic can
influence the acquisition of sexual scripts, and how media exposure that continually
stimulates a specific script increases the sense that it is "true to life" (Braithwaite et al.,
2015).
The 3AM Model is an extended concept of Simon and Gagnon’s (1986) Sexual
Scripts Theory, which explains that people tend to incorporate the sexual scripts they see
in the media into their own sexual activity and behavior. It argues that sexual scripts can
be cultural (i.e., embedded through media and societal representations), interpersonal
(i.e., personal experiences), and intrapsychic (i.e., preexisting attitudes and beliefs).
Because these scripts are perceived as representations of appropriate sexual behaviors,
people are likely to see them as blueprint on how to act or respond in a certain situation
by imitating what they have observed in various medium, such as pornographic materials
(Bridges et al., 2016; Wright, 2011a, 2013).
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Conceptual Framework
Figure 1
Pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent mediated by perceived
pornography realism
Following the 3AM Model and Sexual Scripts Theory, Figure 1 demonstrates the
conceptual paradigm of the study, defining the relationship of independent variable and
dependent variable in the presence of the mediator. The independent variable (X) is the
amount of pornography consumption measured in terms of frequency of viewing and
duration of exposure. Pornography consumption is assumed to predict the mediating
variable (M) that is perceived pornography realism (path a), which in turn predicts the
dependent variable (Y) that is the intent to seek sexual consent (path b). Path c’ describes
the direct relationship of the independent variable with the dependent variable, whereas
paths a and b together or the indirect effect concludes whether M has a significant
mediating role in the relationship of X and Y (Preacher and Hayes, 2008a, 2008b). The
a
b
Pornography
Consumption
(X)
(i) frequency
(ii) duration
Perceived
Pornography
Realism (M)
Intent to Seek
Sexual
Consent (Y)
c’
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indirect effect illustrates that consuming pornography will lead to perceiving its contents
as realistic, which then influences the viewers’ intention to seek sexual consent from their
partner.
Scope and Delimitations
The present study focuses on the pornography consumption of heterosexual young
adults, particularly of mainstream pornography from two popular websites (i.e., Pornhub
and Xvideos), which commonly depicts non-consensual sex and is intended for
heterosexuals and the mass market. Specific pornographic genres (i.e., violent, non-
violent, BDSM, etc.), other forms of pornographic materials (i.e., books, magazines, etc.),
the first age of exposure, and accidental exposure are not included in the study.
Additionally, the study only investigates the viewers’ intentions of seeking sexual
consent. It does not measure the actual non-consensual behaviors such as sexual
aggression, sexual assault, sexual harassment, and rape. The sample was composed of
405 pornography consumers who are within the age range of 18 to 30, in a committed
relationship with one partner, and are sexually active. Those who are sexually
inexperienced, engage in casual and/or multiple relationships, and diagnosed with sexual
dysfunction or paraphilic disorder were barred from participating to limit the external
factors that may affect their sexual consent attitudes.
Significance of the Study
The findings of the study will be of great benefit to the following:
Pornography consumers. The findings of the study may give users insight about the
possible negative effects of watching pornography on their sexual attitudes and behavior
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in the long run.
Couples. Understanding the problems related to pornography consumption, which can
affect both sexual and relationship satisfaction, may help couples maintain a healthy
relationship.
Government agencies. This study may be beneficial to Philippine government agencies,
such as the Movie and Television Review Classification Board (MTRCB) and the Optical
Media Board (OMB), in providing ordinances regarding pornography, as well as the
distribution and production of films, short movies, and series with sexually explicit
content. Moreover, it may shed light on the possible risks of consuming pornographic
materials, which can be of use to the Department of Social Welfare and Development
(DSWD) and the National Youth Commission (NYC) in raising awareness and health
programs to ensure the well-being of Filipinos.
Pornography and media industries. Through this research, the pornography and media
industries may consider re-evaluating sexually explicit scenes that are portrayed in films,
short movies, series and in other visual media they produce in order to limit the adverse
effects of SEM consumption.
Practitioners and sex therapists. A deeper understanding of pornography’s impact on
sexual attitudes and behaviors may support professionals in developing programs for
people, especially for those who are at risk of developing pornography addiction.
Future researchers. The results of the study may offer help to future researchers and
serve as a guide in conducting subsequent studies related to pornography, perceived
realism, and sexual consent.
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Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined for a better understanding of the context of the
study:
Pornography consumption – the frequency and length of exposure per viewing of an
individual to sexually explicit online videos that are intended to cause sexual excitement
or arousal.
Perceived pornography realism – refers to how an individual perceives pornographic
content as realistic and can be done in real life.
Sexual activity – defined as physical contact between individuals that usually involves
anal, oral, or vaginal penetration with the purpose of experiencing sexual pleasure.
Sexual consent – refers to a clear, verbal or non-verbal consensual agreement between
couples before engaging in any sexual activity.
Sexually explicit material (SEM) – refers to sexual content depicted in videos,
photography, and creative writing without deliberately obscuring or censoring it. It
includes sex acts that are not stimulated, sexual intercourse, and exposed genitalia.
Sexual intent – an individual’s interest or desire to enact a behavior, that is, seeking sexual
consent from a partner before doing any sexual activity.
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Chapter II
Review of Related Literature
This chapter discusses related literature that examined the connection between
each variable presented in the current study. It also highlights some related themes that
international and local studies explored.
Pornography Consumption
Technology advancement contributed to pornography’s market expansion as it
became more accessible through websites, allowing consumers to watch comfortably and
privately at home (Morichetta et al., 2019; Lewczuk et al., 2022; Keilty, 2018). On a
traffic data of the most popular websites published by Clement (2022), the combined
number of visits from the top three pornography websites, namely Pornhub, Xvideos, and
Xnxx, was 5.81 billion per month. Although pornography is considered taboo in the
Philippines because of its conservative culture and strong religious beliefs (Cordero,
2019; De Jose, 2013; McTavish, 2020), recent statistics showed that the Philippines
ranked 9th in the list of countries with the most daily viewers and ranked 1st in terms of
duration of consumption with an average of 11 minutes and 9 seconds per visit (Pornhub,
2021). The data also demonstrated that more Filipino females (52%) visited the site than
males (49%), with the age range of 18-24 having the most visitors (37%).
With the increasing number of pornography users, researchers have explored how
consumption of pornographic materials influences individuals’ attitudes and behaviors.
Studies and reviews predominantly focused on examining pornography’s relationship
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with forms of sexual misconduct and found that it increases the likelihood of committing
sexual assault or non-consensual sexual contact (Bridges, 2019; Herbenick et al., 2020;
Gassó & Bruch-Granados, 2021), sexual coercion or forcing someone to engage in sex
(de Heer et al., 2021; Hald & Malamuth, 2015; Marshall et al., 2021a, 2021b; Pratima &
Mahananda, 2019; Stanley et al., 2016; Tarzia & Tyler, 2021), as well as risky sexual
practices such as condomless sex and sexting (Amare et al., 2019; Efrati, 2020; Harkness
& Barbara, 2015; Ortiz & Thompson, 2017; Tokunaga et al., 2020; Wright, 2013; Wright
et al., 2018).
Two local studies, on the other hand, focused on its effects on viewers’
relationship quality with their partners. One descriptive correlational study among 400
Filipino married individuals observed that a longer duration of pornographic exposure is
related to weakened relationship commitment as they tend to commit lies and
unfaithfulness to their partner (Bernarte et al., 2016). Interestingly, frequency of exposure
was not found to demonstrate the same result. Similar to the latter study, Cordero (2018)
found in his case study that the detrimental effects of pornography are one of the six root
causes of sexual engagement. One participant shared that consuming pornography had
possibly caused him to engage in casual sex with another person while in a romantic
relationship. It was also concluded that when masturbating to pornography is no longer
enough, it may persuade individuals to engage in sex and imitate what they have watched.
Results related to the decreased relationship quality from local studies were also
found in a few international studies that compared individual and coupled pornography
viewing. A quantitative study by Minarcik et al. (2016) among American couples
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presented that individual pornography viewing leads to less relationship intimacy and
commitment compared to shared pornography viewing and to non-pornography users. It
was also observed that consuming pornography alone decreases the relationship
satisfaction of male consumers (Barnes, 2017). Other studies expounded these findings
by suggesting that collaborative viewing creates more open communication and
negotiation between couples, thus increasing their relationship and sexual satisfaction
(Hertlein et al., 2020; Kohut et al., 2021).
Perceived Pornography Realism
Several studies contend that when pornographic acts are perceived as realistic and
useful in real-life sex, issues and problematic sexual behaviors become more likely
(Harvey, 2020; Krahe et al., 2021; Svedin et al., 2011; Marston & Lewis, 2014; Wright
et al., 2021a; Wright and Stulhofer, 2019). This cognition, known as perceived
pornography realism—the extent to which individuals view pornographic content as
something that actually exists and is applicable in the real world—is a component
proposed to be observed when investigating pornography consumption and its influence
on sexual attitudes and behaviors for the reason that it increases the tendency of viewers
to imitate the portrayed behaviors in SEM (Hald et al., 2013; Hald & Malamuth, 2008;
Peter & Valkenburg, 2006). In a previous study, Peter and Valkenburg (2010) expounded
the concept of perceived realism into two subdimensions: perceived social realism, which
refers to how one perceives SEIM contents as similar to real-world sex, and perceived
utility, which refers to how useful and applicable SEIM contents are to the real world.
Two previous studies revealed that exposure to sexual-related content leads to
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perceived realism and a tendency to acquire pornographic sexual scripts (Chock, 2011;
Peter & Valkeburg, 2010). This was further explained by Vandenbosch et al. (2017) in a
three-wave panel study conducted over a year among 1,022 adolescents, which found that
individuals who consume SEM more often tend to enjoy and view its content as realistic
and appropriate for their own sexual activities. Although some studies argue that
perceived realism declines with age and sexual experience, similar findings were also
found in some cross-sectional studies among older male adults, which reported that
consumers were more likely to perceive pornography as real and prefer porn-like sex
when there is a higher frequency of SEM consumption (Charig et al., 2020; Miller et al.,
2019). Sun et al. (2016) who demonstrated similar results suggested that duration of
exposure to pornographic materials must also be investigated.
In a local mixed-method study conducted by Adanza (2018) among 240 youth
participants from Cavite, the results posited that consumers felt that they "wanted to apply
in real life" what they had watched in pornography along with nine other feelings (i.e.,
entertained, awkward, guilty, etc.) after viewing pornographic materials. It was also found
that male consumers tend to exhibit more unacceptable feelings such as "wanting to apply
in real life" and "wanting more" compared to female consumers who felt awkward and
guilty after watching. Qualitative studies have also examined Filipino young men and
their exposure to pornography. Findings from a focus group discussion of Habito et al.
(2021) revealed that men tend to compare themselves with celebrities and fictional
characters in the media, including pornography, which prompted them to engage in sex.
Likewise, one descriptive phenomenological study found that men’s early exposure leads
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to higher sexual interest and a tendency to imitate sexual activities portrayed in sensual
movie scenes (Sanchez, 2021). Both studies suggest that consuming pornographic
materials fuels individuals’ curiosity and sexual desires, which may eventually encourage
them to perform similarly to what pornography depicts.
On the other hand, some studies analyzed pornography consumers’ unrealistic,
pornography-based expectations towards their partner. Brown (2014) surveyed 335
married couples with an overall sample of 670 individuals and assessed their individual
pornography use and sexual expectations. According to the findings, husbands' lower
sexual satisfaction with their wives may be the result of unrealistic expectations formed
through pornographic viewing. It was then argued that men are more likely to acquire
pornographic sexual scripts, which influence their real-world expectations and
preferences (Ortiz & Thompson, 2017; Sniewski & Farvid, 2019; Sun et al., 2015, 2016),
thus, they expect their partners to physically look and sexually perform similarly to
pornographic portrayals (Goldsmith et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2019).
Contrastingly, different findings were demonstrated in a quantitative longitudinal
study by Wright and Stulhofer (2019) among 875 Croatian adolescents, which was
conducted over a 23-month period with five data collections spaced six months apart.
Data from the respondents who participated in at least two waves was used, and the results
posited that an increase in SEM consumption leads to a decrease in SEM realism for both
genders. Sexual experience was viewed as a critical factor as authors assumed that once
they engaged in sexual activities, they would begin to view SEM materials as unrealistic.
This was supported by a Malaysian cross-sectional study which illustrated that perceived
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pornography realism is only associated with those who have lower pornography exposure,
in part because of the country’s negative perception of premarital sex and pornography
viewing (Zohor Ali et al., 2021). In a systematic review, Byron et al. (2021) strengthened
these findings and concluded that young adults who consume pornography do not view
pornographic sexual activities as a realistic portrayal of sex, in part due to their "porn
literacy," which allows them to critically discern porn sex as unrealistic.
Sexual Consent Attitudes
Communicating consent is necessary in building a healthy sexual relationship
among partners, hence, studies have presented how sexual consent cues are sought and
interpreted in relationships. In two mixed-method studies which aimed to develop scales
for sexual consent, it was observed that individuals who are in a committed relationship
feel more internal consent or internal willingness to engage in sexual activity than those
who are not (Jozkowski et al., 2014; Walsh et al., 2019).
Subsequent studies further elaborated on the prior results and examined how
internal consent leads to better consent communication. In a recent dyadic study by Willis
et al. (2021a) examining sexual consent among participants involved in committed
relationships, findings demonstrated that a longer length of relationship is associated with
higher use of verbal consent communication given that there is an internal consent feeling.
Similar results were illustrated in other studies which found that people who are in a
committed and long-term relationship can execute direct verbal consent cues better than
those who are in a casual relationship when engaging in sexual intercourse (Marcantonio
et al., 2018; O’Neil et al., 2019; Willis et al., 2019, 2021b). One explanation is that people
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in committed and long-term relationships develop more comfort in terms of
communicating consent than those who are in casual and new relationships (Shumlich,
2018).
Effects of Pornography to Sexual Consent Attitudes
There were few studies that examined how consumption of pornography
influences sexual consent attitudes and behaviors. McGuinness (2019) conducted a cross-
sectional quantitative study among 74 sexually active adults and revealed that early
exposure to pornographic materials leads to maladaptive sexual consent attitudes only if
there is a reported higher problematic pornography use, which was described as having
distress and functional problems, control difficulties, excessive use, and using to avoid
emotions. This suggests that viewing pornography may indirectly affect how viewers see
consent as an important factor in sexual activities. On the other hand, three other studies
which emphasized Wright’s (2011b) 3AM model (i.e., acquiring, activating, and applying
pornographic scripts in real life) provided stronger evidence that higher frequency of
pornography consumption reduces young and adult men’s need for and positive practices
of consent when engaging in sexual activities, particularly anal sex (Herbenick et al.,
2020; Marston & Lewis, 2014) and sexual choking (Wright et al., 2021b).
In terms of consent beliefs, a previous focus group study found that young men
perceive sex to be aggressive and forceful, as depicted in pornography, whereas young
women feel pressured to behave similarly to pornographic actresses (Coy et al., 2013). It
was concluded that pornography introduces the ideas to young viewers that men are
entitled to women’s bodies and women are presumed to be available for any sexual
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activity that disregards the value of consent (Coy et al., 2016).
Two other studies have also examined how pornography influences the viewers’
perception of consensual and non-consensual acts in the media. Findings from a within-
subject experimental study among 41 college students in England demonstrated that men
who frequently consume pornography tend to view sexual assault and coercive television
scenes as acceptable and consensual compared to women and men who never consume
pornographic materials (Gronert, 2022). This contradicted a prior vignette-method study
which posited that there is no difference between more frequent and less frequent viewers
in terms of their comfort with consensual and non-consensual pornographic content
(Dawson et al., 2020).
The dearth of studies regarding pornography consumption and sexual consent
practices was analyzed in a recent mixed-method systematic review by McKee et al.
(2021). Findings of summarized journal articles from December 2017 to January 2020
demonstrated there is no agreement on whether viewing of pornography influences
individuals’ understanding and practices of sexual consent, primarily because of the focus
on sexual aggression and violence rather than attitudes toward establishing sexual
consent. It was implied that sexual aggression and violence can be consensual in some
sexual relationships, such as BDSM and other kink-consensual sexual practices (Rothman
et al., 2014), and must be distinguished from non-consensual sex and negative sexual
consent attitudes. Additionally, most studies failed to specify what type of pornographic
content and genre were being explored.
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Effects of Perceived Pornography Realism to Sexual Consent Attitudes
Only a few studies looked at the link between perceived pornographic realism and
sexual consent attitudes. Nonetheless, some researchers postulated how perceived realism
was linked to different sexual contexts where absence of consent is demonstrated.
Findings from a study by Wright et al. (2021a) conducted among U.S. male and female
adults reported that there was a positive connection between perceived realism of
pornography and the likelihood of committing sexual aggression, which was defined as
pressuring someone to engage in sex and discounting the partner’s refusal. This was
supported by a cross-sectional study among 1,181 German adults which provided
evidence that men with higher perceived realism of pornography are more likely to
perpetrate sexual coercion, take advantage of a person’s inability to resist, use verbal
pressure, and attempt non-consensual penetration (Krahe et al., 2021). Moreover, one
qualitative study posited that men who wanted to imitate pornographic sex were more
likely to disregard consent during anal sex (Marston & Lewis, 2014).
Studies have also shown that perception of pornography realism mediates the
relationship between pornography use and permissive sexual attitudes (Peter &
Valkenburg, 2010) and problematic sexual behaviors, specifically sexting and sexual
aggression (Landripet, 2016). While it is seen that perceived pornography realism
negatively impacts some areas of sexual behavior, other studies argue that there is also a
positive influence on young adults who perceive pornography as real in terms of helping
them learn different sexual behaviors and higher sexual self-esteem (Kvalem et al., 2014;
Rothman et al., 2014).
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To the researchers’ knowledge, only one study directly focused on the relationship
between perceived pornography realism and sexual consent. Fegley (2013) examined two
independent variables, which are frequency of exposure and perceived pornography
realism, and their relation to sexual consent attitudes among American males and females
between the ages of 18 and 79. The findings suggest that individuals who have higher
perceived pornography realism tend to be more reliant on using a non-verbal cue for
consent and report less behavioral control (i.e., asking for sexual consent appears to be
difficult) that can cause sexual consent miscommunication. However, it showed that
frequency of exposure, which was measured through a single-item question, was not
found to be a predictor of sexual consent attitudes. The author recommended exploring
specific pornographic genres and other factors affecting an individual’s perceived realism
of pornographic materials.
Synthesis
The collection of studies shows that pornography consumption, perceived
pornography realism, and sexual consent attitudes have an association with each other.
However, it is also evident that most studies failed to directly examine the effects of
pornography consumption on sexual consent attitudes, which can better determine how
likely an individual can establish mutual agreement and respect before sexual activities.
Furthermore, the studies were predominantly administered in Western countries, which
are more liberated in terms of sex. The influence of pornography consumption may vary
in conservative countries such as the Philippines, with different cultural backgrounds and
beliefs, hence, conducting a local study may offer new insights and significant findings.
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In terms of methodology, more reliable measures, specifically for frequency of
consumption, must be considered rather than utilizing a single-item question. Viewers’
duration of exposure, which was rarely used in the studies, should also be looked into as
it may demonstrate different findings from frequency of exposure. Additionally, the need
for local quantitative studies regarding pornography must be taken into consideration as
it will provide data from a larger sample size in contrast with qualitative studies. It will
also be applicable given that there are more Filipino pornography users at present and that
prior studies have already highlighted their tendency to imitate behaviors portrayed in
pornography.
Finally, as Fegley (2013) and other prior studies recommended, it is critical to
observe a specific type of pornography and examine the factors affecting perceived
pornography realism. Given that mainstream pornography frequently depicts non-
consensual sex and that consumption influences perceived pornography realism, which
may exhibit a mediating effect, focusing on these factors may aid in better understanding
the relationship between pornography and sexual consent attitudes.
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Chapter III
Research Methodology
This section includes the research design, criteria for respondents, data gathering
procedure, and data analysis issues that were implemented for the present study. It also
consists of the methodological limitations that should be addressed by future researchers
and the ethical issues raised by the study.
Research Design
The present study utilized a quantitative simple mediation model to examine how
the independent variable (pornography consumption) influenced the single mediating
variable (perceived pornography realism), which in turn, influenced the dependent
variable (intent to seek sexual consent). It was also applicable for answering the statement
of the problem as it investigated the predicted relationship of the variables, particularly
the independent variable with the mediator and the mediator with the dependent variable,
that concluded whether the mediator has a significant effect.
Participants
The study used a purposive sampling technique in selecting heterosexual male and
female pornography consumers in the Philippines. Along with these, participant inclusion
criteria also covered the following: (1) must be 18 to 30 years old, (2) must be in a
committed relationship with one partner, and (3) must be sexually active. Snowball
sampling was also utilized to encourage the participants to share the survey link on online
platforms.
Within the 5-week data gathering process, 512 responses were gathered, and 107
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were excluded as they failed to meet the inclusion criteria. A total of 405 respondents
ages 18 to 30 years old (M = 23.93, SD = 2.62) were qualified to answer the online survey
posted on various online platforms. As seen in Table 1, the sample is composed of 227
males (56%) and 178 females (44%) who also identified themselves as heterosexuals. In
terms of respondents’ current region of residence, the majority are from National Capital
Region with 330 respondents (81.5%), followed by Region IV A – CALABARZON with
55 respondents (13.6%), Region III – Central Luzon with 9 respondents (2.2%), Region
IV B – MIMAROPA with 4 respondents (1%), Region X – Northern Mindanao with 3
respondents (0.7%), while only 1 respondent (0.2%) each came from Cordillera
Administrative Region, Region V – Bicol Region, Region VI – Western Visayas and
Region VII – Central Visayas.
Most of the respondents indicated that they are in a serious romantic relationship,
with 237 responses (58.5%), 113 with a live-in partner (27.9%), 47 married (11.6%), and
8 engaged (2%). For respondents’ length of relationship, there were 330 (81.5%) who are
in a relationship for more than a year, 53 (13.1%) who are in a relationship for less than
a year, and 22 (5.4%) who have been with their partner for one year. Lastly, it was also
revealed that 186 respondents (45.9%) use Pornhub as their most preferred source of
pornographic content, 78 (19.3%) use Xvideos, and 141 (34.8%) use both websites.
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Table 1
Sociodemographic profile of the respondents
Characteristics
f
%
Gender
Male
227
56
Female
178
44
Region of Residence
National Capital Region
330
81.5
Region IV A – CALABARZON
55
13.6
Region III – Central Luzon
9
2.2
Region IV B – MIMAROPA
4
1
Region X – Northern Mindanao
3
0.7
Cordillera Administrative Region
1
0.2
Region V – Bicol Region
1
0.2
Region VI – Western Visayas
1
0.2
Region VII – Central Visayas
1
0.2
Relationship Status
In a serious romantic relationship
237
58.5
With a live-in partner
113
27.9
Married
47
11.6
Engaged
8
2
Relationship Length
More than a year
330
81.5
Less than year
53
13.1
1 year
22
5.4
Websites used
Pornhub
186
45.9
Both
141
34.8
Xvideos
78
19.3
Note. n = 405
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Research Instruments
Pornography Consumption
The Consumption of Pornography Scale—General (COPS—G) is a 34-item with
four subscales measure developed by Hatch et al. (2020). The frequency of exposure
subscale and the duration of exposure subscale, both consisting of three items in a Likert-
type scale, were utilized to measure the time spent by viewers consuming pornography.
It assesses how often and how long respondents view pornography over the past year,
past 30 days, and past 7-days. Two other subscales, specifically accidental exposure and
arousal and deliberate exposure and arousal, were not used as they deal with the type of
pornography (i.e., heterosexual, homosexual, threesome) and level of viewers’ arousal,
which are not included in the scope of the study.
Response categories for the first two items under frequency of exposure range
from 0 ("I haven’t viewed") to 6 ("viewed daily/multiple times a day"), while the last item
ranges from 0 ("I haven’t viewed") to 4 ("viewed multiple times"). Items under duration
of exposure are measured from 1 ("less than 5 minutes") to 6 ("46+ minutes"). The test-
retest reliability of the scale over a 6-month interval is r = 0.74, whereas the frequency
subscale is r = 0.72-0.92 (M = 0.83), and duration subscale is r = 0.59-0.84, (M = 0.72),
indicating that the overall scale and both subscales are stable over time. Convergent
validity of frequency and duration of exposure subscales are also found to be significantly
related to sensation seeking (r = 0.63 and r = 0.23), excessive pornography use (r = 0.46
and r = 0.44), and women consuming less pornography than men (r = -0.65 and r = -0.06),
respectively.
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Perceived Pornography Realism
Perceived Pornography Realism Scale was based on Busselle’s (2001) perceived
realism instrument, which was operationalized by Peter and Valkenburg (2006) to
measure individuals’ perception of sexually explicit online material. Four items formed a
unidimensional scale with response categories ranging from 1 ("fully disagree") to 5
("fully agree"), including 3 ("agree/disagree") as a neutral middle category and an "I don’t
know" option. Sample items are "I find sex on the Internet realistic" and "Sex on the
Internet is similar to sex in real life." Cronbach’s alpha was interpreted as good, with a
value of α = 0.85.
Intent to Seek Sexual Consent
The Sexual Consent Scale—Revised (SCS—R) constructed by Humphreys and
Brousseau (2010) is a 39-item measure with four subscales that evaluates attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors regarding sexual consent. It uses a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging
from 1 ("strongly disagree") to 7 ("strongly agree"). Positive attitude toward establishing
consent subscale which consists of 11 items is used in the present study to assess
respondents’ evaluation about seeking consent verbally and non-verbally that may predict
their intent to enact the said behavior. The overall scale established an internal
consistency of α = 0.87 and a value of α = 0.84 for the positive attitude toward establishing
consent subscale. The subscale also demonstrated a good test-retest reliability of α =
0.791 over 5-week interval. Construct validity also showed that the subscale negatively
correlates with sexual sensation seeking (SSSS) (r = -0.23).
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Data Gathering Procedure
To gather the needed data, an online survey was conducted from September 28,
2022 to October 30, 2022 using Google Forms, which was posted on various social media
platforms (i.e., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Discord). The researchers sought
respondents individually based on the given criteria and asked permission as well in
public and private Facebook groups (e.g., Get Psych PH and PH Academy Survey Hub)
in order to administer the survey. The first part of the Google Form was an online
informed consent where respondents indicated their agreement to participate in the study,
followed by a demographic survey form to ensure that they meet the criteria. Afterwards,
the respondents proceeded to the main questionnaire regarding pornography
consumption, perceived pornography realism, and sexual consent attitudes. The responses
were then tallied, analyzed, and recorded, and the results were used to form conclusions
and recommendations.
All the qualified participants were given an opportunity to win a ₱100 worth of
Gcash or regular load as a token of appreciation for their time and effort in answering the
survey. After reaching the target number of respondents, the researchers decided to draw
three of the 405 qualified participants using an online randomizer. The selected
respondents were emailed via Google Mail for their approval and additional information
(i.e., name and mobile number) in order for them to receive their incentive. However,
only two of the three chosen participants were able to respond, and they were each given
a ₱100 Gcash load.
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Data Analysis
All data collected via Google Forms were ran and analyzed using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26. As for the mediation, the data was tested
using the Model 4 of PROCESS macro Version 4.1 for SPSS by Hayes (2022). Separate
regression analyses were performed to investigate how frequency of exposure and
duration of exposure affected perceived pornography realism and intent to seek sexual
consent. Preacher and Hayes' (2008a) approach to mediation was followed which
proposes that there is a significant mediation when the 95% confidence interval limits of
indirect effect (path a multiplied to path b) do not include zero. Furthermore, the bootstrap
method was used, with resamples set to 5000. The method was found to be the most
effective statistical technique for mediation analysis as it is applicable for smaller sample
sizes without making assumptions about the sampling distribution and can formulate
more accurate inferences (Preacher & Hayes, 2008b).
Methodological Limitations
There are few limitations in the present study that are included in the
recommendations for future researchers to address. First, the study only focused on
consumption of mainstream pornography and not on any specific genre, as it was
reviewed by several content analyses and studies to typically portray non-consensual
sexual activities. Second, it did not specify the sexual activity being done within the
relationship, may it be anal sex, oral sex, vaginal-penile sex, kink (e.g., BSDM) or fetish
(e.g., voyeurism), to which respondents’ attitude toward establishing sexual consent may
differ. Lastly, specific timeframe regarding when the respondents started consuming
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pornography as well as assessing how they learned about pornography were not
considered, which can be additional factors related to their intent to seek sexual consent.
Ethical Issues
A few questions in the survey, particularly regarding sexual consent attitudes, may
stimulate uneasiness for the respondents and may also evoke negative emotions or trauma
from their past sexual experiences. To ensure their welfare and their honest participation,
an informed consent was provided at the beginning of the survey stating the risks,
benefits, and their right to withdraw from the survey at any time, regardless of whether
they agreed to participate and proceeded to answer the questionnaire.
The respondents were also be briefed on the types of questions they will be asked
during the survey, the purpose of the study, and how the data will be used solely for
research purposes. Lastly, confidentiality was guaranteed as they were not encouraged to
provide any personal information apart from their email, and only the researchers and
course professor will have access to the collected data. The two qualified participants who
were drawn for the incentive were guaranteed confidentiality, as they were informed
through their email, and their consent to provide additional information for claim
purposes (i.e., their name and mobile number) was asked.
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Chapter IV
Results and Discussion
The current study aims to determine the mediating role of perceived pornography
realism in the relationship between pornography consumption and the intent to seek
sexual consent among Filipino young adults. This chapter presents the descriptive
statistics, correlation analysis, and mediation analyses of the data gathered for a better
understanding of the study.
Descriptive Statistics
Table 2
Summary of descriptive statistics for age and among the four measures
M
SD
Min.
Max.
Age
23.93
2.62
18
30
Frequency
2.50
1.03
0
5
Duration
2.54
0.92
1
6
Realism
3.30
0.91
0.25
5
Intent
5.45
0.92
2.09
7
Note. n = 405
The mean and standard deviation score for age and for all four measures were
identified through descriptive statistics. Table 2 shows that the average score for COPS-
G’s frequency of exposure subscale is 2.50 (SD = 1.03) and for duration of exposure
subscale is 2.54 (SD = 0.92), indicating that respondents’ level of consumption for both
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subscales are low. The average score for perceived pornography realism (M = 3.30, SD
= 0.91) shows that respondents are neutral about perceiving pornographic contents as
realistic and applicable in real world, while the average score for SCS-R’s positive
attitude towards sexual consent subscale is 5.45 (SD = 0.92), implying that respondents
agree with obtaining sexual consent from their partner.
Correlation Analysis
Pearson’s r correlation was utilized to examine the relationships between the
frequency of consumption, duration of consumption, perceived pornography realism, and
intent to seek sexual consent. Results indicated that there are significant relationships
across the variables, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Pearson correlations between frequency of consumption, duration of consumption,
perceived pornography realism, and intent to seek sexual consent
1
2
3
4
1. Frequency
—
2. Duration
.301**
—
3. Realism
.153**
.240**
—
4. Intent
-.121*
-.143**
-.239**
—
Note. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is
significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
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Table 3 presents that frequency of consumption has weak positive correlation with
perceived pornography realism (r (403) = .153, p = .002) and a weak negative correlation
with intent to seek sexual consent (r (403) = -.121, p = .015). It explains that when
frequency of consumption increases, the perceived pornography realism increases as well,
whereas intent to seek sexual consent decreases. Duration of consumption has also a weak
positive correlation with perceived pornography realism (r (403) = .24, p < .001) and a
weak negative correlation with intent to seek sexual consent (r (403) = -.143, p = .004).
Similar with the frequency of consumption, the longer the time taken in consuming
pornography, the higher the perceived pornography realism becomes and the lower the
intent to seek sexual consent is. A weak negative correlation was also observed between
the relationship of perceived pornography realism and intent to seek sexual consent (r
(403) = -.239, p < .001), implying that the higher the perceived pornography realism, the
lower the intent to seek sexual consent is. Results show that all variables are weak, but
significantly correlated with each other, thus allowing mediation analyses.
Mediation Analyses
To determine whether frequency of consumption and duration of consumption of
pornography have an indirect effect in intent to seek sexual consent through perceived
pornography realism, a separate series of regression analyses were performed. Table 4
demonstrates the results of regression analyses for frequency of consumption.
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Table 4
Summary of regression analyses for frequency of consumption
B
t
p
Path a
Frequency → Realism
0.134
3.110
0.002
Path b
Realism → Intent
-0.229
-4.616
0.000
Path c’
Frequency → Intent
-0.077
-1.778
0.076
Note. R2 (Frequency → Realism) = .023
H01A: Frequency of consumption does not predict perceived pornography realism.
H02: Perceived pornography realism does not predict intent to seek sexual consent
As indicated in Table 4, frequency of consumption was found to be a significant
positive predictor of perceived pornography realism (B = 0.134, t = 3.11, p = 0.002),
therefore, null hypothesis 1A is rejected. It is also observed only 2.3% of the variance in
intent to seek sexual consent can be accounted for frequency of consumption. Likewise,
null hypothesis 2 is not supported as perceived pornography realism was found to be a
significant negative predictor of intent to seek sexual consent (B = -0.229, t = -4.616, p <
.001). The results of regression analyses also show that frequency of consumption does
not predict intent to seek sexual consent (B = -0.077, t = -1.778, p = 0.076). For the
mediating effect of perceived pornography realism, results are indicated in Table 5.
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Table 5
Result of mediation analysis for perceived pornography realism as a mediator between
frequency of consumption and intent to seek sexual consent
B
95% CI
LL
UL
Indirect
effect
Frequency → Realism
→ Intent
-0.031
-0.062
-0.006
Note. R2 = .064; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit
H03A: Perceived pornography realism does not mediate the relationship between
frequency of consumption and intent to seek sexual consent.
Table 5 reveals that frequency of consumption has a significant indirect effect on
intent to seek sexual consent through perceived pornography realism (B = -0.031, CI [-
0.062 to -0.006]). Following the approach of Preacher and Hayes (2008a), a mediation is
present when the 95% confidence interval does not include zero; therefore, it can be
concluded that perceived pornography realism is a significant mediator in the relationship
between IV and DV, rejecting null hypothesis 3A. Moreover, it was found that perceived
pornography realism fully mediates the relationship of frequency of consumption and
intent to seek sexual consent, given that the IV has no significant direct on the DV (see
Table 4). Results show that 6.4% of the variance in intent to seek sexual consent is
explained by frequency of consumption and perceived pornography realism. The
predictive relationship between the variables can be visualized in Figure 2.
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Figure 2
Mediating effect of perceived pornography realism between the relationship of
frequency of pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent.
Direct effect: -0.077, p = .076
Perceived
Pornography
Realism
Frequency of
pornography
consumption
Intent to seek
sexual consent
-0.229, p < .001
Not Significant
Significant
0.134, p = .002
Indirect effect: -0.031, CI [-0.062 to -0.006]
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For duration of consumption, a separate series of regression analyses was carried
out to test the remaining null hypotheses. Results of regression analyses across variables
are demonstrated in Table 6.
Table 6
Summary of regression analyses for duration of consumption
B
t
p
Path a
Duration → Realism
0.236
4.958
0.000
Path b
Realism → Intent
-0.221
-4.364
0.000
Path c’
Duration → Intent
-0.091
-1.834
0.067
Note. R2 (Duration → Realism) = .057
H01B: Duration of pornography consumption does not predict perceived pornography
realism.
As shown in Table 6, duration of consumption was found to be a significant
positive predictor (B = 0.236, t = 4.958, p < .001), accounting for 5.7% of the variance in
perceived pornography realism; thus, null hypothesis 1B is rejected. Although there is a
small difference from the regression analyses results for frequency of consumption (see
Table 4), perceived pornography realism was also found to be a significant negative
predictor of intent to seek sexual consent in this analysis (B = -0.221, t = -4.364, p <
.001). Results also demonstrate that duration of consumption is not a significant predictor
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of intent to seek sexual consent (B = -0.091, t = -1.834, p = 0.067). Table 7 demonstrates
the result for the mediating effect of perceived pornography realism between duration of
consumption and intent to seek sexual consent.
Table 7
Result of mediation analysis for perceived pornography realism as a mediator between
duration of consumption and intent to seek sexual consent
B
95% CI
LL
UL
Indirect
effect
Duration → Realism
→ Intent
-0.052
-0.089
-0.021
Note. R2 = .065; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit
H03B: Perceived pornography realism does not mediate the relationship between
duration of consumption and intent to seek sexual consent
Table 7 indicates that duration of consumption has a significant indirect effect on
intent to seek sexual consent through perceived pornography realism (B = -0.052, CI [-
0.089 to -0.021]), rejecting null hypothesis 3B. The findings also imply that perceived
pornography realism has a full mediating effect as there was no direct effect in the
relationship between the IV and DV (see Table 6). Additionally, it is demonstrated that
6.5% of the variance in intent to seek sexual consent can be accounted for duration of
consumption and perceived pornography realism. Figure 3 shows the predictive
relationship of variables for duration of consumption.
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Figure 3
Mediating effect of perceived pornography realism between the relationship of duration
of pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent
-0.221, p < .001
Perceived
Pornography
Realism
Direct effect: -0.091, p = .067
Indirect effect: -0.052, CI [-0.089 to -0.021]
0.236, p < .001
Duration of
pornography
consumption
Intent to seek
sexual consent
Not Significant
Significant
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Discussion
The present study demonstrates a small predictive relationship between
consumption of pornography, perceived pornography realism, and sexual consent intent
among Filipino young adults. According to the findings, both frequency and duration of
pornography consumption positively predict perceived pornography realism. This
suggests that individuals who watch mainstream pornography more often and for a longer
period of time may tend to see its contents as realistic and appropriate for their own sexual
activities, which is consistent with the findings of earlier studies (Peter and Valkenburg,
2006; Charig et al., 2020; Vandenbosch et al., 2017). A possible explanation is that
exposure to pornographic materials influences one’s understanding of what is acceptable
and desirable within a sexual relationship (Miller et al., 2019). Hence, viewers who are
exposed to online sexually explicit materials on a regular and longer basis may interpret
these pornographic acts as usual in the real-world sex more than those who do not view
or consume less pornography. Peter and Valkenburg (2010), on the other hand, suggest
that pornography users compare pornographic sex with their own sexual scripts;
consequently, perceived realism may be greater for frequent users as they are more
inclined to see similarity between the two.
In terms of perceived pornography realism, it was observed to have a relatively
small effect on sexual consent attitude. This implies that viewing a pornographic content
as real may lower intentions of asking consent during a sexual activity, supporting the
previous studies which found that perceived realism leads to negative sexual consent
behaviors (Fegley, 2013; Krahe et al., 2021; Marston & Lewis, 2014; Wright et al.,
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2021a). It aligns with the premise of 3AM Model (Wright, 2011b) which states that it is
more probable for individuals to apply a sexual script they consume from a media on their
own when they see it as similar to real-world situations. Since the sample is composed of
mainstream pornography users that usually displays non-consensual acts, viewers who
perceived its contents as an accurate portrayal of sex may also disregard the idea of asking
for a clear sexual consent when engaging in sexual activities. Vandenbosch et al. (2017)
also argued that viewers may perceive sexually explicit materials as useful for their own
lives when they become more sexually active, making them more likely to act out sexual
activities inspired by these materials. Participants in the present study are sexually active
individuals. They may see pornographic acts as fitting when exploring their own sexual
needs and desires, prompting them to do the same activities. This eventually might have
influenced their attitudes, specifically when it comes to sexual consent.
Finally, the present study examined the mediating role of perceived pornography
realism to have a better understanding about the relationship between pornography
consumption the intent to seek sexual consent. Perceived realism was utilized as a
mediator in this study as it was claimed to lead to sexual practices issues (Krahe et al.,
2021; Wright et al., 2021a) as well as to mediate relationships between pornography use
and problematic sexual behaviors (Landripet, 2016; Peter and Valkenburg, 2010).
Results revealed that Filipinos who watch mainstream pornography habitually and for a
longer time period per viewing are likely to view the depicted sexual acts as real and
relevant to their own experiences, potentially lowering their intent to ask their partners
for sexual consent. These findings are also in accordance with the 3AM Model (Wright,
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2011b), which explains that exposure to media that reinforces a sexual script can lead to
a stronger perceived reality, that is then applied to one's own sexual experience. In this
case, it can be assumed that the sexual script being reinforced through repeated and long
exposures on mainstream pornography sites is "not having clear consent during sex is
acceptable”. Viewing this sexual script realistically may therefore influence the
consumers’ attitudes toward sexual consent.
The findings also support the results of recent local studies, which posited that
young Filipinos tend to have a desire of performing and imitating pornographic acts they
consume (Adanza, 2018; Sanchez, 2021). It was implied that absence of adult guidance
may motivate young people to rely on mass media for sexual scripts (Wright, 2011b). In
the local context, Habito et al. (2021) suggested that Filipino parents, teachers, and
healthcare workers are hesitant to discuss sex and reproductive health with young people;
as a result, young Filipinos are prone in socially comparing themselves to their friends,
celebrities, and fictional characters they see on social media and may see them as their
default source of sexual information.
In addition to these, the researchers also observed a few notable findings in the
present study. First, although there is a significant relationship, the influence of the
variables on each other is relatively small. It could be possible that cultural influences
play a huge role in terms of shaping the sexual beliefs and attitudes of Filipinos. It should
be considered that the Philippines is predominantly Catholic, which holds a strong
conservative attitude towards sex. Moreover, even though young people have a tendency
to engage in premarital sex more than before, practices of sexual morality are still
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observed among Filipinos (Cordero, 2018; De Jose, 2013). That being the case, the impact
of pornography consumption in the Filipino context may not be as drastic as in those
countries that are more liberated in terms of sex.
Second, duration of pornography consumption is found to have a slightly greater
influence on perceived pornography realism than frequency of consumption. While the
distinction may not be critical given that both dimensions have a minimal effect on the
perceived realism of pornography, it could be worth noting in order to understand the
components of pornography consumption. Hatch et al. (2020) stated in COPS-G that
those who frequently consume pornography for a short period of time may have different
motivations (e.g., pleasure, pass time, education) than those who consume infrequently
but for long periods. It is likely that these differences influence how they perceive
pornography as well. For instance, if a person spends more time watching pornography
for educational purposes, their perceived pornography realism may be higher because
their goal is to learn about sex.
Furthermore, the findings suggest that consumption of pornography has no effect
on the consumer's sexual consent intentions and may only have an influence if one
perceives it as realistic, contradicting the previous studies which found that consumption
directly affects sexual consent practices (Herbenick et al., 2020; Wright et al., 2021b).
Conforming to the 3AM model, a possible reason is that media exposure does not
consistently lead to application of sexual scripts, particularly when the behavior portrayed
has a negative outcome (Wright, 2011b). This implies that if a viewer watches a
nonconsensual pornographic act but believes that doing so may harm their sexual
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relationship, the likelihood of applying it to their own behavior decreases. It could also
be a factor for the disparity in studies regarding pornography’s influence on individuals'
sexual consent attitudes, as intervening variables can influence the relationship between
IV and DV such as culture, personal beliefs, and media literacy.
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Chapter V
Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations
This chapter presents a summary of the findings, conclusion, researchers’
recommendations for future studies and practical implications. As an overview, the
objective of the study is to investigate the mediating effect of perceived pornography
realism in the relationship between pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual
consent. Purposive and snowball sampling were used to conduct the study through an
online survey among 405 Filipino heterosexual young adults who consume mainstream
pornography and are in a committed, sexually active relationship.
Summary of Findings
Correlation analyses revealed a weak but highly significant relationship between
the frequency and duration of consumption, perceived pornography realism, and intent to
seek sexual consent. A series of regression analyses were conducted subsequently to test
the predictive and mediating effects of the variables. The following are the key findings
that address the statement of the problem stated in Chapter 1.
1. The findings revealed that pornography consumption predicts perceived pornography
realism, specifically:
1.1 frequency of pornography consumption positively predicts perceived
pornography realism (B = 0.134, t = 3.11, p = 0.002), indicating that consumers
who view pornography more often may have a tendency to see its contents as
realistic.
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1.2 duration of pornography consumption positively predicts perceived pornography
realism (B = 0.236, t = 4.958, p < .001), suggesting that individuals are more likely
to perceive pornographic contents as realistic as they spend longer periods
consuming pornography.
2. The separate mediation analyses for frequency of consumption and duration of
consumption demonstrated that perceived pornography realism negatively predicts
viewers’ intent to seek sexual consent, with values of (B = -0.229, t = -4.616, p <
.001) and (B = -0.221, t = -4.364, p < .001) respectively. This implies that higher
levels of perceived pornography realism may lower pornography consumers’
intentions of asking sexual consent from their partners.
3. The findings revealed that perceived pornography realism mediates the relationship
between pornography consumption and intent to seek sexual consent among Filipino
young adults, specifically:
3.1 Perceived pornography realism fully mediates the relationship between frequency
of consumption and intent to seek sexual consent (B = -0.031, CI [-0.062 to -
0.006]), implying that frequent consumption of pornography may negatively
affect individuals’ intent of seeking sexual consent only when they perceive
pornographic contents as realistic.
3.2 Perceived pornography realism fully mediates the relationship between duration
of consumption and intent to seek sexual consent (B = -0.052, CI [-0.089 to -
0.021]), suggesting that prolonged pornography consumption may increase
consumers' perception of pornography as real, resulting in a decrease in intent to
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seek sexual consent.
Conclusion
Mainstream pornography is an entertainment that is widely consumed for various
reasons, such as for sexual pleasure and gaining knowledge. Past studies have
investigated its effects on individuals and found that it may lead to adverse sexual
attitudes and behaviors towards themselves and their partners, especially when one views
it as an accurate portrayal of real-life sexual activities. The current study reported that
high levels of frequency and duration of pornography consumption can lead to an
increased tendency to perceive pornographic acts as real, which may consequently reduce
the intention of Filipino young adults to ask their partners for sexual consent. Although
the findings demonstrated a mediating effect, it should be noted that consumption was
not found to be a direct predictor of sexual consent attitude, and the variables have weak
associations with each other. It is probable that the conservative culture of the Philippines
or Filipinos’ sexual beliefs influence the viewers’ attitudes toward sexual consent. Hence,
it is important for future researchers to investigate other factors that are likely to influence
the attitudes of pornography viewers.
Needless to say, the present study has a number of limitations that should be
considered. First, the scope of pornography consumption is limited as it only focuses on
the frequency and duration of exposure. Other factors that may measure or affect an
individual’s pornography consumption were not discussed in this study. Second, the study
only involves heterosexual couples. Considering a more diverse sample in terms of
demographic profile may be helpful for future studies. Third, the study only focused on
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two mainstream pornography websites, particularly Pornhub and Xvideos. Although
these mediums were found to typically show non-consensual acts, that does not guarantee
that all of their contents lack sexual consent cues. Lastly, the research design of the current
study can only measure the variables at a given point in time. It does not examine how
the pattern of viewers’ sexual consent attitudes changes over time as they consume
pornography.
Recommendations
Although the present study found a significant predictive relationship between the
variables, there are still some factors that need to be assessed to further understand the
influence of pornography consumption on one’s sexual consent attitudes. Therefore, the
following are the recommendations of the researchers for future studies:
It is recommended for future researchers to widen the scope of the study, such as
by including the first age of consumption and accidental exposures to porn, as it
may offer a better understanding of the possible intentions behind viewing
pornography. Other sexual orientations (i.e., the LGBT+ community) and civil
status (e.g., with no partner) may also be included as participants to diversify the
current study and to explore the attitudes and behaviors of Filipino pornography
users in general.
While the present study emphasized online pornographic videos, future
researchers can explore other materials such as erotic books and adult manga
novels. This could indicate whether or not using one's imagination can increase
one's perceived realism of pornography. They can also focus on specific
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pornography genres that highly disregard the concept of sexual consent (e.g., rape
or violent pornography).
It can also be taken into consideration to investigate other factors, namely
individual’s sexual openness and beliefs. It may be useful in examining if the
respondents are sexually open on experimenting or imitating pornographic
scenes, as well as looking into the participants’ sexual beliefs that may influence
the relationship of each variable given in the study.
Since the research design of the current study does not examine how the pattern
of viewers’ sexual consent attitudes changes in the long run due to pornography
consumption, future studies may utilize a different method, such as a longitudinal
study, to observe how pornography influences an individual over a period of time.
Practical Implications
Concerned government agencies may implement stricter policies on blocking or
restricting extreme forms of pornography and sexual acts on entertainment
medias to deter its possible negative outcomes, such as imitating harmful sexual
practices that are portrayed in the said material. In addition, they may also extend
appropriate sexual education among individuals and communities to enlighten
them on healthy sexual attitudes and behaviors.
Psychologists, counselors, and sex therapists may also encourage "porn literacy"
among individuals in order to help them understand the potential influences of
pornography and related obscenity laws, as well as to guide them in being critical
of the unhealthy and unrealistic sexual behaviors depicted in these materials.
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Couples, on the other hand, are encouraged to have a healthy sexual relationship
by communicating their boundaries and desires to their partner to prevent
misunderstandings when engaging in sexual activities.
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Appendices
Appendix A
Informed Consent
Good day! We, Angelina P. Bermudez, Jemimah Angela V. Colcol, Micaela A.
Hernandez, and Christine Denise O. Nogar, are 4th year AB Psychology students from
Philippine Christian University - Manila. As a part of our course requirement in Research
in Psychology II, we are inviting you to participate in our study entitled, "Pornography
Consumption and Intent to Seek Sexual Consent Among Filipino Young Adults: The
Mediating Role of Perceived Pornography Realism", which will examine how
viewing of pornography affects individuals’ sexual consent attitudes. This study is being
supervised by our professor, Prof. Anna Marie Abrera Baron.
Your participation and time given for completing this survey will be very much
appreciated.
Qualifications:
Heterosexual male or female residing in the Philippines
Ages 18-30 years old
Currently involved in a committed relationship (serious romantic relationship, live-
in, engaged, or married) with one partner for at least one year
Sexually active
Watches pornography on Pornhub and/or Xvideos
If you do not meet the qualifications stated above, we are requesting you to not proceed
in answering the survey.
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Survey Overview
The survey is composed of three parts which include the following: (1) informed
consent form, (2) demographic survey form, and (3) three standardized tests namely The
Consumption of Pornography Scale-General (COPS-G), Perceived Pornography
Realism Scale, and The Sexual Consent Scale-Revised (SCS-R).
Duration
The survey may take about 10 – 15 minutes to answer.
Risks and Benefits
1. You will need to provide your email in order to proceed on answering the survey.
2. Some statements and questions may be uncomfortable to answer and stimulate
negative emotions to the participants.
3. Your participation will be very much helpful in understanding the relationship
between consumption of pornography and sexual consent attitudes.
Confidentiality
Following the Republic Act No. 10173 - Data Privacy Act of 2012, the researchers
guarantee that every information you provide in this survey will be confidential and will
only be accessed by the research group and the course professor. All data gathered will
be used only for research purposes and will be deleted after Term 1 of school year 2022-
2023.
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Voluntary Participation
Your participation in this survey is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate, you
will be asked to agree and indicate that you are well-informed of what is stated in the
consent form. You are allowed to withdraw at any time without providing reasons and
rest assured that your decision will be honored.
For any question or clarification, do not hesitate to contact the researchers:
Angelina P. Bermudez (angelina.bermudez.cassw@pcu.edu.ph) / 09478420956
Jemimah Angela V. Colcol (javcolcol@pcu.edu.ph) / 09159037133
Micaela A. Hernandez (micaela.hernandez.cassw@pcu.edu.ph) / 09384109465
Christine Denise O. Nogar (christine.nogar.cassw@pcu.edu.ph) / 09605760815
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Appendix B
Demographic Survey Form
Age: ________
Current region of residence: _______________
Gender:
o Male
o Female
o Others: _____________
Sexual identity:
o Heterosexual (romantically/sexually attracted to people of opposite gender)
o Homosexual (romantically/sexually attracted to people of same gender)
o Others: _____________
Relationship status:
o In a serious romantic relationship
o With a live-in partner
o Engaged
o Married
Are you in a romantic relationship with one partner only?
o Yes
o No
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How long have you been in a romantic relationship with your current partner?
o Less than 1 year
o 1 year
o More than 1 year
Do you engage in sexual activity with your current partner?
o Yes
o No
Do you watch sexually explicit contents on internet websites?
o Yes
o No
If yes (referring to the question above), on which pornography websites do you
watch sexually explicit contents? Please select “None” if you answered “No” to the
question above.
o Pornhub
o Xvideos
o Both Pornhub and Xvideos
o None
o Other website/s: _________
Have you been diagnosed with any sexual dysfunctions and/or paraphilic disorders?
o Yes
o No
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Appendix C
The Consumption of Pornography Scale – General (COPS-G)
Frequency of exposure subscale
1. How often have you viewed pornography in the past year?
o I viewed pornography once in the past year (1)
o I viewed pornography about once every six months (2)
o I viewed pornography about monthly (3)
o I viewed pornography weekly (4)
o I viewed pornography multiple times a week (5)
o I viewed pornography daily (6)
o I haven’t viewed pornography in the past year (0)
2. How often have you viewed pornography in the past 30-days?
o I viewed pornography once in the past 30-days (1)
o I viewed pornography twice in the past 30-days (2)
o I viewed pornography weekly (3)
o I viewed pornography multiple times a week (4)
o I viewed pornography daily (5)
o I viewed pornography multiple times a day (6)
o I haven’t viewed pornography in the past 30-days (0)
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3. How often have you viewed pornography in the past 7-days?
o I viewed pornography once in the past 7-days (1)
o I viewed pornography twice in the past 7-days (2)
o I viewed pornography every day in the past 7-days (3)
o I viewed pornography multiple times a day in the past 7-days (4)
o I haven’t viewed pornography in the past 7-days (0)
Duration of exposure subscale
1. When I view pornography, I view it for …
o Less than 5 minutes (1)
o 6-15 minutes (2)
o 16-25 minutes (3)
o 26-35 minutes (4)
o 36-45 minutes (5)
o 46+ minutes (6)
2. When I visit a pornographic website, I visit for …
o Less than 5 minutes (1)
o 6-15 minutes (2)
o 16-25 minutes (3)
o 26-35 minutes (4)
o 36-45 minutes (5)
o 46+ minutes (6)
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3. The last time I viewed pornography, I viewed it for …
o Less than 5 minutes (1)
o 6-15 minutes (2)
o 16-25 minutes (3)
o 26-35 minutes (4)
o 36-45 minutes (5)
o 46+ minutes (6)
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Appendix D
Perceived Pornography Realism Scale
(0 - “I don’t know”; 1 – fully disagree; 2 – disagree; 3 – neutral; 4 – agree; 5 –
fully agree)
Items
0
1
2
3
4
5
I find sex on the Internet realistic
o
o
o
o
o
o
Sex on the Internet is similar to
sex in real life
o
o
o
o
o
o
You can learn a lot about sex by
watching sex pictures or sex
movies on the Internet
o
o
o
o
o
o
By watching sex pictures or sex
movies on the Internet, I learn
how to behave when having sex
o
o
o
o
o
o
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Appendix E
The Sexual Consent Scale-Revised (SCS-R)
Subscale: Positive attitude toward establishing consent
(1 – strongly disagree; 2 – disagree; 3 – somewhat disagree; 4 – neutral; 5 – somewhat
agree; 6 – agree; 7 – strongly agree)
Items
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I feel that sexual consent should
always be obtained before the
start of any sexual activity
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I believe that asking for sexual
consent is in my best interest
because it reduces any
misinterpretations that might
arise
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I think it is equally important to
obtain sexual consent in all
relationships regardless of
whether or not they have had
sex before
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I feel that verbally asking for
sexual consent should occur
before proceeding with any
sexual activity
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
When initiating sexual activity,
I believe that one should always
assume they do not have sexual
consent
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I believe that it is just as
necessary to obtain consent for
genital fondling as it is for
sexual intercourse
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
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Most people that I care about
feel that asking for sexual
consent is something I should
do
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I think that consent should be
asked before any kind of sexual
behavior, including kissing or
petting
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I feel it is the responsibility of
both partners to make sure
sexual consent is established
before sexual activity begins
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Before making sexual
advances, I think that one
should assume “no” until there
is clear indication to proceed
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Not asking for sexual consent
some of the time is okay [R]
o
o
o
o
o
o
o